eight million taels. The right of Europeans to travel in the interior
was granted, and freedom guaranteed to the preaching of Christianity.
By the customs tariff agreed upon the import of opium was legalized.
In the course of 1861 British, French, and Russian legations were
permanently established at Peking, and in the following years the same
right was conceded to other European nations. By treaties with Russia
in the same year China ceded all its territory north of the Amur to
Russia, and in this territory Vladivostock was founded.
Good relations having been established, the Chinese Government, with
the assistance of Gordon, carried out a successful campaign against the
Taipings, and the Manchu dynasty was restored.
Remarks:
This was the opening of the door into China, and from henceforth the
Western Powers began to compete for commercial and territorial prizes
in the Chinese Empire.
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
1861–1865
Belligerents:
The Northern states of North America.
The Southern states of North America.
Cause:
The cultivation of cotton progressed under very different conditions
in the North and South. In the North the white man had to work
vigorously to overcome the disadvantages of the soil. In the South
the negro labourer could be used with profit to his owner, and was
held as a slave. By 1860 the thirteen original states were enlarged to
thirty-three. The territories of the North-east found their prosperity
in free labour, the South throve on the cotton crop and continued to
exploit negro labour. The Southern states gradually combined together,
and between 1830 and 1850 gained a predominant voice in the control
of Federal affairs. The North also became consolidated, and a strong
movement against slavery grew up, chiefly owing to the efforts of
W. Lloyd Garrison. A new Republican party gained strength in its
opposition to the dominating differences of the South, and sectional
political differences were intensified. The prospect of the abolition
of slavery was not the only issue. The South resented the idea that
coercive measures might be used to keep the lower South in the Union.
They believed this to be an attack on the doctrine of the sovereignty
of states. A widespread feeling in favour of secession grew up.
Occasion:
The Republican party triumphed at the election, and Abraham Lincoln
became President in November, 1860. South Carolina seceded, ten other
states followed, and the Confederate States were established under
the Presidency of Jefferson Davis. The attack on Fort Sumter by the
Confederates on April 4, 1861, made war inevitable.
Course of the War:
The North was defeated at Bull Run in July 1861, but captured forts
Henry and Donelson in 1862, and gained a victory at Shiloh. At
Richmond, and later at Fredericksburg, the North was defeated. Lincoln
issued his proclamation of Emancipation on January 1, 1863. The
South, under Lee, were defeated in the greatest battle of the war at
Gettysburg, on July 4th. In 1864 there were further victories for the
North under Grant at Spottsylvania and Coldharbour; and Atlanta and
Savanah were captured. In 1865 Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated
by the Confederates and Lee surrendered. On May 26th the war came to an
end, after a desperate struggle of nearly four years.
Political Result:
The Union was restored and slavery abolished. Lincoln was assassinated
on April 14, 1865, and his wise counsel was lost therefore for the
difficult work of reconstruction which followed the war.
Remarks:
Great Britain declared neutrality at the outset, and thereby
implicitly, though not explicitly, recognized the Southern Confederacy
as a belligerent Power. There was much sympathy with the South among
the governing class, but the people were on the side of the North. The
Trent affair brought Great Britain and America very near to war. (See
_Treaty of Washington_, p. 94.)
FRENCH EXPEDITION IN MEXICO
1862–1867
Belligerents:
France.
Mexican Republicans.
Cause:
From 1789, the date of the first conspiracy against Spain, down to
1857, when a Constitution was promulgated, Mexico was in a state of
permanent warfare. In 1861 France, Spain, and Great Britain adopted
joint measures against the republic in order to get better protection
for their subjects and their property. In 1862 Great Britain and Spain
withdrew. But Napoleon III conceived the project of establishing a
monarchy in Mexico under his patronage, and so increasing French
ascendancy beyond the Atlantic.
Occasion:
The financial misdemeanours of the Mexican Government were made the
pretext for the advance of French troops into Mexico in 1862.
