CHAPTER V.

THE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLÁM.

The portion of the creed considered in the last chapter was connected with

Imán (faith); the remaining portion is connected with Dín (practical

religion). The five principal acts are called Irkán-i-Dín, pillars of

religion. They are: (1) The recital of the Kalima, or short confession of

faith; (2) Sulát, the five stated periods of prayer; (3) Roza, the thirty

days' fast of Ramazán; (4) Zakát, legal alms; (5) Hajj, the pilgrimage to

Mecca. These are all _farz_ duties, being based on a Nass-i-Záhir, or

"obvious," sentence of the Qurán, a proof derived from which is called

dalíl-i-qata'í. This is the strongest of all kinds of proofs.

The authorities, however, specify other religious duties which good Muslims

should perform. Such are the seven duties which are _wájib_, or duties

based on the more obscure texts of the Qurán, called Khafi, or "hidden"

sentences, a proof derived from which is called dalíl-i-zaní. These duties

are: (1) To make the 'Umra, or Pilgrimage to Mecca in addition to the Hajj;

(2) obedience to parents; (3) the obedience of a wife to her husband; (4)

the giving of alms after a fast; (5) the offering of sacrifice; (6) the

saying of Namáz-i-witr, a term which will be explained later on; (7) the

support of relatives. The duties numbered as (4) and (5) are _wájib_ orders

to the rich; but only _mustahab_ to the poor: that is, it is meritorious if

they perform them, but not sinful if they leave them undone.

The duties next in order as regards authority are the _sunnat_ ones. They

are three in number and are based either on the practice of the Prophet, or

are _fitrat_, that is practices of previous prophets, the continuance of

which {188} Muhammad did not forbid. They are (1) circumcision; (2) shaving

off the hair from the head and the body; (3) the paring of the nails. In

addition to these there are actions which are _mustahab_. They are those

which Muhammad sometimes did and sometimes omitted. There is a still lower

class of action which are _mubáh_. These are works of supererogation. If

omitted there is no fear of punishment.

It may be mentioned in passing that unlawful actions and things are (1)

_Harám_, actions and food forbidden either in the Qurán or the Traditions;

(2) _Mahrúh_, actions the unlawfulness of which is not absolutely certain,

but which are generally considered wrong; (3) _Mufsid_, actions corrupting

or pernicious. It is necessary to bear these terms in mind as they will now

frequently occur.

1. TASHAHHUD.--This is the recital of a confession of faith. There are

several forms of this. A common one is: "I testify that there is no deity

but God, I testify to His unity and that He has no partner; I testify that

Muhammad is His servant and His messenger." The shorter form is: "There is

no deity but God and Muhammad is the apostle of God." The power contained

in this latter confession is extraordinary. It embodies the very spirit of

Islám. "It has led everywhere the march of its armies, it has rung for

twelve centuries in the morning air from its minarets, it has been passed

from lip to lip, as no other word has ever been passed, by thousands of

millions of the human race." The power of Islám, its proclamation of the

Unity, is here seen in the closest contact with what is to Muslim

theologians the equally fundamental truth--the apostleship of Muhammad, a

dogma which retards the healthy development, explains the narrowness, and

causes the prostration of Islám, as the world around grows luminant with

the light of science and truth, of faith and reason.

2. SULÁT.[185]--All the books on Fiqh (Law) which treat of {189} these

Irkán-i-dín, give in connection with Sulát the rules regarding the

necessary purifications. It will be convenient to follow the same order.

Tahárat or legal purification is of three kinds: (1) Wazú, the lesser

lustration; (2) Ghusl, the greater lustration; (3) Tayammum, or

purification by sand.

(1). Wazú is an ablution made before saying the appointed prayers. Those

which are 'farz' are four in number, viz:--to wash (1) the face from the

top of the forehead to the chin, and as far as each ear; and (2) the hands

and arms up to the elbow; (3) to rub (masah) with the wet hand a fourth

part of the head; also (4) the feet to the ankles. The authority for these

actions is the text: "O Believers! when ye address yourselves to prayer,

wash your hands up to the elbow, and wipe your heads, and your feet to the

ankles" (Súra v. 8). The Sunnís wash the feet: the Shía'hs are apparently

more correct, for they only wipe, or rather rub, (masah) them. In these

ablutions, if the least portion of the specified part is left untouched,

the whole act becomes useless and the prayer which follows is vain.

The act of making wazú, however, has not been allowed to remain in this

simple form. The Sunnat regulations regarding it are fourteen in number.

They are, (1) to make the intention of wazú, thus: I make this wazú for the

purpose of putting away impurity; (2) to wash the hand up to the wrist, but

care must be taken not to put the hands entirely into the water, until each

has been rubbed three times with water poured on it; (3) to say one of the

names of God at the commencement of the wazú[186] thus: "In the name of the

Great God," or "Thanks be to God for the religion of Islám;" (4) to clean

the teeth; (5) to rinse the mouth three times; (6) to put water into the

{190} nostrils three times; (7) to do all the above in proper order; (8) to

do all without any delay between the various acts; (9) each part is to be

purified three times; (10) the space between the fingers of one hand must

be rubbed with the wet fingers of the other; (11) the beard must be combed

with the fingers; (12) the whole head must be rubbed once; (13) the ears

must be washed with the water remaining on the fingers after the last

operation; (14) to rub under and between the toes with the little finger of

the left hand, drawing it from the little toe of the right foot and between

each toe in succession. Imám Sháfa'í holds that (1) and (7) are farz duties

and that (12) should be done three times. Imám Málik considers (8) to be

farz.

The actions may be done in silence, or prayer may be repeated. Such a

recital is a mustahab, not a sunnat or farz order. It is not obligatory. A

specimen of these prayers is given in a note.[187]

(2). Ghusl is an ablution of the whole body after certain legal

defilements, and should be made as follows. The person should put on clean

clothes and perform the wazú, then he should say: "I make ghusl to put away

impurity." All being ready he should wash himself in the following order.

He must pour water over the right shoulder three times, then over the left

three times and, lastly, on his head {191} also the same number of times.

The three farz conditions are that (1) the mouth must be rinsed, (2) water

be put into the nostrils, and (3) the whole body be washed. If one hair

even is left dry the whole act is rendered vain and useless. All other

particulars are sunnat or mustahab.

There are obvious reasons why an explanation of the causes which vitiate a

purification, or of the cases in which ghusl is required, cannot be given

here. Every standard Muslim work on Fikh, or law, deals fully with the

subject. Nothing is more calculated to show the student of Islám how much

the Sunnat rules in the practical life of Muslims. The Traditions have

raised the most trivial ceremonial observances into duties of the greatest

importance. That there may be spiritually minded men in Islám is not to be

denied; but a system of religion which declares that the virtue of prayer

depends practically on an ablution, and that that ablution is useless

unless done in the order prescribed, is one well calculated to make men

formalists and nothing more. It comes to this, that, if a man when making

wazú washes his left hand before his right, or his nose before his teeth,

he cannot lawfully say the daily Namáz enjoined on all Muslims. None but

those who have studied Muslim treatises on the subject can conceive of the

puerile discussions which have taken place on points apparently trivial,

but which from their connection with the Sunnat are deemed by learned

Muslims of great importance.

(3). Tayammum, or purification by sand, is allowable under the following

circumstances. (1) When water cannot be procured except at a distance of

one kos (about 2 miles); (2) in case of sickness when the use of water

might be injurious; (3) when water cannot be obtained without incurring

danger from an enemy, a beast or a reptile; and (4) when on the occasion of

the Namáz of a Feast day or the Namáz at a funeral, the worshipper is late

and has no time to perform the wazú. On ordinary days this substitution of

tayammum for wazú is not allowable.

{192}

The ceremony is performed as follows. The person says: "I make tayammum to

put away impurity;" then, "I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan. I

commence in the name of God, most Merciful and most High, whose praises are

in the religion of Islám." He then strikes the sand with open hands, rubs

his mouth and, at last, the arms to the elbows. Not one hair must be left

untouched or the whole ceremony is useless. The farz acts are to make the

intention of tayammum, to rub the mouth and the hands. "If ye are sick, or

on a journey, or if one of you come from the place of retirement, or if ye

have touched women, and ye find no water, then take clean sand and rub your

faces and your hands with it." (Súra v. 9.)

Minute regulations are laid down with regard to the water which may be used

for purification. The following kinds of water are lawful:--rain, sea,

river, fountain, well, snow and ice-water. Ice is not lawful. The first

kind is authorized by the Qurán. "He sent you down water from heaven that

He might thereby cleanse you, and cause the pollution of Satan to pass from

you." (Súra viii. 11.) The use of the others is sanctioned by the

Traditions. I give one illustration. A man one day came to the Prophet and

said: "I am going on a voyage and shall only have a small supply of fresh

water; if I use it for ablutions I shall have none wherewith to quench my

thirst, may I use sea water?" The Prophet replied: "The water of the sea is

pure." Tirmízí states that this is a Hadís-i-Sahíh. Great difference of

opinion exists with regard to what constitutes impurity in water, and so

renders it unfit for ablutions. It would be wearisome to the reader to

enter into all details, but I may briefly say that, amongst the orthodox,

it is generally held that if a dead body or any unclean thing falls into

flowing water, or into a reservoir more than 15 feet square it can be used,

provided always that the colour, smell and taste are not changed. It is for

this reason that the pool near a mosque is never less than ten cubits

square. If of {193} that size, it is called a _dah dar dah_, (literally 10

x 10). It may be, and commonly is, larger than this. It should be about one

foot deep.

The necessary ablutions having been made, the worshipper can commence the

Namáz.

(4). Salát or Namáz. The Namáz can be said either in private or in public.

All that is required is that the clothes and person of the worshipper

should be clean, the place free from all impurity, and that the face be

turned towards Mecca. Whether the Namáz is said in public or in private, it

must be preceded by wazú, except when tayammum is allowed. If the

Namáz[188] is said in a mosque which is considered to be more meritorious

than repeating it in private, it must be preceded by the Azán, or call to

prayers, and the Iqámat. Minute particulars regarding the exact attitude in

which the Musallí, one who says the Salát, must stand and the words he is

to say are given in Muslim books. The following account will give some idea

of a Namáz, or Service.[189]

The Mu,azzin[190] calls out loudly in Arabic:--

"Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar[191]!"