Course of the War:
The French force was checked in May 1862, and further reinforcements
were sent out. They advanced again in February 1863, and entered Mexico
City in June. A Provisional Government was established, and the crown
was offered to Maximilian of Austria, who accepted it and reached
Mexico City in June 1864. Juarez, the republican leader, was driven
into the extreme north of the country. But his resistance was by no
means overcome. Napoleon III bound himself to keep a force in Mexico
for the protection of Maximilian. In 1865, on the restoration of peace
after the Civil War in the United States, the Government of Washington
refused to acknowledge any authority in Mexico but that of Juarez. The
French were obliged to withdraw in 1867, and Maximilian was left to his
fate. The Juarists got the upper hand, and Maximilian was executed.
Political Result:
Juarez, as President of Mexico, was succeeded by Diaz in 1877; and
order was maintained for a generation.
Remarks:
This foolish enterprise damaged the reputation of Napoleon III. He was
regarded as a political adventurer, and became increasingly unpopular
in his own country.
BRAZILIAN WAR
1864–1870
Belligerents:
Brazil, Uruguay, Argentine Republic.
Paraguay.
Cause:
Brazil was part of the Portuguese possessions until 1822, when it
declared its independence. The Emperors Pedro I and II had frequent
trouble not only with the republican movement in Brazil itself, but
with the neighbouring states, with whom they were constantly at war. In
1855 Pedro II sent a squadron up the Parana to adjust several questions
outstanding with the republic of Paraguay. Although certain rights were
granted to Brazil the Government of Paraguay threw every obstacle in
the way to prevent a settlement.
Occasion:
In 1864 Lopez, the ambitious dictator of Paraguay, without declaring
war, captured a Brazilian vessel, and invaded Brazil and the Argentine.
Uruguay joined them in a triple alliance of defence against Paraguay.
Course of the War:
Owing to the strong natural position of Paraguay, and the obstinacy of
Lopez, the war was drawn out with constant fighting and great sacrifice
of life in addition to vast expenditure, until 1870, when it was
terminated by the capture and death of Lopez.
Political Result:
External troubles ceased, but the republican movement gained in
strength until 1889, when Pedro was deposed and a republic declared in
Brazil.
Remarks:
The slaughter in this war was so terrific that the population of
Paraguay was reduced from 1,337,439 to 221,079.
This is only one example of the very frequent disturbances, both
internal and external, in the South American continent during the
course of the century.
THE DANISH WAR
1864
Belligerents:
Denmark.
Prussia and Austria.
Cause:
The strong revival of nationalism in Germany after the Napoleonic Wars
spread to the German inhabitants of the Duchies of Schleswig Holstein,
who desired in 1848 to be incorporated as a single constitutional
state in the German Federation. The Danish crown could be inherited by
female heirs, but in the Duchies the Salic law had never been repealed.
This made complications with regard to the succession. Frederick VII
of Denmark endeavoured to preserve the Duchy as an integral part of
Denmark. An insurrection broke out, and Prussia intervened by marching
troops into Holstein. Under pressure from other Powers the King of
Prussia signed a convention at Malmoe practically yielding all the
Danish demands, and in 1850, by the _Treaty of Berlin_, peace was
restored between Prussia and Denmark, but without any settlement of
the vexed question. In 1852 Great Britain intervened with a proposal
without success. In 1854 the King of Denmark promulgated special
Constitutions for the Duchies as well as a common Constitution for the
whole Monarchy. The German Confederation rejected this as the Diets of
the Duchies had not been consulted. The question became of European
interest: its complexity prevented any settlement being reached.
Bismarck alone was quite determined on eventual annexation, and Denmark
was equally determined not to yield.
Occasion:
After further diplomatic disputes Austrian and Prussian troops entered
Schleswig in February 1864.
Course of the War:
The allied troops broke through the frontier fortifications and
occupied the greater part of the Danish mainland. The Danes were
overthrown in the island of Alsen, and the German flag carried to the
northern extremity of Denmark. A conference was opened in London, April
1864, but the negotiations broke down and the war continued.
Political Result:
Eventually, by the _Treaty of Vienna_, October 30, 1864, the King of
Denmark ceded the rights in the whole of Schleswig Holstein to the
Sovereigns of Austria and Prussia jointly.
Remarks:
This was more a diplomatic war than a military war. The conflict was
between retention and annexation, and little regard was paid on any
side to the desires of the inhabitants of the disputed territory.
Although by the _Treaty of London_ of 1852 the Powers, including Great
Britain, had acknowledged as permanent the principle of the integrity
of the Danish Monarchy no steps were taken by them to maintain that
principle. The settlement did nothing to prevent the outbreak of war
between Prussia and Austria two years later, when Schleswig Holstein
was again one of the bones of contention.
THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR
1866
Belligerents:
Prussia and some of the smaller North German States and Italy.
Austria and the other German States.
Cause:
From 1848 onwards in all the projects for a united Germany there was
keen rivalry between Prussia and Austria. Each resisted the domination
of the other in any new Empire, and the South German states were
inclined to side with Austria against Prussian supremacy. This state of
affairs prevented any final scheme from being agreed to. At the same
time there were serious differences between Austria and Italy, who was
Prussia’s ally. Bismarck made up his mind that Austria must be expelled
by force of arms from the German Federation. He was an ardent supporter
of the House of Hohenzollern.
Occasion:
Austria supported Schleswig Holstein in their struggle for independence
against Prussia after the conclusion of the Danish War. An attempted
congress of neutrals failed. Austria called on the Diet of Frankfort
to take the affairs of Schleswig Holstein into its own hands, and
demanded and obtained the mobilization of the whole Federal armies.
Prussia declared that this action made an end of the Federal Union,
and submitted a new plan for the organization of Germany, which was
refused. Diplomatic relations were broken off June 12, 1866.
Course of the War:
Hanover and Hesse Cassel were conquered by Prussia, the Austrians were
defeated at Königgrätz, July 3, 1866, and the Prussians pushed forward
in sight of Vienna. The Austrians defeated the Italians on land at
Custozza, and by sea at Lissa.
Political Result:
Napoleon III offered mediation, which was accepted. The _Treaty of
Prague_, August 23, 1866. Prussia annexed Hanover, Nassau, Hesse
Cassel, and Frankfort: Germany north of the Main together with Saxony
was included in a Federation under Prussia: the Southern states were
left independent. Prussian sovereignty over Schleswig Holstein was
recognized. Austria withdrew completely from German affairs.
Remarks:
Napoleon III had attempted, by dividing Germany in two, to put an
obstacle in the way of German unity. His clumsy diplomacy was greatly
disapproved of in France. By preventing a final settlement he made the
recurrence of war inevitable.
BRITISH EXPEDITION IN ABYSSINIA
1867–1868
Belligerents:
Great Britain.
Abyssinia.
Cause:
From 1855 Abyssinia came under the powerful rule of the Emperor
Theodore. He subdued the neighbouring kingdoms of Tigré and Shoa, and
took Menelek, son of the ruler of Tigré, to be trained in his service.
He ravaged the surrounding country, and oppressed his own people. In
1864 there was an interchange of letters between Theodore and the
British Government, out of which difficulties arose.
Occasion:
The British Consul and his staff, and subsequently a British emissary,
were imprisoned in Magdala and put in chains. Their release was
demanded, but the Emperor paid no attention, and the British Government
decided they must have recourse to arms.
Course of the War:
A British force under Sir Robert Napier landed in January 1868, a
march of three hundred miles was undertaken through the mountainous
districts, and, after a fierce engagement, Magdala was stormed and
taken on April 13, 1868. The Emperor committed suicide, and his son was
taken to England, where he died. The British troops left the country in
May 1868.
Political Result:
The ruler of Tigré succeeded Theodore under the title of King John, and
on his death, in 1889, Menelek became Emperor.
Remarks:
After this the Italians came on to the scene with ambitions in this
part of Africa (see p. 74), but Abyssinia remained an independent
kingdom. In the various expeditions against the Mullah in Somaliland
(1902–4) the Abyssinians co-operated with Great Britain.
THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
1870–1871
Belligerents:
France.
Prussia and ten other German States.
Cause:
For some years previously there had been increasing friction between
France and Prussia, owing chiefly to Louis Napoleon’s apprehensions
as to the possibility of closer union between Prussia and the South
German states, his repeated endeavours to extend the Eastern frontier
of France, and Bismarck’s counter-moves to frustrate his designs. The
desire also for a united Germany was growing stronger, and Bismarck
believed it could not be completed without a conflict with France.
Occasion:
The candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen for
the throne of Spain in 1870 was resented by France as calculated to
bring Spain under the influence of Prussia. King William of Prussia,
on representations from France, persuaded Prince Leopold to withdraw,
but refused firmly but politely a guarantee against the renewal of the
candidature. Bismarck published a telegram conveying the impression
that the French Ambassador, Benedetti, had been insulted by the King at
Ems on the occasion of the refusal. This infuriated public opinion in
France, the Empress Eugénie actively used her influence, and Napoleon
agreed to a declaration of war on July 14, 1870.
Course of the War:
In the war, which lasted from July 1870 to February 1871, the
ill-organized and badly led French troops could make no stand against
the well-prepared armies of Germany. The French were defeated at Wörth,
August 6th; Metz, August 7th; Marsla Tour, August 17th; Gravelotte,
August 18th. Paris was besieged: Louis Napoleon capitulated at Sedan,
September 2nd; Strasburg fell, September 28th; Bazaine capitulated at
Metz, October 27th; and the Germans entered Paris on January 28, 1871.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Frankfort_, May 10, 1871, Alsace and half Lorraine
(with Metz) were ceded to Germany, and an indemnity of 200 millions was
exacted from France. The King of Prussia was proclaimed at Versailles
German Emperor. France was declared a republic, and Napoleon eventually
retired into exile in England.
Remarks:
The dictation of terms and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine entirely
prevented friendly relations from being established between the two
countries in the succeeding years. France, by getting rid of the
corrupt and incompetent government of Napoleon III, began to recuperate
from this time onward. Germany, having reached the ideal of unity,
proceeded gradually to join in the competition for commercial expansion
and Imperial aggrandizement.
THE ASHANTI WAR
1873–1874
Belligerents:
Great Britain.
The Ashantis.
Cause:
The Ashantis, a very fierce and warlike tribe on the Gold Coast of
Africa had repeatedly caused trouble owing to their treatment of the
Fantis, a tribe on the coast under British protection. In 1824 they
defeated a British force and carried off to Kumasi the skull of the
Governor, Sir Charles M’Carthy, which was used as a royal drinking cup.
They were afterwards defeated in 1826. In 1863 an expedition against
them had to be abandoned owing to the ravages done by sickness among
the troops. In 1867 a warlike king, Kofi Karikari succeeded as ruler
and proceeded to make hostile preparations against the Fantis.
Occasion:
In 1872 some Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast were transferred to
Great Britain. The King of Ashanti claimed a tribute formerly allowed
to him by the Dutch and refused to evacuate the territory ceded
to Britain. He also held four Europeans in captivity. The British
Government determined to take up the matter seriously, and when in
January 1873 an Ashanti force invaded the British Protectorate an
expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley was immediately despatched.
Course of the War:
Owing to difficulties of climate it was necessary that the whole
campaign should be rapidly carried out. The Ashantis were defeated at
all points. Kumasi was reached and King Kofi surrendered. The European
troops suffered severely from fever but the objects were successfully
accomplished. Wolseley sailed from England on September 12, 1873, and
returned to Portsmouth on March 21, 1874.
Political Result:
The King renounced his claim to supremacy over any part of the former
Dutch protectorate, paid an indemnity in gold, and agreed to prohibit
human sacrifices. Further trouble arose, however, after the death of
the King, his successors disregarding the treaty. In 1895 an expedition
was sent out under Colonel Sir F. Scott. Kumasi was occupied and King
Prempeh deported. Still the Ashanti tribes refused to submit, and
continued in rebellion. The Governor of the Gold Coast and a small
force were surrounded in Kumasi. He managed to escape and Kumasi was
finally relieved by an expedition under Colonel Wilcocks who gradually
suppressed the rebellion. By an Order in Council of September 26, 1901,
Ashanti was formally annexed to the British dominions and given a
separate administration under the control of the Governor of the Gold
Coast.
Remarks:
Imperial responsibilities entail the protection of friendly tribes
against hostile attack in the outlying parts of the Empire. Punitive
expeditions become necessary and annexation is found to be the best
method of securing law and order.
RUSSO-TURKISH WAR
1877–1878
Belligerents:
Russia.
Turkey.