All who hear it respond:--

"Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar!"

The Mu,azzin says:--

"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God."

Each of his auditors replies:--

"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God."

{194}

Mu,azzin:--"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God."

Auditor:--"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God."

Mu,azzin:--"Come to prayer."

Auditor:--"I have no power or strength but from God most High and Great."

Mu,azzin:--"Come to do good."

Auditor:--"What God wills will be; what He wills not will not be."

If it is the time of morning prayer, the Mu,azzin adds the words: "Prayer

is better than sleep," to which the response is given: "Thou hast spoken

well." "Alláhu Akbar," and "There is no God but God" are then repeated

twice and so the Azán ends.

The Iqámat (literally, "causing to stand") is a repetition of the Azán, but

after the words, "come to do good," the statement "prayer has commenced" is

made.

These preliminaries being now over, the Namáz can commence. It is as

follows:

The Musallí, or worshipper, stands with his hands close to his side and

says in a low voice the Niyyat (intention):--

"I have purposed to offer up to God only, with a sincere heart this morning

(or as the case may be), with my face Qibla-wards, two (or as the case may

be) rak'at prayers, farz (or sunnat or nafl, as the case may be)."

Then follows the Takbír-i-Tahrímah, said with the thumbs touching the lobes

of the ears. The palms of the hands are placed towards the Qibla. The

fingers are slightly separated from each other. In this position the

Musallí says:--"Alláhu Akbar!"

The Qíám, or standing position. The palm of the right hand being placed on

the back of the left, the thumb and little finger of the former seize the

wrist of the latter. Both hands are then placed below the navel,[192] the

eyes are {195} directed towards the spot where the head of the worshipper

will touch the ground in prostration, and the Saná is said. It is:--

"Holiness to Thee O God! and praise be to Thee!

Great is Thy name! Great is thy Greatness!

There is no God but Thee!"

The Ta'awwuz is then said:--

"I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan."

Then follows the Tasmíyah:--

"In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful."

Then follows the Fátiha,[193] or first chapter of the Qurán:--

"Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds! the Compassionate, the Merciful!

King on the day of reckoning! Thee only do we worship, and to Thee do we

cry for help. Guide Thou us on the straight path: the path of those to whom

Thou hast been gracious: with whom Thou art not angry, and who go not

astray."

After this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters of the Qurán as he

likes.[194] Some verses he must repeat.

The Súrat-ul-Ikhlás (Súra 112) is generally said:--

"Say: He is God alone: God the Eternal, He begetteth not, and is not

begotten; and there is none like unto Him."

The Takbír-i-rukú'--Alláhu Akbar!--is said whilst the Musallí makes an

inclination of the head and body, and separating the fingers a little,

places his hands upon his knees.

The Tasbíh-i-rukú' is said in the same position. It is:--

"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!

I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!

I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!"

The Tasmía' is then said with the body erect, but with the hands placed on

either side. Thus:--

{196}

"God hears him who praises Him: O Lord, Thou art praised[195]."

The Takbír-i-Sijdar--Alláhu Akbar!--is said as the worshipper drops on his

knees.

The Musallí then kneeling down, places his hands, with the fingers close to

each other, upon the ground. He must rest upon his toes, not on the side of

the feet which must be kept straight behind him. The elbow must not touch

the side, nor the stomach the thigh, nor the thigh the calf of the leg. The

eyes must be kept bent downwards. Then he touches the ground first with his

nose, and then with his forehead, taking care that the thumbs just touch

the lobe of the ears.[196] All this being carefully attended to, the

Musallí can say the Tasbíh-i-Sijda thus:--

"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!

I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!

I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!"

He then raises his head and body, sinks backwards upon his heels, places

his hands a little above his knees, and whilst doing so says the

Takbír-i-Jalsa[197]--"Alláhu Akbar!"

After a slight pause, a second prostration, or Sijda is made and the

Takbír-i-Sijda and the Tasbíh-i-Sijda are repeated as before. Then when in

the act of rising up the Musallí says the Takbír-i-Qíám--"Alláhu Akbar!"

This concludes one rak'at. The second rak'at begins with the Fátiha, so

that after saying the Takbír-i-Qíám a Musallí would have to begin again at

that place (p. 195) and repeat all that he had just finished; the only

change being that after the Fátiha, he recites different verses of the

Qurán to those he said in the first rak'at. After two rak'ats have been

said, and after the last, though it be an odd number, the {197} Musallí,

unless he is a Shía'h, places his left foot under him and sits upon it. He

then places his hands above his knees, as for the Takbír-i-Jalsa, and with

his eyes directed towards his lap says the Attahíyát:--

"The adorations of the tongue are for God, and also the adorations of the

body, and almsgiving! Peace be on thee O Prophet! with the mercy of God and

His blessing. Peace be on us and upon God's righteous servants!"

Then raising the first finger of the right hand he says the

Tashahhud[198]:--

"I testify that there is no deity but God; and I testify that Muhammad is

the servant of God and the messenger of God."

Then at the end of all the rak'ats the Musallí, whilst in the same posture,

says the Darúd:--

"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and his descendants[199]; as Thou didst have

mercy on Abraham and his descendants, Thou art to be praised and Thou art

great. O God! bless Muhammad and his descendants, as Thou didst bless

Abraham and his descendants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art great."

Then comes the Du'á, which may be in the worshipper's own words though he

usually says[200]:--

"O God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and also the blessings

of life everlasting. Save us from the torments of hell."

Then turning the head to the right the Musallí repeats the Salám:--

"The peace and mercy of God be with you."

Then turning the head to the left he says:--

"The peace and mercy of God be with you."

At the close of the whole ceremony, the worshipper raises {198} his hands

as high as his shoulders, with the palm towards heaven, or towards his own

face, and offers up a Munáját, or supplication, either in Arabic or in the

vernacular. The hands are then drawn over the face, as if to convey the

blessing received from above to every part of the body.

The appointed periods of prayer are five in number, in proof of which the

following text is quoted: "Glorify God when ye reach the evening (masá),

and when ye rise at morn (subh); and to Him be praise in the heavens and in

the earth,--and at twilight ('ashí) and when ye rest at noon (zuhr)." (Súra

xxx. 17). The Commentators say that masá includes both sunset and the

period after sunset; that is both the Salát-ul-Maghrib and the

Salát-ul-'Ishá. There is also a reference to a stated period of prayer in

the following verse: "Observe prayer at early morning, at the close of the

day, and at the approach of night." (Súra xi. 116).

These daily Namáz are farz, sunnat, witr and nafl prayers. Farz are those

distinctly ordained by God, such as the five stated periods of prayer.

Sunnat, a certain number of rak'ats which are added, because it is said the

Prophet repeated them.

Witr rak'ats are an odd number of rak'ats, 3, 5 or 7, which may be said

after the last prayer at night, and before the dawn of day. Usually they

are added to the Salát-ul-'Ishá. Imám Abu Hanífa says they are wájib, that

is ordered by God. They are not authorised by any text in the Qurán, but by

Traditions each of which is generally received as a Hadís-i-Sahíh, and so

witr rak'ats are regarded as being of divine authority. Imám Sháfa'í,

however, considers them to be sunnat only, a term already explained.

The Traditions referred to are: "God has added to your Namáz one Namáz

more: know that it is witr, say it between the Salát-ul-'Ishá and dawn." On

the authority of Buzár, a Traditionist, it is recorded that the Prophet

{199} said: "Witr is wájib upon Muslims," and in order to enforce the

practice he added: "Witr is right, he who does not observe it is not my

follower." The Prophet, the Companions, the Tába'ín and the Taba-i-Tába'ín

all observed it. The word witr literally means "odd number." A Tradition

says: "God is odd, He loves the odd." (Alláhu witrun yuhibbu'l-witra).

Musalmáns pay the greatest respect to an odd number. It is considered

unlucky to begin any work, or to commence a journey on a day, the date of

which is an even number. The number of lines in a page of a book is nearly

always an odd number.

Nafl are voluntary prayers the performance of which is considered mustahab,

or meritorious, but they are not of divine obligation. It must be

understood that all these prayers are precisely the same in form. They

simply consist in the repetition of a number of rak'ats, of which I have

already given a single illustration in full. A Muslim who says the five

daily prayers with the full number of rak'ats will repeat the Service I

have described fifty times in one day. If in addition to these he observes

the three voluntary periods of prayers, he must add twenty-five more

rak'ats, making a grand total of seventy-five. It is, however, usual to

omit some of the Sunnat rak'ats; still there is a vast amount of

repetition, and as the whole must be said in Arabic it becomes very

mechanical.

A Muslim who ventured to say that a Namáz might be recited in Hindustani

was publicly excommunicated in the principal Mosque at Madras on Friday,

February 13th, 1880.[201]

The table on the next page will make the matter clear.[202] The optional

Sunnat rak'ats are called {200} 'Sunnat-i-ghair-i-maukadda'; the Sunnat

rak'ats before the farz are 'Sun-nat-i-maukadda' and should be said.

---+------------------+-----------------------------------+----------------

No.| Time. | THE NAMES OF THE TIME OF PRAYER. | THE NUMBER OF

| | | RAK'ATS SAID.

| +-----------+-----------------------+----------------

| | | Witr

| | |--------------------------------------+

| | | Nafl|

| | |-----------------------------------+ |

| | | Sunnat after Farz| |

| | |--------------------------------+ | |

| | | Farz| | |

| | |-----------------------------+ | | |

| | | Sunnat-i-mau-kadda'| | | |

| | |--------------------------+ | | | |

| | | Sunnat-i-ghair-maukadda'| | | | |

| | |-----------+-----------+ | | | | |

| | Arabic | Persian | Urdu | | | | | |

---+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--+--+--+--+--+-

1 | From dawn to | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | Fajr Kí | | 2| | | |

| sunrise. | Fajr. | Subh. | Namáz. | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | |

2 | When the sun | Salát-uz- | Namáz-i- | Zuhr Kí | | 4| 4| 2| 2|

| has begun to | Zuhr. | Peshín. | Namáz. | | | | | |

| decline. | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | |

3 | Midway between | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | 'Asr Kí | 4| | 4| | |

| No. 2 and 4. | 'Asr. | Dígar. | Namáz. | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | |

4 | A few minutes | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | Maghrib | | | 3| 2| 2|

| after sunset. | Maghrib. | Shám. | Kí Namáz. | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | |

5 | When the night | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | 'Ishá Kí | 4| | 4| 2| 2|7

| has closed in. | 'Ishá. | Khuftan. | Namáz. | | | | [203]

| | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | |

1 | When the sun | Salát-ul- | Namúz-i- | Ishráq Kí | | | | | 8|

| has well risen. | Ishráq. | Ishráq. | Namáz. | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | |

2 | About 11 o'clock | Salát-uz- | Namáz-i- | Zuhá Kí | | | | | 8|

| A.M. | Zuhá. | Chast. | Namáz. | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | |

3 | After mid-night. | Salát-ut- | Namáz-i- | Tahajjud | | | | | 9|

| | Tahajjud.| Tahajjud.| Kí Namáz. | | | | | |

---+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--+--+--+--+--+-

In addition to these there are several kinds of Namáz which have to be said

at different times, or under special circumstances.

(i). Salát-ul-Juma'--The Friday Namáz. This is a farz duty. It has the

threefold authority of the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the Ijmá'. Thus: "O ye

who believe! When ye are summoned to prayer on the _day of the assembly_

(Friday), haste ye to the commemoration of God, and quit your traffic."

(Súra lxii. 9.) The Prophet also said: "Juma' is farz," and, "God will make

a mark on the heart of him who misses the Salát-ul-Juma'[204]." There are,

however, eight kind of persons on whom it is not incumbent, _viz_: a

traveller, a sick person, a slave, a woman, a young child, a mad {201}

person, a blind or a lame person. The conditions which make this Namáz

obligatory are:--

(1). That the place in which it is said be a town in which a Qází (judge)

dwells.

(2). There must be in the town a ruler or his deputy.

(3). It must take the place of the Salát-uz-Zuhr, with which it agrees,

except that two farz rak'ats instead of four are recited. The nafl rak'ats

are omitted. The four sunnat rak'ats which precede, and the two which

follow the farz ones are said.

(4). One, or according to the followers of Imám Sháfa'í two Khutbas, or

sermons are preached. These are delivered by the Imám after the four sunnat

rak'ats are recited, and before the two farz ones. The Khutba should

consist of the praise of God, prayer and injunctions to piety.

(5). There must be a congregation of three persons besides the Imám. The

Sháfa'ítes say there should be at least forty worshippers.

(6). The Azán, or call to prayers, must be made to all without distinction

of rank.

Any person who is qualified to act as Imám at the other prayers can conduct

this Namáz. The Imám and Khatíb (preacher) is usually, but not necessarily,

one and the same person. The Khutbas should not be long, for Muhammad said

that long sermons and short prayers would be a sign of the degeneracy of

the latter days. When two Khutbas are said, the Imám sits down to rest

before the delivery of the second. The worshippers may then offer up a

Du'á, or private prayer. Some, however, say that this practice is bid'at,

(innovation) and consider it a very bad act. According to the

Traditionists, Bukhárí, Abu Dáúd and Tirmízí, it is a mustahab act to wear

clean clothes on Friday.

The preacher standing on the second step of the Mimbar, or pulpit, with a

large club or staff in his hand, delivers his sermon.[205]

{202}

The following is a specimen of the Khutbas.

SERMON ON THE EXCELLENCE OF FRIDAY.

In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

Praise be to God, the King, the Holy, the Great, the Knower. He has

opened our hearts through the blessing of Islám. He has made Friday the

best of days. We testify that there is no God but God, the One, without

partner. This confession saves those who make it from danger and from

darkness. We testify that our Lord Muhammad is His servant and His

Apostle sent to all mankind. May the mercy and peace of God be on him,

his descendants and on his Companions. O men! O believers of God! I

advise you and my own soul thus: "Obey God!" Know, O servants of God!

that when Friday commences the angels assemble in the fourth heaven,

and Gabriel, (on whom be peace) is the Mu,azzin, Míká,íl the Khatíb,

Isráfíl the Imám and 'Izrá,íl the Mukabbir[206] and all the angels join

in the Namáz. When it is over Gabriel says: "I give the reward due to

me as Mu,azzin to the Mu,azzins of the sect of Islám;" Míká,íl: "I give

mine to the Khatíbs;" Isráfíl: "I give mine to the Imáms;" 'Izrá,íl: "I

give mine to the Mukabbirs." The angels say: "We give ours to the

company of the Muslims." The Prophet said: "The night and day of Friday

last twenty-four hours, and each hour God releases a thousand souls

from hell. Whosoever makes 'ghusl' on Friday, God will give him for

every hair on his body the reward of ten good deeds. Whosoever dies on

a Friday meets with the reward of a martyr."

Certainly the best and most eloquent speech is the Holy Qurán, the Word

of God,--the King, the Great, the Knower. His word is true and

righteous. When thou readest the Qurán say: "O God! protect me from

cursed Satan."

In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful.

"When ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly, haste to

the commemoration of God and quit your traffic. This, if ye knew it,

will be best for you. And when the prayer is ended, then disperse

yourselves abroad and go in quest of the bounties of God; and that it

may be well with you, oft remember God. But when they get a sight of

merchandize or sport, they disperse after, and leave thee standing

alone. Say: 'God hath in reserve what is better than sport or wares.

God is the best provider.'" (Súra lxii. 9-11.) God {203} by means of

the Holy Qurán will bless us and you. And by its verses and teaching

will reward us and you. God is Almighty, Generous, Merciful, Eternal,

Holy, Clement.

Here ends the first sermon; after a short pause the preacher commences the

second.

In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful.

Praise be to God, the Creator of the earth and heavens, the Maker of

light and darkness. I testify that there is no God but God. He is one.

He has no partner. Know, O believers! that this confession will save

you from trouble and calamity. I testify that Muhammad, who wipes out

error and infidelity, is the servant and Apostle of God. The mercy of

God be on our Lord Muhammad, the Lord of Creation; and on his

descendants; and on his Companions be grace and honour. O servants of

God! I advise you and my own soul thus: Obey God! Fear God, who created

life and death and who scrutinizes our good actions. O God! be pleased

with Abu Bakr, the righteous, the Sáhib-ul-Ghár,[207] and with Omar

Ibn-ul-Khattáb, the chief of the holy men; and with Osmán the possessor

of two lights, who was martyred when reading the Holy Qurán, and upon

'Alí Murtuzá, the destroyer of infidels and sinners. O God! be pleased

with the great Imáms Hasan and Husain. Be pleased with their mother

Fatimat-uz-Zuhra, the chief of women, and with Hamza and 'Abbás, the

uncles of the Prophet. Also be pleased with all the Asháb (Companions).

O God! help those who help the religion of Muhammad, and make us of

their number. Make those wretched who corrupt it, and keep us aloof

from all such. O believers! truly God orders you to do justice and to

show kindness to your kindred. He orders you to abstain from infidelity

and from the greater and the lesser sins. God warns you. God is the

Most High, the Most Glorious. God is Great!"

The collection of Khutbas from which the above have been translated

contains a considerable number on a variety of subjects, such as prayer,

the resurrection, worldliness, the various feast and fast days, &c. The

form in all is very similar. The exordium and the conclusion are

practically the same. A few sentences in the middle refer to the special

subject of the sermon. The second of the two {204} sermons is always the

same; it is practically an invocation of blessings on certain persons. Both

are said in Arabic. What would answer to our idea of a sermon, such as an

explanation of some doctrine, or an exposition of some passages in the

Qurán, is not part of the public worship in the mosque, but would be done

in an ordinary assembly, in any convenient place, by a Moollá, or any

learned man who could collect an audience.

(ii). Salát-ul-Musáfir.--Prayers said by a traveller. A person who makes a

journey which lasts three days or three nights is, for this purpose,

considered a traveller.[208] The length of a day's journey is estimated at

the distance a camel can march in that period of time. If a traveller

intends to stay in a certain place fifteen days, he must repeat the usual

Namáz; if less than fifteen days, or when actually on the journey, he can

shorten it. He is then permitted to say only two farz rak'ats. He may omit

the sunnat and nafl rak'ats if he chooses; but the three witr rak'ats he

must recite at the Salát-ul-'Ishá. If a traveller passing through a place

is, for the time being, the most suitable person to act as Imám, he being a

traveller will only recite two rak'ats. The rest of the worshippers then

complete the Namáz. In the case where a permanent resident of the place is

the Imám and the traveller only a worshipper, the Imám is bound to recite

the whole number of rak'ats and the traveller must also repeat the whole

after him. The principle on which this is based is that the worshippers

must not recite less than the Imám.[209]

(iii). Salát-ul-Khauf.--Prayers of fear. This is a Namáz said during the

time of war. When there is imminent danger from the approach of an enemy

the Imám should divide the army into two bodies; one of which should be

placed in a position towards the enemy, the other should recite, if they

are on the march, one rak'at; if stationary {205} in a place, two rak'ats.

This division will then march towards the enemy and the first division will

recite as many rak'ats as may be required to complete the Namáz. The Salám

(Ante. p. 197) will be recited by the Imám alone. The first division of

troops will not say the qir,at, _i.e._ the Fátiha and the other verses of

the Qurán recited after it (Ante. p. 195); but the second division will

supply the omission. If the enemy are so near that the cavalry dare not

dismount, then each man will recite a rak'at or rak'ats for himself, and

make the rukú' and sijda by means of signs. If he cannot turn towards the

Qibla, he is, under the circumstances, allowed to face any direction most

convenient. During the recital of the Namáz he must not fight, or allow his

horse to move, lest the prayer should be rendered void. "When ye go forth

to war in the land, it shall be no crime in you to cut short your prayers,

if ye fear lest the infidels come upon you. Verily, the infidels are your

undoubted enemies! And when thou, O Apostle! shalt be among them, and shalt

pray with them, then let a party of them rise up with thee, but let them

take their arms; and when they shall have made their prostrations, let them

retire to your rear: then let another party that hath not prayed come

forward, and let them pray with you." (Súra iv. 102, 103).

(iv). Salát-ut-Taráwíh.--This is a special set of twenty rak'ats recited

every night during the month of Ramazán. They must be said after the farz

and sunnat, and before the witr rak'ats at the time of the Salát-ul-'Ishá.

The Salát-ut-Taráwíh is considered of sunnat obligation. The practice dates

from the time of the Khalíf Omar. Abd-ur-Rahmán, a Traditionist, states

that one night in Ramazán he went with Omar to the Mosque. They saw some

persons saying the Namáz alone and some reciting it in groups. Omar said:

"If I gather them all together, so that they may recite it after one Imám

it will be good." He did so, and the next night the people of their own

accord came in great numbers and united together. Then said Omar: "this

{206} bid'at is good." This is good authority for the institution, for the

Prophet said: "Follow my Sunnat and that of the Khulafá-i-Rashídín." There

is also a Hadís-i-Sahíh to the effect that "God has made the fast of

Ramazán farz, and its qíám[210] sunnat." (Kutiba 'alaikum síámu Ramazána wa

sunna qíámuhu). The Prophet was anxious lest the Tiráwíh Namáz should

become farz and, therefore, after going to the Mosque on two successive

nights in Ramazán, he stayed away on the third, giving as his reason for so

doing that he feared that, if he went every night, it might be considered a

farz and not a sunnat duty.[211] The number of rak'ats is fixed at twenty,

as that was the number recited by Muhammad and by the Khalíf Omar. The

Shía'hs do not say these prayers or even enter the Mosque on such

occasions, as after every four rak'ats an eulogium is repeated on the four

Khalífs--the first three of whom they hate.

(v). Salát-ul-Kusúf and Salát-ul-Khusúf--Prayer said when an eclipse of the

sun, or of the moon takes place. In the former case, the Imám recites with

the congregation in the Mosque two rak'ats. The Azán and the Iqámat are

both omitted. No Khutba is said. In each rak'at one rukú' is read. The

Sháfa'ítes read two. After the rak'ats are completed those present remain

in prayer (Du'á) until the eclipse is at an end. The Namáz during an

eclipse of the moon is the same as that during an eclipse of the sun, with

this exception that the rak'ats need not be recited in a congregation. Each

Muslim can say the Namáz privately in his own house. The practice is

founded on the Prophet's saying: "When you see an eclipse then remember

God, pray (Du'á) and recite the Namáz until it becomes light again."

(vi). Salát-ul-Istisqá.--Prayer in time of drought. When {207} there is a

scarcity of water each person should, with face Qibla-wards, offer up

prayer to God. They can be said at home and in private. Care must be taken

that no Zimmí[212] is present. The reason given is that this is a prayer

for a blessing; but God sends no blessing on a company in which a Zimmí is

present.

These prayers are simple Du'á and not a Namáz. There is no

well-authenticated Tradition to the effect that the Prophet ever said Namáz

on such an occasion; whilst there are many which show that he made Du'á.

This is a very good example of the use of the term Salát as a _Mushtarik_

word, _i.e._ one which has several significations. Its ordinary meaning is

Namáz; here it means Du'á.

(vii). Salát-ul-Janáza.--Prayers at a Funeral. When a person is about to

die, the attendants should place him on his right side with his face

Qibla-wards. In that position he should repeat the "Kalima-i-Shahádat," the

creed of testimony: "I confess that God is one, without a partner; that

truly Muhammad is His servant and His Apostle." After death has taken

place, the corpse is laid out, incense is burnt, and the shroud is perfumed

an _odd_ number of times. A tradition states that an odd number is fixed

upon, because the number one which represents the unity of God is odd and

not even. The lesser lustration (wazú) is then made. The head and beard are

washed with a decoction made of some flowers, after which the greater

lustration (ghusl) is made. The members of the body used when making sijda

(prostration) _i.e._, forehead, nose, hands, knees, feet, are then rubbed

with camphor.

To recite the Salát-ul-Janáza is a duty called Farz-i-kifáya, that is, if

some few persons in the assembly say it, all need not do so; whilst if no

one repeats it all will be guilty of sin. To prove that this Namáz is farz

the following verse is quoted: "Take alms of their substance, that thou

mayest {208} cleanse and purify them thereby, and pray for them; for thy

prayers shall assure their minds: and God heareth, knoweth." (Súra ix.

104.) The proof that it is not Farz-i-'ain (_i.e._, incumbent on all), but

Farz-i-kifáya is drawn from an account given in a Hadís, to the effect that

the Prophet one day did not recite the Namáz over one of his deceased

followers. Now, if the Namáz had been Farz-i-'ain even the Prophet could

not have omitted it. His Sunnat, or practice, has decided the nature of the

farz command contained in the verse of the Qurán just quoted.

The Namáz can only be said when the corpse is present. It is recited in the

open space in front of the Mosque, or in some neighbouring spot: never in

the graveyard.

When all are assembled the Imám or leader says: "Here begins the Namáz for

the dead."

The company present then stand up in rows with faces turned in the

direction of Mecca. The Imám stands a little in front, near the head or

waist of the corpse according as it is that of a male or female. Then all

assume the Qíám, or standing position, and recite the Niyyat as follows:--

"I recite Namáz for the sake of God, and offer prayers (Du'á) for this

deceased person, and I follow the Imám (who is about to officiate.)"

Then all at the first[213] Takbír put the hands to the lobe of the ears and

say: "God is Great!"

Then they say the Saná (Ante, p. 195.):--

"Holiness to Thee O God! And to Thee be praise! Great is Thy Name! Great is

Thy greatness! Great is Thy praise! There is no God but Thee!"

Then follows the second Takbír: "God is Great!"

Then all say the Darud-i-Ibráhím:--

"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and upon his descendants, as Thou didst

bestow mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion, and great kindness

upon {209} Abraham and upon his descendants." "Thou art praised, and Thou

art Great!" "O God, bless Muhammad and his descendants as Thou didst bless,

and didst have compassion and great kindness upon Abraham and upon his

descendants."

Then follows the third Takbír: "God is Great!"

The Du'á is then repeated:--

"O God, forgive our living and our dead, and those o£ us who are present,

and those who are absent, and our children and our full grown persons, our

men and our women. O God, those whom Thou dost keep alive amongst us, keep

alive in Islám, and those whom Thou causest to die, let them die in the

Faith."[214]

Then follows the fourth Takbír: "God is Great!"

Then all say:--

"O God, give us good in this world and in the next, and save us by Thy

mercy from the troubles of the grave and of hell."

Then each one in a low voice says the Salám, as in an ordinary Namáz.

(Ante, p. 197.)[215]

The Namáz is now over and the people make another Du'á thus:--

"'O our Lord! suffer not our hearts to go astray after that Thou hast once

guided us; and give us mercy from before Thee; for verily Thou art He who

giveth.' (Súra iii. 6.) O God, Thou art his[216] Master, and Thou createdst

him, and Thou didst nourish him, and didst guide him toward Islám, and Thou

hast taken his life, and Thou knowest well his inner and outer life.

Provide intercessors for us. Forgive him, for Thou art the Forgiver, the

most Merciful."

{210}

Then going towards the head of the corpse, they say:--

"No doubt is there about this Book (Qurán.) It is a guidance to the

God-fearing, who believe in the unseen,[217] who observe prayer (salát),

and out of what we have bestowed on them, expend (for God), and who believe

in that which hath been sent down to thee (Muhammad), and in what hath been

sent down before thee; and full faith have they in the life to come: these

are guided by their Lord; and with these it shall be well." (Súra ii. 1-4).

Then coming towards the feet of the corpse, they say:--

"The Apostle believeth in that which hath been sent down from his Lord, as

do the faithful also. Each believeth in God, and His angels, and His Books

and His Apostles: we make no distinction between any of His Apostles.[218]

And they say: 'We have heard and we obey. (We implore) Thy mercy, Lord; for

unto Thee must we return.' God will not burden any soul beyond its power.

It shall enjoy the good which it hath acquired, and shall bear the evil for

the acquirement of which it laboured. O our Lord! punish us not if we

forget, or fall into sin; O our Lord! and lay not on us a load like that

which Thou hast laid on those who have been before us[219]; O our Lord! and

lay not on us that for which we have no strength: but blot out our sins and

forgive us, and have pity on us. Thou art our protector; give us victory

therefore over the infidel nations." (Súra ii. 285, 286).

{211}

The chief mourner then gives the Izn-i-'Ámm, that is, he says:--

"All have permission to depart."

Some then proceed homewards, others go with the corpse to the graveyard.

When the bier is lifted up, or when it is placed down near the grave, the

people say:--

"We commit thee to earth in the name of God and in the religion of the

Prophet."

If the ground is very hard, a recess (lahad) is dug out in the side of the

grave. This must be high enough to allow the corpse to sit up when Munkir

and Nakír come to interrogate it. If the ground is soft a small grave is

excavated at the bottom of the larger one. The corpse is then placed in the

lower one. The idea in both cases is that the corpse must be in such a

position that it can have free movement. The body is placed with the face

towards Mecca. When the bands of the shroud have been loosened the people

say:--

"O God deprive us not of the heavenly reward of the deceased, place us not

in trouble."

Each person then takes seven clods of earth, and over each clod says;

"Bismilláh" (in the name of God), and the Súrat-ul-Iklás (Súra cxii) and

then places each clod by the head of the corpse. Unburnt bricks, bamboos or

boards having then been placed over the smaller grave, the persons present

with both hands throw clods of earth three times into the grave. The first

time they say: "From it (earth) We created you"; the second time, "and into

it will We return you;" the third time, "and out of it will We bring you a

second time." (Súra xx. 57).

Then they say this Du'á: "O God I beseech Thee for the sake of Muhammad not

to trouble the deceased."

When the attendants are filling up the grave they say:--

"O God, defend the deceased from Shaitan (devil) and from the torments of

the grave."

When the grave is completely filled up, one man pours {212} water three, or

five, or seven times over it and then plants a green branch on it.[220]

One of the mourners then draws near the middle of the grave and recites the

Talqín (instruction):--

"O servant of God, and child of a female servant of God.

O son of (such an one),[221] remember the faith you professed on earth to

the very last; that is, your witness that there is no God but God, and that

certainly Muhammad is His Apostle, and that Paradise and Hell and the

Resurrection from the dead are real; that there will be a day of judgment,

and say: 'I confess that God is my Lord, Islám my religion, Muhammad (on

whom be the mercy and peace of God) my Prophet, the Qurán my guide, the

K'aba my Qibla, and that Muslims are my brethren.' O God, keep him (the

deceased) firm in this faith, and widen his grave, and make his examination

(by Munkir and Nakír) easy, and exalt him and have mercy on him, O Thou

most Merciful."

The other persons present then offer a Fátiha.[222]

After this, they may, if they like to do so, read the Súrat-ul-Yá Sín

(xxxvi) and the Súrat-ul-Mulk (lxvii.) It is not common to do so. Then

retiring forty paces from the grave they again offer a Fátiha, for by this

time the examination of the deceased has commenced. The first night is one

of great trouble to the deceased, so alms should be given liberally that

night in his name. In order to relieve him as much as possible, two nafl

rak'ats of a Namáz should be said. After the Fátiha in each rak'at the

worshipper should repeat the Áyat-ul-Kursí {213} (Throne-verse)[223] three

times; then the Súrat-ut-Takísur (102) eleven times; then the

Súrat-ul-Iklás (112) three times.

After the Salám and the Darúd the worshipper lifts up both hands, and with

great humility prays that the reward of the service just concluded may be

bestowed on the deceased.

(viii). Salát-ul-Istikhára.--This is a Namáz said before undertaking any

special work. The person recites two rak'at prayers. After each rak'at he

says the following Du'á: "O God, make me know what is best for me, and keep

me from evil, and bestow good upon me, for I have no power to know what is

best for me." He then goes to sleep, during which period be expects to

receive a special inspiration (Ilhám) which will give him the needed

directions and guide him aright as to the matter in hand.

(ix). Salát-ut-Taráwih.--This consists of twenty rak'ats recited each

evening during the month of Ramazán. An account of these will be given in

the next chapter when the ceremonies connected with the Ramazán fast are

described.

3. ROZA, THE THIRTY DAYS' FAST OF RAMAZÁN.--Fasting is defined to be

abstinence from food, drink and cohabitation from sunrise to sunset. There

must also be in the mind the intention of keeping a fast. The person should

say: "O Lord, I intend to fast to-morrow for Thy sake. Forgive my past and

future sin." When the fast is ended he says: "O God I fasted for Thy sake

and had faith in Thee, and confided in Thee and now I break (iftár) the

fast with the food Thou givest. Accept this act."

It is a farz duty to keep the fast during the thirty days of the month

Ramazán. This is laid down in the words: "O believers! a fast is prescribed

to you as it was prescribed to those before you." "As to the month Ramazán,

in which the Qurán was sent down to be man's guidance, and an explanation

of that guidance, and of that {214} illumination, as soon as any one of you

observeth the moon, let him set about the fast." (Súra ii. 179-181). The

Ijmá' is also unanimous on this point. Young children and idiots are

excused. Sick persons and travellers may postpone the fast to another time.

"He who is sick, or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days.

God wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort, and that you fulfil

the number of days." (Súra ii. 181). This is called a qazá fast, that is, a

fast kept at another time in lieu of one which has been omitted.

If a person makes a vow that, if God grants a certain request, he will fast

(roza-i-nazr), or if he fasts by way of atonement for some sin committed

(roza-i-kafára), in both cases it is a wájib duty to keep the fast. Some

hold that the former is a farz duty and base their assertion on the verse:

"Let them bring the neglect of their persons to a close, and let them pay

their vows." (Súra xxii. 30).

All other kinds of fasts are nafl, a term already explained (p. 199). Such

are the fasts kept on the 10th day of Muharram, on the Aiyám-i-Bíz (bright

days)--the 13th, 14th and 15th day of any month, on the 15th of Sh'abán,

that is, the day following the night called Shab-Barát, and on the 30th of

each month in which there are thirty days. A nafl fast may be broken if the

person who intended to keep it receives an invitation to a feast. According

to Bukhárí, a woman may not make a nafl fast without the consent of her

husband. The reverse is not the case, for "Men are superior to women on

account of the qualities with which God hath gifted the one above the

other, and on account of the outlay they make from their substance for

them." (Súra iv. 38). It is said that one day a woman came to the Prophet

and said that her husband had slapped her. The Prophet wished to punish him

for doing so improper an act, but he was prevented by the descent from

heaven of the verse just quoted, which is held to be conclusive evidence of

the inferiority of women. The verse also contains the words "chide those

{215} (wives) for whose refractoriness ye have cause to fear; remove them

into beds apart, and scourge them." It is mustahab to fast some days in the

month Shawwál, for Muhammad is reported to have said: "Whosoever keeps the

fast of Ramazán and some seven days in the preceding month of Shawwál, it

is as if his whole life were a fast."

If on account of dull weather, or of dust storms the new moon is not

visible, it is sufficient to act on the testimony of a trustworthy person

who declares that Ramazán has commenced. Imám Sháfa'í requires two, but the

following Tradition is quoted against him: "An Arab came to the Prophet and

said: 'I have seen the new moon.' His Excellency said: 'Dost thou believe

that there is no God but God? Dost thou confess that Muhammad is His

Apostle?' 'Yes,' replied the man. The Prophet calling Billál, the Mu,azzin,

said: 'Tell the people to commence the fast.'" This proves that the

evidence of one good Muslim is sufficient testimony in the matter.

The fast is destroyed in the following cases:--if when cleansing the teeth

a little water should pass into the throat, if food is eaten under

compulsion, if an enema is used, if medicine is put into the ears, nose or

a wound in the head, if a meal has been taken on the supposition that it

was night when it was really day, if the niyyat (intention) in the Ramazán

fast was not properly made, if after a meal taken during the night a

portion of food larger than a grain of corn remains between the teeth or in

a cavity of a tooth, lastly, if food is vomited. In each of these cases a

qazá fast must be kept in lieu of the one thus broken.

In the case where the fast is deliberately broken, the person must atone

for his sin by setting a slave at liberty; if from any cause that cannot be

done, he must fast every day for two months; if that cannot be done, he

must give sixty persons two full meals each, or give one man such meals

daily for sixty days.

The fast is not broken by merely tasting anything, by {216} applying

antimony to the eyes, and oil to the beard, by cleansing the teeth, or by

kissing a person; but it is considered better not to do these things during

the day-time. The Imám As-Sháfa'í declared that it was very wrong indeed to

do either of these actions after noon. He used to repeat the following

Tradition handed down by Tabrání. "The Prophet said: 'when you fast,

cleanse the teeth in the early morning, because when the lips of him who

fasts become dry and parched, they will be for him a light in the day of

judgment.'"

If a person through the infirmity of old age is not able to keep the fast,

he must perform sadqa, that is, he must feed a poor person. This opinion is

based on a sentence in the Qurán, which has caused a good deal of dispute:

"As for those who are able (_to keep it and yet break it_), the expiation

of this shall be the maintenance of a poor man." (Súra ii. 180). This seems

to make fasting a matter of personal option, and some Commentators admit

that at first it was so, but they say that the words have been

abrogated[224] by the following sentence which occurs in the next verse:

"As soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast."

Others say that the negative particle "not" must be understood before

"able," in which case the words in italics must be omitted. Others explain

the expression "those who are able" as equivalent to "those who have great

difficulty therein," such as aged and infirm persons. This seems to be the

best interpretation and is the one which practically is acted on.

In the case of women with child, mothers giving suck to their children,

sick persons whom fasting at this particular time might injure, it is

sufficient if they keep it at another time; that is, they must when

convenient make a qazá fast. {217} In these cases the sadqa or feeding of

the poor is not required. Thus Abu Dáúd says: "The Prophet said, 'God

allows travellers to shorten the Namáz and to postpone the fast. Women also

are allowed to fast another time.'" The Qurán is also clear on the point:

"He who is sick or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days."

(Súra ii. 181). There are five days in the year in which it is unlawful to

fast. These are, 'Íd-ul-Fitr, Baqr-'íd and the three following days, _viz_:

the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja. If during the month of Ramazán, a

person arrives at maturity, or an Infidel becomes a Muslim, each must keep

the fast during the remaining days of the month.

To take the Sahra, or meal taken just before sunrise in the month of

Ramazán, is a Sunnat act. The great Traditionists, Bukhárí, Muslim and

Tirmízí, all agree that the Prophet said: "Eat Sahra because there is a

blessing in it. The difference between our fast and that of the men of the

Book (Christians) is the partaking of Sahra."

The meal eaten immediately after sunset is called Iftár, or the breaking of

the fast. In India it is the custom to eat a date first, or if that fruit

is not procurable to drink a little water. In Turkey an olive is chosen as

the fruit with which the fast should be broken.

The distinctive feature of a Muhammadan fast is, that it is a fast during

the day only. The rich classes by turning day into night avoid much of its

rigour.

They, however, frequently break the fast, though any such action must be

done in secret, for popular opinion all over the Musalmán world is strongly

against a man who does not outwardly, at least, observe the fast of

Ramazán. In this matter it may be said

"Pecher en secret, n'est pas pecher,

Ce n'est que l'éclat qui fait le crime."

Those who have to work for their living find the observance of the fast

very difficult, for however laborious may be their occupation they must not

swallow any liquid; yet as {218} a rule the lower classes observe it

strictly.[225] In hot climates this is often exceedingly distressing. In

such circumstances the evening twilight is anxiously looked for, as then

the Iftár can be commenced. The month of Ramazán brings with it other

duties than that of fasting. These will be described in the next chapter.

4. ZAKÁT.--There are two terms in use to express almsgiving. The first is

Zakát (literally, "purification") or the legal alms due, with certain

exceptions, from every Muslim. The second is Sadqa, or offerings on the

feast day known as 'Íd-ul-Fitr, or alms in general.[226] It is the first of

these that has now to be considered.

On the authority of the Qurán and the Ijmá'-i-Ummat it is declared to be a

farz duty for every Muslim of full age, after the expiration of a year, to

give the Zakát on account of his property; provided that, he has sufficient

for his subsistence and is a Sáhib-i-Nisáb, or one who possesses an income

equivalent to about £5 per annum. The Qurán says: "Observe prayer (Salát)

and the legal impost (Zakát)." (Súra ii. 40). The Khalíf 'Umr Ibn

'Abd-ul-'Azíz used to say: "Prayer carries us half way to God, fasting

brings us to the door of His palace, and alms procure us admission." The

three conditions without which Zakát would not be compulsory are Islám,

Hurriat (freedom) and Nisáb (stock). The reason for this is, that Zakát is

said to be a fundamental part of 'Ibádat (worship), and that, as the

Infidels cannot perform acceptable worship, they have nothing to do with

Zakát. Freedom is necessary, for slaves hold no {219} property. Nisáb is

required, for so the Prophet has decreed. When the Nisáb is required for

daily use the zakát is not taken from it; such as a slave retained for

personal service, grain for food, weapons, tools, books, household

furniture, wearing apparel, horses for riding, &c., for one Tradition

records that the Prophet specially exempted all these, whilst another given

on the authority of Bukhárí states that for slaves employed in domestic

service only the Sadqa-i-fitr[227] should be given. If a person owes a

debt, the amount necessary for its liquidation must be deducted from his

property and the Zakát given on the balance. If it is a debt due to God,

such as an offering due on a vow or to be given in atonement for the

neglect of some religious duty, it must not be so deducted from the

property on which Zakát is due.

The amount of gold which constitutes a Nisáb is 20 miskats, or of silver

200 dirhems (=£5 4s.). Whether these metals are in coin or not,

one-fortieth part is due. Some say that gold and silver ornaments are

exempt, but Imám Sháfa'í does not admit this, and quotes from Abu Dáúd the

following Tradition: "A woman with a child, on whose arms were heavy golden

bracelets, came to the Prophet. He enquired if the Zakát had been given for

them. On receiving a reply in the negative he said: 'It is easy for God in

the day of judgment to make thee wear bracelets of fire.' The girl then

took them off and said: 'These are for the service of God and of His

Prophet.'" On all treasure known as rikáz, that is, buried treasure found

by any one, and on valuable metals extracted from mines, one-fifth of the

value must be paid, whether the land be Khárijí, rented at its proper

market value; or 'Usharí possessed by the payment of a tithe. If the rikáz

is found in Dar-ul-Harb, a country under a non-Muslim Government, the whole

belongs to the finder, if it is on his own land, or if on unclaimed {220}

land he must pay the one-fifth. If the coins found bear the mint stamp of a

Musalmán Government, the finder must, if he can, find the owner and return

them to him; if they were coined in a mint belonging to the Infidels, after

having given one-fifth as Zakát, he may retain four-fifths for himself.

Pearls, amber and turquoise are not subject to any deduction, for the

Prophet said: "There is no Zakát for stones."

As regards cattle the following rules have been laid down. For sheep and

goats nothing is given when the number is under forty. The owner must give

one for one hundred and twenty, two for the next eighty and one for every

hundred after. The scale for buffaloes is the same as that for sheep.

For camels the rule is as follows: from 5 to 24 in number, one sheep or

goat must be given; from 25 to 35, one yearling female camel

(bint-i-mukház); from 36 to 45, one two-year old female camel

(bint-i-labún); from 46 to 60, one three-year old female camel (hiqqah);

from 61 to 75, one four-year old female camel (jaz'ah); from 76 to 90, two

bint-i-labún; from 91 to 120, two hiqqah; and from 121 upwards, either a

bint-i-labún for every forty or a hiqqah for every fifty. Horses follow

this scale, or two and a half per cent on the value may be given instead.

For 30 cows a one-year old female calf (tabi'a) must be given; for 40, a

two-year old female calf (musinna), and after that one calf for every ten

cows.

Donkeys and mules are exempt, for the Prophet said: "No order has come down

(from heaven) to me about them."

If a stock of merchandize exceeds the Nisáb (£5 4s.), Zakát must be given

on it and on the profits at the rate of one in forty, or two-and-a-half per

cent. The Hanífites do not count a fraction of the forty. The Sháfa'ítes

count such a fractional part as forty and require the full Zakát to be paid

on it.

Honey, fruit, grain, &c., although less than five camel {221} loads,[228]

must according to Imám Abu Hanífa pay one-tenth; but the Sáhibain and Imám

Sháfa'í say that if there is less than the five camel loads no Zakát is

required. The Prophet said: "If produced on land naturally watered

one-tenth is due, if on land artificially irrigated one-twentieth." As he

said nothing about the quantity, the Hanífites adduce the fact of the

omission as a proof on their side.

The Zakát should be given to the classes of person mentioned in the

following verse. "Alms are to be given to the poor and the needy, and to

those who collect them, _and to those whose hearts are won to Islám_, and

for ransoms, and for debtors, and for the cause of God, and for the

wayfarer." (Súra ix. 60). The words italicised, according to the

Tafsír-i-Husainí, are now cancelled (mansúkh). The reference is to the Arab

Chiefs who were beaten by the Prophet at the battle of Honein (A.H. 8).

This victory is referred to in the 25th verse of this Súra. "God hath

helped you in many battle fields, and on the day of Honein." Abu Bakr

abolished this giving of Zakát to converts, and the Khalíf Omar said to

these or similar persons: "This Zakát was given to incline your hearts

toward Islám. Now God has prospered Islám. If you be converted it is well;

if not, a sword is between us." No Companion has denied this statement, and

so the authority for the cancelling of this clause is that of the

Ijmá'-i-Ummat (unanimous consent). It is well that an appeal to unworthy

motives should be abolished, but no commentator so far as I know makes that

a reason for the cancelling of this order. It is always placed on the

ground of the triumphant nature of Islám which now needs no such support.

Contemptuous indifference, not any high moral motive was the cause of the

change.

In addition to the persons mentioned in the verse just quoted, Zakát may be

given to assist a Mukátib, or slave {222} who is working in order to

purchase his freedom. Persons who are too poor to go on a Jihád or to make

the Hajj must be assisted.

The Zakát must not be given for building mosques,[229] for funeral

expenses, liquidating the debts of a deceased person, or to purchase a

slave in order to set him free. It is not lawful to give the Zakát to

parents or grand-parents, children or grandchildren; or for a husband to

give it to his wife, or a wife to her husband; or a master to his slave.

The Sáhibain[230] maintain that a wife can apply the Zakát to her husband's

wants and quote this Tradition: "A woman asked the Prophet if she could

give the Zakát to her husband. He answered 'give; such an act has two

rewards, one for the giving of charity and one for the fulfilment of the

duties of relationship.'" It should not be given to a rich man, nor to his

son, nor to his slave. The descendants of Hásham and the descendants of the

Prophet should not be the recipients of the Zakát. The Prophet said: "O

Ahl-i-Beit (men of the house), it is not lawful for you to receive Zakát,

for you get the one-fifth share of my fifth portion of the booty." So some

say that Syeds are excluded; but they demur and reply that they do not now

get a portion of the spoil of the Infidels. Zakát must not be given to a

Zimmí (a non-muslim subject).

In Muhammadan countries there are officers whose duty it is to collect the

Zakát; in India the payment is left to each person's conscience. Whilst

there is not much regularity in the payment, due credit must be given for

the care which Musalmáns take of their poor.

The Sadqa (charitable offerings) form a different branch of this subject. A

full account of it will be given in the section of the next chapter which

treats of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr.

{223}

5. THE HAJJ.--The Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, is a farz duty, and he who

denies this fact is considered to be an infidel. "The pilgrimage to the

temple is a service due to God from those who are able to journey thither:

and as to him who believeth not--verily God can afford to dispense with all

creatures." (Súra iii. 91, 92.) On the authority of Ibn 'Abbás the

following Tradition has been handed down. "The Prophet said: 'God has made

the Hajj farz.' Then Aqra' bin Hábis, standing up, said: 'O Prophet is it

to be made every year?' His Excellency said: 'If I say--yes, it will be a

wájib duty to do it annually; but that ye are not able to bear, so the Hajj

is necessary only once; whatever pilgrimage may be made to Mecca in

addition is nafl.'"

The Hajj must be made by every free Muslim, who is sound in body, and of

full age, when he has sufficient means to pay his expenses, after duly

providing for the support of his household till his return. If a slave, or

a child should make the Hajj, the former on attaining freedom, and the

latter on coming of age must again go on pilgrimage. If a woman, whose

residence is at a distance of more than three days' journey from Mecca,

goes on pilgrimage, she must be accompanied by her husband or by a near

relative. Imám As Sháfa'í denies the necessity of such attendance, stating

that the verse already quoted makes no such restriction. His objection is,

however, met as usual by a Tradition. "A certain man came to the Prophet

and said: 'My wife is about to make the Hajj, but I am called to go on a

warlike expedition.' The Prophet said: 'Turn away from the war and

accompany thy wife in the Hajj.'" Imám Abu Yúsuf considered that a man who

possessed the means should go to Mecca, and held that if he delayed more

than a year in making the Hajj he was a sinner. Imám Muhammad, and most

others think that a person may postpone the Hajj for some years, but if

death should overtake the man before he has made {224} the pilgrimage, he

will be accounted a sinner. So practically all agree that delay is

dangerous.

Connected with the Hajj there are three actions which are farz, and five

which are wájib; all the rest are sunnat or mustahab. The farz requisites

are: (1) to wear no other garment except the Ihrám,[231] two seamless

wrappers, one of which is worn round the loins, the other thrown over the

shoulder; (2) to stand in 'Arfát; (3) to make the Tawáf, that is to go

round the K'aba seven times.

The wájib duties are: (1) to stay in Muzdalífah; (2) to run between Mount

Safá and Mount Marwah; (3) to perform the Ramí-ul-Jamár, or the casting of

the pebbles; (4) if the pilgrims are non-Meccans they must make an extra

Tawáf; (5) to shave the head after the pilgrimage is over.

The Hajj must be made at the appointed season. "Let the pilgrimage (Hajj)

be made in the months already known." (Súra ii. 193). These months are

Shawwál, Zu'l-q'ada, and the first ten days of Zu'l-Hajja. The actual Hajj

must be in the month Zu'l-Hajja, but the preparations for, and the niyyat,

or intention of the Hajj can be made in the two preceding months. The

'Umrah, or ordinary pilgrimage, can be done at any time of the year except

on the ninth, and four succeeding days of Zu'l-Hajja. On each of the

various roads leading to Mecca, there are at a distance of about five or

six miles from the city stages called Míqát. The following are the names.

On the Madína road, the stage (manzil) is called Zu'l-Halifah; on the 'Iráq

road, Zát-i-'Arq; on the Syrian road, Hujfah; on the Najd road, Qarn; on

the Yaman road, Yalamlam.[232]

{225}

The Hájís from all parts of the Muslim world at length arrive weary and

worn at one of these stages. They then divest themselves of their ordinary

clothing, and after a legal ablution, and after saying a Namáz of two nafl

rak'ats they put on the Ihrám. The Hájí, having now really entered upon the

Hajj, faces Mecca and makes the niyyat (intention), and says: "O God, I

purpose to make the Hajj; make this service easy to me and accept it from

me." He then says the Talbíyah[233]: "Here I am! O Alláh! Here I am! Here I

am! There is no God but Thee! Truly, praise and bounty, and the kingdom are

to Thee! No partner hast Thou! Here am I!"

The persons who reside permanently in any of these Míqát can assume the

pilgrim's garb in a place called Hal, near to Mecca, or in the city itself;

whilst the inhabitants of Mecca can put on the Ihrám in the precincts of

the temple.

The Hájí having assumed the Ihrám must now abstain from worldly affairs,

and devote himself entirely to the duties of the Hajj. He is not allowed to

hunt, though he may catch fish if he can. "O Believers, kill no game while

ye are on pilgrimage." (Súra v. 96). The Prophet also said: "He who shows

the place where game is to be found is equally as bad as the man who kills

it." The Hájí must not scratch himself, lest vermin be destroyed, or a hair

be uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he must rub himself with the

open palm of his hand.[234] The face and head must be left uncovered, the

hair on the head and beard unwashed and uncut. "Shave not your heads until

the {226} offering reach the place of sacrifice." (Súra ii, 192). On

arriving at an elevated place, on descending a valley, on meeting any one,

on entering the city of Mecca or the Musjid-ul-Harám[235] the Hájí should

continually repeat the word "Labbaik, Labbaik."

As soon as he sees the K'aba[236] he must say the Takbír and the Tahlíl.

The Traditionist 'Atá says that at this stage the Prophet used to lift up

his hands and pray.

On entering the enclosure, the Hájí says the Labbaik, Takbír and the

Tahlíl, then a Du'á. A Namáz of two rak'ats is then said at the station of

one of the four great Imáms. On arriving near the Hajr-ul-Aswad (black

stone) the Hájí again says the Takbír and the Tahlíl, after which he kisses

the stone. If, on account of the crowd, he cannot get near enough to do

this, he must touch it with his hand or with a stick, and kiss that with

which he has thus touched the stone. At the same time he says: "O Alláh, (I

do this) in Thy belief, and in verification of Thy book, and in pursuance

of Thy Prophet's example--may Alláh bless and preserve him. O accept Thou

my supplication, diminish my obstacles, pity my humiliation and graciously

grant me Thy pardon." Then he again repeats the Takbír and the {227}

Tahlíl, the Darúd and the Tahríf (prayer for, and praise of Muhammad). He

then encompasses the K'aba seven times, in accordance with the niyyat he

had made, thus: "In the name of Alláh, and Alláh is Omnipotent! I purpose

to make the circuit seven times."[237] This is called the Tawáf. The Hájí

runs round three times at a rapid pace (Tarammul), and four times he

proceeds slowly (Taammul). A permanent resident in Mecca will not perform

the Tawáf. The Hájí then presses his stomach, chest and right cheek against

the portion of the K'aba wall, called Al-Multazim, and raising up his arms

on high says: "O Alláh, Lord of the Ancient House, free my neck from

hell-fire, and preserve me from every evil deed; make me contented with

that daily bread which Thou hast given to me, and bless me in all Thou hast

granted!" He then says the Istigfár--"I beg pardon of Alláh, the Most High,

the Living, the Eternal, and to Him I repent."

The Hájí next proceeds to the Maqám-i-Ibráhím[238] (place of Abraham) and

then recites two rak'ats[239] called Sunnat-ut-Tawáf. Some water from the

sacred well Zemzem is then drunk, after which the Hájí returns to the

Hajr-ul-Aswad, and again kisses it.

Hájí Burton thus describes one shaut or circuit:--

"We began the prayer 'O Alláh (I do this) in Thy belief and in

verification of Thy Book, and in faithfulness to Thy covenant and after

the example of Thy Prophet Muhammad. May Alláh bless and preserve him!'

till we reached the place Al-Multazim, between the corner of the black

stone and the K'aba door. Here we ejaculated, 'O Alláh, Thou hast

rights, so pardon my transgressing them.' Opposite the door we

repeated, 'O Alláh, verily the house is Thy house, and the sanctuary

Thy sanctuary, and the safeguard Thy {228} safeguard, and this is the

place of Him who flees to Thee from (hell) fire.' At the building

called Maqám-i-Ibráhím, we said: 'O Alláh, verily this is the place of

Abraham, who took refuge with, and fled to Thee from the fire! O deny

my flesh and blood, my skin and bones to the (eternal) flames.' As we

paced slowly round the north or Irák corner of the K'aba we exclaimed,

'O Alláh, verily I take refuge with Thee from polytheism, and

disobedience, and hypocrisy, and evil conversation, and evil thoughts

concerning family, and property and progeny.' When we passed from the

Mízáb, or spout, we repeated the words, 'O Alláh, verily I beg of Thee

faith which shall not decline, and a certainty which shall not perish,

and the good aid of Thy Prophet Muhammad--may Alláh bless and preserve

him! O Alláh, shadow me in Thy shadow, on the day when there is no

shadow by Thy shadow; and cause me to drink from the cup of Thy Prophet

Muhammad--may Alláh bless and preserve him--that pleasant draught,

after which is no thirst to all eternity, O Lord of honour and glory.'

Turning to the west corner, or the Rukn el Shámí, we exclaimed: 'O

Alláh, make it an acceptable pilgrimage, and a forgiveness of sins, and

a laudable endeavour, and a pleasant action (in Thy sight), and a store

which perisheth not, O Thou Glorious, O Thou Pardoner!' This was

repeated thrice, till we arrived at the Yemaní, or southern corner,

where the crowd being less importunate, we touched the wall with the

right hand, after the example of the Prophet, and kissed the

finger-tips. Between the south angle and that of the black stone, where

our circuit would be completed, we said: 'O Alláh, verily I take refuge

with Thee from infidelity, and I take refuge with Thee from want, and

from the tortures of the tomb, and from the troubles of life and death.

And I fly to Thee from ignominy in this world and the next, and implore

Thy pardon for the present and the future. O Lord, grant to me in this

life prosperity, and in the next life prosperity, and save me from the

punishment of fire.'"

The next important step is the running between the Mounts Safá and Marwah.

Starting from the former, the Hájí runs seven times between the two

summits. He runs, moving the shoulders, and with head erect, like soldiers

charging in battle. The reason for this is, that the infidel Meccans mocked

the Companions of the Prophet, and said that the climate of Madína had made

them weak. This bold way of running was adopted to disprove the {229}

calumny and so has become a Sunnat practice. The prayer to be said during

the S'ai (running) is: "O my Lord, pardon and pity, and pass over that

(sin) which Thou knowest. Verily Thou knowest what is not known, and verily

Thou art the most Glorious, the most Generous. O, our Lord, grant us in

both worlds prosperity, and save us from fire." The Hájí should also quote

passages from the Qurán. This S'ai must be done after an important Tawáf,

either the first, or a later one. On the seventh day the Imám must preach

in Mecca, and instruct the pilgrims in the ritual of the Hajj. He preaches

again on the ninth and eleventh days.

On the eighth day, (Rúz-i-Tarwiáh), the Hájí goes to Miná, a place three

miles distant from Mecca, where with all the other Hájís he says the usual

Namáz, and there spends the night.[240] This is a sunnat observance. On the

morning of the ninth day, starting after the Salát-ul-Fajr, the Hájí goes

to 'Arifát.[241] On arriving there he says: "O God, I turn to Thee, I put

my trust on Thee, I desire Thee, pardon my sin, accept my Hajj, show mercy

to me, supply my need in 'Arifát, Thou art powerful over all." He then says

Labbaik, the Takbír and the Tahlíl.

The noontide, and the afternoon Namáz are said together there: they are

thus shortened.[242] This done he should stand upon the mountain, if

possible at or near the place the Prophet {230} is said to have occupied.

This is called the Wukúf or (standing), a necessary part of the Hajj. He

must also listen to the sermon delivered by the Imám, explaining what still

remains of the ritual of the Hajj, _i.e._, how the Hájís are to stand in

Muzdalífah, to throw the stones in Miná, to make the sacrifice, &c.

All the time the Hájí should constantly shout out the Talbíyah, and the

Tahlíl, and weep bitterly.

The Hájí then proceeds to Muzdalífah, a place situated about half-way

between Miná and 'Arifát, where he should pass a portion of the night.

After a visit to the Mosque Mashar al Harám, he should collect seven

pebbles and proceed to Miná.

When the morning of the tenth day, the 'Íd-ul-Azhá arrives, he again goes

to Miná, where there are three different pillars, called respectively the

Jamrat-ul-Akabah, commonly known as the Shaitan-ul-Kabír[243] (great

devil), the Wusta, or middle pillar, and the Al Ula, or first one. Holding

the jamár, or pebble, between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand,

the Hájí throws it a distance of not less than fifteen feet and says: "In

the name of Alláh, and Alláh is Almighty, (I do this) in hatred of the

Fiend and to his shame." The remaining six stones are thrown in like

manner. The object is to confound the devils who are supposed to be there.

The stones are small lest the pilgrims should be hurt. Before each stone is

thrown the Takbír must be said. This ceremony is called Ramí-ul-Jamár, the

throwing of stones. It is also known as Hasal Khazaf. It is said that this

ceremony has been performed since the time of Abraham, and that the stones

are miraculously removed. Ibn 'Abbás, a Companion, says that if the

pilgrimage of a Hájí is approved of by God, the stones are secretly

removed. Mujáhid, a well known Traditionist, {231} says that he put a mark

on his stones and afterwards searched, but found them not. The pilgrim then

returns to Miná, and there offers the usual sacrifice of the 'Íd-ul-Azhá.

An account of this will be given in the next chapter. This act strictly

speaking, concludes the Hajj. The Hájí can now shave his head, pare his

nails and remove the Ihrám.

The remaining three days, the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja are called

the Aiyám-ut-Tashríq "days of drying flesh" because now the pilgrims

prepare provisions for the return journey, by cutting slices from the

victims offered in sacrifice and drying them in the sun. The Hájí should

spend this time at Miná, and each day throw seven pebbles at each of the

pillars. This ceremony duly over, he returns to Mecca and makes the

Tawáf-ul-Widá' (circuit of farewell). He should also drink some water from

the well of Zemzem. Tradition says that when Ishmael was thirsty Gabriel

stamped with his foot and a spring gushed forth. This is now the far-famed

well Zemzem. Finally, the Hájí kisses the threshold, and then, with hands

uplifted laying hold of the covering of the K'aba, and weeping bitterly, he

prays most humbly, and expresses regret that he will soon have to depart

from a place so dear as the sacred K'aba. Retiring backwards, he makes his

exit and the Hajj is complete.[244] The Umráh or little pilgrimage can be

made at any time except the eighth, ninth and tenth of Zu'l-Hajja. It is

usually done before pilgrims start homewards. Its ceremonies differ but

slightly from the Hajj. The Ihrám must {232} be put on, and the obligations

of abstinence which it entails must be observed.

The usual course is then to make the Ziárat, or visit to the tomb of the

Prophet at Madína. Henceforth the pilgrim assumes the honorable title of

Hájí and so is, ever after, a person of some consequence among the

community in which he dwells. The Hajj cannot be performed by proxy, though

it is esteemed a 'good work,' if someone who can afford it, sends a pilgrim

who otherwise could not go.

This account of the Irkán-i-dín, or five pillars of religion, must now draw

to a close. They illustrate well the fixed and formal nature of Islám,

whilst the constant reference to the Prophet's sayings and practice, as an

authority for many of the details, shows how largely Islám is based on the

Sunnat. With regard to the differences of opinion which the great Imáms

hold on some of the details, it is most difficult to decide which side

holds the correct view. Such opinions are always based on some Tradition,

the value of which it is impossible to determine. The opponent says it is a

weak (z'aif) Tradition--a statement it would puzzle any one to prove or to

disprove. It is sometimes said in praise of Musalmáns that they are not

priest-ridden; but no people in the world are so Tradition-ridden, if one

may use such an expression. Until this chain of superstition is broken

there can be no progress and no enlightenment; but when it is so broken

Islám will cease to be Islám, for this foundation of the Faith and the

edifice erected on it are so welded together that the undermining of the

one will be the fall of the other.

{233}

NOTE TO CHAPTER V.

_The following Fatvá was publicly given in the Great Mosque,

Triplicane, Madras, February 13th, 1880._

In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

QUESTION.

"O 'Ulamá of the religion, and Muftís of the enlightened Law, what is

your opinion in this matter? A person having translated a juz

(one-thirtieth part) of the noble Qurán into the Hindustani language

has printed it. The translation is defective: moreover the Arabic text

is not given. In order to give the translation the same authority as

the original, he has retained the usual signs and marks of the Arabic

editions; such as--toí, qif, jím, lá, mím, and (.).[245] At the end of

the juz he has added a translation of the Tashshahud, Qanúd, Saná,

Ta'awwuz, Tasmí, Tashibát, rukú' and Sujúd, and has said that all these

must be read in Hindustani. He further states that in the translation

he has retained the rhythm of the original, and that in eloquence and

style it is equal to the Arabic. He has also added rubrical directions

as to the ritual of the Namáz, and has stated that to those who do not

know Arabic, it is a wájib and a farz duty to recite the translation;

otherwise they commit sin and the Namáz is vain. As regards the past,

he considers that the ignorant are forgiven, but he maintains that the

'Ulamá of these days must answer for the neglect they show in not

telling the people to use translations of the Qurán. Further, in

support of his views he adduces a Hadís-i-Sahíh, according to which the

Prophet said to a Companion, Salmán-i-Farsí: "Read a translation of the

Qurán in the Namáz." He claims, as on his side, the four great Imáms.

He himself understands Arabic, yet he says his Namáz in Hindustani and

influences others to do likewise. He has been spoken to, but he takes

no heed and strives to spread his sect all over India.

Now, what is the order of the noble Law with regard to such a person,

and what is the decree in the case of those who follow {234} him, or

who circulate his opinions, or who consider him a religious man and a

guide, or who consider the translation to which reference has been made

to be the Holy Qurán, or who teach it to their children? O learned men,

state the Law in this matter and merit a good reward."

THE ANSWER.

"After praising God, and after imploring His mercy and peace on

Muhammad, be it known that the person referred to is an infidel, an

atheist and a wanderer from the truth. He also causes others to wander.

His assertion that his opinions are in accordance with those of the

four Imáms is utterly false, because according to Imám Sháfa'í, Imám

Málik, and Imám Hanbal it is illegal to use a translation of the Qurán

when saying the Namáz, whether the worshipper is ignorant of Arabic or

not. Thus Imám Navarí, a disciple of Sháfa'í says: "It is unlawful in

any case to use Persian[246] in the Namáz." Faqí 'Alí, a disciple of

Málik says: "Persian is unlawful." To these opinions Káfí, a disciple

of Hanbal adds his testimony: "To recite in the Namáz from a

translation of the Qurán is unlawful." Moreover from the Qurán itself,

the recital of it in Arabic is proved to be a divine command (farz).

The term Qurán, too, means an Arabic Qurán, for God speaks of it as a

revelation in Arabic. The words "recite so much of the Qurán as may be

easy to you" prove the duty of reciting it; whilst the words "an Arabic

Qurán have we sent it down" show that the Qurán to be used is an Arabic

one. Imám Abu Hanífa and his disciples, the Sáhibain (Imám Muhammad and

Imám Abu Yúsuf), consider that, if a person can recite only a short

verse in Arabic, it is not lawful for such an one to use a translation.

If he cannot read the Arabic character, he must learn by heart such a

sentence as "Praise be to God, Lord of the people." Until he learns

this he may use a translation.[247] In the Tanwír-ul-Absár it is

written: "It is a farz duty to read one verse, and to learn it by heart

is farz-i-'ain" (_i.e._, incumbent on all). In the Masíh-ul-Azhar it is

written: "If a person says the Namáz in a language other than Arabic,

he is a madman or an atheist." With regard to the statement made by

Imám Abu Hanífa that a person might use for a {235} time a translation,

it is well known that he afterwards recalled that opinion. The

statement made by the person complained of regarding Sulmán-i-Farsí is

not correct. In the Niháyáh (commentary on the Hidáyah) it is written

that some Persians wrote to Sulmán, and requested him to send them a

Persian translation of Súrat-ul-Fátiha. He complied with their request

and they used it in the Namáz, _until they could pronounce Arabic

properly_. The Prophet on hearing of this circumstance made no remark.

This account, however, is not trustworthy; but granting that it is

true, all that it proves is that, until some Arabic words can be

remembered, a translation may be used. No Imám has ever allowed that to

read a translation is farz or wájib. So if the person referred to says

that it is farz to read his own translation, then it follows that to

read the original Arabic will not be farz, but will be unlawful. Now

such an opinion is infidelity. The person is a Káfir, for he tries to

make out that the 'Ulamá of all preceding ages who have instructed the

people, from the days of the Prophet till now, to read Arabic in the

Namáz are sinners. Further, he rejects the statement made by learned

canonists and listens now to no advice. He reads his translation in the

Namáz and causes others to read it. He boasts that his translation is

equal in style to the original. He has translated the Du'á-i-qunút,

Saná, and the Tasbíhát of the rukú' and Sujúd, and has said that these

translations should be used in the Namáz. Thus, it is plain that he

wants to abolish the use of Arabic in the prayers. The result of such a

course would be that soon a number of different translations would be

circulated, and the text like that of the Taurait, and the Injíl would

be corrupted. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí it is written: "Whosoever

considers that the unlawful is lawful or _vice versâ_ is a Káfir." "If

any one without apparent cause has enmity with one of the 'Ulamá, his

orthodoxy is doubtful." "A man who after committing a fault declines to

repent, though requested to do so, is an infidel." In the

Tahqíq-i-Sharh-i-Husainí it is written; "To translate the Qurán into

Persian and to read that is unlawful." In the

Fatáwá-i-Matlúb-ul-Múminín it is said: "Whosoever intends to write the

Qurán in Persian must be strictly forbidden." In the Itqán it is

written: "According to Ijmá', it is wrong to speak of the Qurán as

having rhymes."[248] In the Fatáwá-i-Tátár Khánía it is said: "To

translate the Arabic into Persian is an act of infidelity."

Our decision then is that the usual salutations should not be made to

this person. If he dies he must not be buried in a Musalmán {236}

cemetery. His marriages are void and his wives are at liberty,

according to the rule laid down in the Miftáh-us-S'ádat. To doubt of

the infidelity of such a person is itself infidelity. As by the proofs

of the law here adduced, the 'Ulamá have declared such a person to be

an infidel, it follows that all those who assist him or who consider

his claim just, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider him to

be a religious person and a fit guide for men, are also infidels. To

send children to be taught by him, to purchase newspapers which

advocate his views, and to continue to read his translation is

unlawful. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí in the chapter entitled Murtád it

is written: "Whosoever has doubts of the present infidelity and of the

future punishment of such an one is an infidel." God says in the Qurán:

"Be helpful to one another according to goodness and piety, but be not

helpful for evil and malice; and fear ye God." (Súra v. 3). In another

place God says: "Whosoever acts not according to God's order is an

infidel." Now, what greater disobedience can there be than this, that a

person should say that the recital of the Arabic Qurán in the Namáz is

not lawful, and that the recital of his own Hindustani translation of

it is incumbent (farz).

"Our duty is to give information to Musalmáns, and God is the best

Knower."

This was written by a learned Moulvie, and signed by twenty-four other

leading Moulvies of the city of Madras.

This Fatvá, an authentic copy of which is in my possession, is of very

considerable importance as showing how unyielding the law of Islám is

to the varied circumstances of the countries in which it exists. The

law enjoining the Arabic language as a medium of worship was suited for

the Arab people, and the principle involved would seem to be that the

vernacular language of a country should be used by the Muslims of that

country for the purposes of devotion; but, as I have repeatedly shown,

precepts, not principles are the ruling power in Islám. It further

demonstrates that all such matters must be regulated, not by the needs

of the age or country, but by an antiquated law which, to say the

least, is an anachronism in the world's history. The authority paid to

the statements made by the four chief Imáms, and the fact that the

Fatvá is based on their decisions, and on previous Fatvás in which

their authority has been adduced, show how even to the present day they

are regarded as the Mujtahidín of Islám. The Fatvá is thus manifestly

orthodox, and corroborates most fully all I have said in the first

chapter on the "Foundations of Islám."

{237}

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