Cause:
The persecution and oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire
led to a revolt in Herzegovina in 1875. Andrassy, on behalf of
Austria, presented a Note to the Turkish Government demanding reforms,
and this was followed by the Berlin Memorandum, signed by Germany,
France, Austria, Russia, and Italy. Great Britain alone stood out. The
Bulgarian massacres in June 1876 caused a great sensation in England,
and were followed by a declaration of war by Servia and Montenegro
against Turkey. Great Britain, always mistrusting Russian designs,
called a Conference. The demands of the Conference were rejected by
Turkey in January 1877. The Sultan protested against the encroachment
of the Powers on his inviolable rights.
Occasion:
The London Protocol of March 1877, signed by Great Britain and Russia
and agreed to by the other Powers, called for reforms and expressed the
intention of the Powers to safeguard the Christian population. This was
also rejected by the Turks, and Russia declared war on April 24, 1877.
Course of the War:
The Russian army crossed the Danube. Plevna fell in December 1877.
The Russians entered Adrianople, January 1878. The advance of the
Russian army towards Gallipoli was followed by the dispatch of the
British fleet to Constantinople and brought Russia and Great Britain
within a hair’s-breadth of war. This, however, was avoided and peace
negotiations began.
Political Result:
_Treaty of San Stefano_, March 3, 1878. The independence of Servia,
Montenegro, and Roumania was recognized. Bulgaria was made an
autonomous principality with frontiers including the greater part of
European Turkey; the Dobrudja and certain districts in Asia Minor were
ceded to Russia.
Great Britain objected strongly to this treaty, and proposed a Congress
at Berlin. While the chances of the Congress hung in the balance, Great
Britain made warlike preparations, but the Congress was finally agreed
to.
_Treaty of Berlin_, July 13, 1878. Bulgaria’s frontier was confined to
the country north of the Balkans. Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed
over to Austria: the territory given to Serbia and Montenegro was
further restricted: Thessaly and part of Epirus were ceded to Greece.
By a secret convention Great Britain engaged to protect Turkey against
further aggression of Russia in Asia. In return the Porte assigned
Cyprus to be occupied and administered by England.
Lord Beaconsfield was the British Plenipotentiary at the Peace Congress
and returned declaring he had secured “peace with honour.”
Remarks:
This was a patched-up peace. It settled none of the problems in the
Balkans, which continued to be the danger zone in Europe for the rest
of the century.
THE SECOND AFGHAN WAR
1878–1881
Belligerents:
Great Britain and Indian Troops.
Afghanistan.
Cause:
In 1868 the expanding power of Russia in Asia resulted in Bokhara
becoming a Russian dependency. In 1873 Russia conquered Khiva. Shere
Ali, now ruler of Afghanistan, became alarmed, but failing to come
to an understanding with the British Government, he began to make
overtures to Russia. In 1877 an offer of alliance was made by the
Viceroy of India, but Shere Ali refused to admit a British Agent into
Afghanistan.
Occasion:
In 1878 the Russian Government sent an envoy to Kabul to make a treaty
with the Amir. A British army was also sent, but was turned back on the
frontier, and hostilities were proclaimed by the Viceroy.
Course of the War:
Two British forces marched into the interior of Afghanistan, and
occupied important positions. Shere Ali fled from his capital, and
died in February 1879. By the _Treaty of Gandamuk_, May 1879, Yakub
Khan was recognized as Amir, and he agreed that a British envoy should
reside at his Court. In September 1879, the envoy, his staff, and
his escort were massacred. A fresh expedition was sent under Sir F.
Roberts, who entered Kabul. In 1880, Abdur Rahman, nephew of Shere Ali,
returned from exile in Russia and established himself in the northern
provinces. The British Government came to an agreement with him, and he
was recognized as Amir. In July 1880 Ayub Khan, another son of Shere
Ali, defeated a British force at Maiwand. Roberts reached Kandahar
from Kabul by a rapid march, and defeated Ayub Khan on September 1,
1880. Again, in July 1881, Ayub Khan returned and took possession of
Kandahar, but was finally routed by Abdur Rahman in September.
Political Result:
The frontiers of Afghanistan were delimited in agreement with Russia.
Abdur Rahman’s rulership over Afghanistan was established. He extended
and consolidated his dominion over the whole country, and was
peacefully succeeded by his son Habibullah in 1901.
Remarks:
By the Anglo-Russia Convention of 1907, Great Britain engaged not to
alter the political status of Afghanistan, and Russia recognized it as
outside her sphere of influence.
THE ZULU WAR
1879
Belligerents: