to the angels. The Hanífites hold that the prophets amongst men are
superior to the prophets amongst angels, who in their turn are superior to
the ordinary run of men, to whom again the angels, other than prophets, are
inferior. The Mutazilites say that the angels are superior to the prophets.
The Shía'hs assert that the twelve Imáms are superior to prophets.
The way in which Muhammad received inspiration has been shown in a previous
chapter; but Ibn Khaldoun gives such an interesting account of prophetic
inspiration that I give the substance of his remarks here. He speaks
somewhat as follows.[142] If we contemplate the world and the creatures it
contains we shall recognize a perfect order, a regular {152} system, a
sequence of cause and effect, a connexion between different categories of
existence, and a transformation of beings from one category of existence to
another. Then the phenomena of the visible world indicate to us the
existence of an agent whose nature is different from that of the body, who
is in fact a spiritual existence. This agent, which is the soul, must on
the one hand be in contact with the existences of this world and, on the
other, with the existences in the next category of superiority, and one
whose essential qualities are pure perception and clear intelligence. Such
are the angels. It follows, then, that the human soul has a tendency
towards the angelic world. All this is quite in accordance with the idea
that, according to a regular order, all the categories of existences in the
universe are in mutual contact by means of their faculties and on account
of their nature.
The souls of men may be divided into three classes. The first kind of soul
is too feeble by nature to attain to a perception of the spiritual: it has
to content itself with moving in the region of sense and imagination. Thus
it can understand concepts and affirmations. It can raise itself high in
its own category but cannot pass its limit.
The souls of the second class are carried by a reflective movement and a
natural disposition towards a spiritual intelligence. They can enter into a
state of contemplation which results in ecstasy. This is the intuition of
the Saints (Auliya)[143] to whom God has given this divine knowledge.
The souls of the third class are created with the power of disengaging
themselves altogether from their human bodies in order that they may rise
to the angelic state where they become like angels. In a moment of time
such {153} a soul perceives the sublime company (of angels) in the sphere
which contains them. It, there and then, hears the speech of the soul and
the divine voice. Such are the souls of the prophets. God has given to
these souls the power of leaving the human body. Whilst thus separate from
it God gives to them His revelation. The prophets are endowed by God with
such a purity of disposition, such an instinct of uprightness, that they
are naturally inclined to the spiritual world. They are animated by an
ardour quite peculiar to their order. When they return from the angelic
state they deliver to men the revelations they have received. Sometimes the
revelation comes to the prophet as the humming of confused discourse. He
grasps the ideas and, as soon as the humming ceases, he comprehends the
message; sometimes an angel in human form communicates the revelation, and
what he says the prophet learns by heart. The journey to, the return from
the angelic state, and the comprehension of the revelation received there
occupy less time than the twinkling of an eye. So rapidly do the souls of
prophets move. So instantaneously do they receive and understand God's
revelations. This is why inspiration is called Wahí, a word which,
according to Ibn Khaldoun, means to make haste.
The first way of delivering a message is adopted when he who receives it is
only a Nabí (prophet), and not a Rasúl (apostle or messenger.) The second
mode is employed towards a Rasúl who, on the principle that the greater
contains the less, is also a Nabí. A Hadís records that Muhammad said:
"Revelation came to me sometimes like the ticking of a clock and fatigued
me much. When it stopped I learnt the meaning of what had been delivered to
me. Sometimes an angel in human form spoke to me and, whilst he was
speaking, I learnt what was said." That a prophet should feel oppressed on
such occasions is hinted at in "With measured tone intone the Qurán, for we
shall devolve on thee mighty words." (Súra lxxiii. 5.)
{154}
A Nabí, (who must be a wise and a free man, that is, one who is not a slave
of another, and one also who is free from imperfection either of body or
mind), receives Wahí but has not necessarily to deliver to men the orders
of God. A Rasúl who must possess the same qualifications as a Nabí, is one
who is commanded to deliver God's message to men, though he does not
necessarily abrogate what preceding Rasúls have delivered. Neither is it
necessary that he should bring a book or even a new law. Some Rasúls do so,
but the distinguishing mark of the Rasúl is that he delivers to men
commands direct from God, and is specially commissioned so to do. Thus
every Rasúl is a Nabí, whilst every Nabí is not a Rasúl.
The question of the sinlessness of the prophets is one to which
considerable attention has been paid by Muslim theologians. The orthodox
belief is that they are free from sin. Some think that their freedom from
sin is because the grace of God being ever in them in the richest fulness
they are kept in the right path. The Ash'aríans believe that the power of
sinning is not created in them.[144] The Mutazilites deny this, but admit
the existence of some quality which keeps them from evil. These theories do
not agree with actual facts. Prophets like other men commit faults, but
here comes in the Muslim distinction of sins into gunáh-i-kabíra "great
sins," and gunáh-i-saghíra "little sins." The gunáh-i-kabíra are, murder,
adultery, disobedience to God and to parents, robbing of orphans, to accuse
of adultery, to avoid fighting against infidels, drunkenness, to give or to
take usury, to neglect the Friday prayers and the Ramazán fast, tyranny,
backbiting, untrustworthiness, forgetting the Qurán after reading it, to
avoid giving true or to give false witness, lying without sufficient
reason,[145] to swear falsely or to swear by any other than God, flattery
of tyrants, false judgments, giving short weight or measure, {155} magic,
gambling, approval of the ceremonies of infidels, boasting of one's piety,
calling on the names of deceased persons and beating the breast at such
times,[146] dancing, music, neglect when opportunity offers of warning
other persons with regard to the "commands and prohibitions" of God,
disrespect to a Háfiz, to shave the beard, to omit saying the "darúd"
(_i.e._ on whom and on whose family be the peace and mercy of God) whenever
the name of Muhammad is mentioned.[147] These are all "great sins" and can
only be forgiven after due repentance: the "little sins" are forgiven if
some good actions are done. "Observe prayer at early morning, at the close
of day, and at the approach of night; for the _good deeds drive away the
evil deeds_." (Súra xi. 116).
Men may commit sin wittingly or unwittingly. It is the universal belief
that a prophet never commits the greater sins in either way; but there is a
difference of opinion with regard to the lesser sins. Some hold that they
can do them unwittingly, though even then it is not in any thing connected
with their office. Others again limit even this frailty to the period
before "wahí" (inspiration) comes upon them. The general opinion, however,
is that they are free from all sin, whether great or small. The frailties
which they show are merely reckoned as faults and slight imperfections not
amounting to sin.
This, to the Muslim mind at once disposes of a difficulty the Qurán itself
raises on this point. With the exception of Jesus Christ, the
Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are spoken of as doing what every one except an orthodox
Muslim would call sin. Adam's transgression[148] is referred to in Súra ii.
29-37 and {156} in Súra vii. 10-24. I quote only one verse: "They said, 'O
our Lord! with ourselves have we dealt unjustly; if Thou forgive us not and
have not pity on us, we shall surely be of those that perish.'" The sin of
Noah is not specified in the Qurán, yet it is plainly hinted at. "To Thee
verily, O my Lord, do I repair lest I ask that of Thee wherein I have no
knowledge: unless Thou forgive me and be merciful to me I shall be one of
the lost." (Súra xi. 49). There is also a similar request in Súra lxxi. 29.
Abraham is represented as saying to his people: "They whom ye worship, ye
and your fathers of early days, are my foes; but not so the Lord of the
worlds, who hath created me, and guideth me, who giveth me food and drink;
and when I am sick, he healeth me, and who will cause me to die and again
quicken me, and who, I hope, will forgive me my sins in the day of
reckoning." (Súra xxvi. 75-82). Moses is described as having done "a work
of Satan" in killing a man, and as saying: "'O my Lord, I have sinned to my
own hurt; forgive me.' So God forgave him; for He is the forgiving, the
merciful. He said: 'Lord, because thou hast showed me this grace, I will
never again be the helper of the wicked.'" (Súra xxviii. 15, 16).
The following passages refer to Muhammad. "Be thou steadfast and patient;
for true is the promise of God; and seek pardon for thy fault."[149] (Súra
xl. 57). "Ask pardon for thy sin, and for believers, both men and women."
(Súra xlvii. 21). The scandal caused by the Prophet's conduct with the wife
of Zeid, and with the Egyptian slave Mary, necessitated a pretended
revelation of God's will in reference to these events. The circumstances
will be found fully detailed in Súra xxxiii. 36-38 and in Súra lxvi. 1-5.
One of the most important verses is: "Verily, we have won for thee an
undoubted victory, in token that God forgiveth thy earlier and later
fault." (Súra xlviii. 1-2). {157} It is not quite clear what victory is
here referred to. According to the Tafsír-i-Husainí, some commentators say
that it is the taking of Mecca, the past tense being prophetically used for
the future. The following explanations are given of the expression "earlier
and later fault." (1) God has forgiven thy sin committed before and after
the descent of wahí, (2) before and after the taking of Mecca, or (3)
before the descent of this Súra. (4) The commentator Salmí says: "The
earlier sin refers to the sin of Adam committed when Muhammad was in the
loins of his great ancestor and thus connected with him; the later sin
refers to the followers of the Prophet, and in that way is connected with
him, just as the sin of Adam was the predecessor and the cause of their
sin." (5) Imám Abu'l-Lais says: "The words refer to the sin of Adam, and to
those of the followers of the Prophet. Both are connected with Muhammad,
because the former is forgiven by the blessing, and the latter by the
intercession of Muhammad."[150]
From these extracts from the Qurán it appears that sin is imputed to
prophets, though Muslims evade the charge by the casuistry I have already
referred to. Be that as it may, it is a striking fact that the one sinless
member of the Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, the one sinless prophet of Islám, is none
other than Jesus Christ. There is no passage in the Qurán which hints at
sin, even in the modified form in which Muslims attribute it to other
prophets, being committed by him: no passage which speaks of His seeking
for pardon.
It is the universal belief that prophets work miracles, (mu'jizát). A
miracle is defined to be "Kharq-i-'ádat," that is, something contrary to
the usual course of nature.
The object for which a miracle is performed must be a moral one, and
chiefly to attest the truth of the statements made by the prophet. Although
Muhammad makes, in the {158} Qurán, no distinct claim to the power of
working miracles,[151] his followers maintain that in this, as in all other
respects he was equal to all and superior to some prophets, and produce
various passages of the Qurán in support of their view. Thus, according to
Shaikh Jelál-ud-dín Syutí, if to Adam was given the power of naming every
thing, Muhammad also possessed the same power. Enoch was exalted on high,
but Muhammad was taken to the 'Baqáb-i-qausain,' the 'two bows' length,'
where Gabriel, "one mighty in power," appeared to him. (Súra liii. 5-9).
Ishmael was ready to be sacrificed, but Muhammad endured the splitting of
his chest;[152] Joseph was to some extent handsome, but Muhammad was the
very perfection of beauty; Moses brought water from the rock, but Muhammad
produced it from his fingers. The sun was stayed on its course by Joshua
and so it was by Muhammad. Solomon had a great kingdom, Muhammad a greater,
for he possessed the keys of the treasuries of the earth. Wisdom was given
to John the Baptist whilst yet a child, so also were wisdom and
understanding granted to Muhammad at an early period of his life. Jesus
could raise the dead, so also could Muhammad. In addition to all these, the
special miracles of the Prophet are the splitting of the moon asunder, the
Mi'ráj, the coming of a tree into his presence, and above all the wonderful
miracle of the Qurán.[153]
The splitting of the moon in sunder is referred to in, {159} "The hour of
judgment approacheth; and the moon hath been split in sunder." (Súra liv.
1). Imám Záhid says that Abu Jahl and a Jew visited the Prophet, and
demanded a sign from him on pain of death. The Prophet made a sign with his
little finger, and at once the moon separated into two parts: one of which
remained in the sky, the other went off to a long distance. The Jew
believed in Islám forthwith. Abu Jahl ascribed the affair to magic, but on
making enquiry from various travellers ascertained that they, on this very
night, distinctly saw the moon in two parts.[154] Some, however, refer the
passage to the future, as they consider the splitting of the moon to be one
of the signs of the last day.
The Mi'ráj, or night ascent, is mentioned in, "Glory be to Him who carried
His servant by night from the sacred temple (of Mecca) to the temple that
is more remote, whose precinct We have blessed, that We might show him of
our signs." (Súra xvii. 1). Muslim writers, who are fond of the marvellous,
narrate at length the wonderful things the Prophet saw and did on this
eventful night;[155] but some maintain that it was only a vision, and quote
the words: "We ordained the vision which we showed thee," in proof of this
assertion.[156] Be that as it may, all orthodox Muslims maintain the
superiority of Muhammad, as a worker of miracles, over all other prophets.
5. THE RESURRECTION AND THE LAST DAY.--These two articles of the faith may
be considered together. The {160} following is a summary of the remarks of
Muhammad Al Berkevi on this point. It is necessary to acknowledge:--
1. That the torments of the tomb are real and certain and that Munkir
and Nakír (Ante p. 145) will come and interrogate the dead person
concerning his God, his Prophet, his faith and his Qibla. The faithful
will reply: "our God is God; our Prophet is Muhammad; our religion,
Islám; our Qibla, the Ki-'ádataba.
2. That all the signs of the last day mentioned by the Prophet will
come to pass; such as, the appearance of Dajjál, or Antichrist; the
descent of Jesus from heaven; the appearance of Imám Mahdí and of Gog
and Magog; the rising of the sun from the west, &c.
3. That all living things will die; that the mountains will fly in the
air like birds; that the heavens will melt away; that after some time
has thus passed God most High will set the earth in order and raise the
dead; that prophets, saints, doctors of the law, and the faithful will
find near them the robes and the horses of Paradise. They will put on
the robes, and mount the horses and go into the shade of the throne of
God. Other men, hungry, thirsty, and naked will go on foot. The
Faithful will go to the right, the Infidels to the left.
4. That there will be a balance, in which the good and bad actions of
men will be weighed. Those whose good deeds outweigh the bad will go to
Paradise; if the bad predominate, they will go into the fire, unless
God has mercy on them, or the prophets or saints intercede for them.
If, however, they were not Muslims there will be no intercession for
them, nor will they come out from the fire. The Muslims who enter the
fire will, after having purged their crimes, enter Paradise.
5. That the bridge Sirát, which is sharper than a sword, is raised
above the fire; that all men must pass over this. Some will pass over
with the speed of lightning, some like a horse that runs, some, their
backs laden with their sins, will go very slowly over; others will fall
and certainly enter into the fire.
6. That each prophet has a pool where he, with his people, will quench
their thirst before entering Paradise; that the pool of Muhammad is the
largest of all, for it is a month's march from one side thereof to the
other. Its water is sweeter than honey, whiter than milk.
7. That Paradise and Hell actually exist; that the chosen remain for
ever in the former; they neither die, nor grow aged. They experience no
kind of change. The Houris and the females are exempted {161} from the
infirmities of their sex. They will no longer bear children. The elect
will find there the meat and the drink they require, without taking
upon themselves any trouble. The ground of Paradise is of musk; the
bricks of its edifices are of gold and of silver.
The unbelievers and the demons will remain for ever in hell, tormented
by serpents as thick as the neck of a camel, by scorpions as large as
mules, by fire and by scalding water. Their bodies will burn, till they
become reduced to a coal, when God will revive them so that they may
endure fresh torments. This will last for ever."
The following additional remarks are based on the Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí.
They fall under four heads.
(1). The sounding of the trumpets. (Nafkhatain-i-Súr). This will not take
place until wickedness spreads over all the earth. The Prophet said: "The
resurrection will not come to pass, till some of the sects among my
followers mix up with the Mushriks (those who associate others with God)
and till others commence to worship monuments." Again, "The last hour will
not be till no one is found who calls on God." Then "There shall be a blast
on the trumpet, and all who are in the heavens and all who are in the earth
shall expire, save those whom God shall vouchsafe to live. There shall be
another blast on it, and lo! arising they shall gaze around them." (Súra
xxxix. 68). Abu Huraira, a Companion, relates that the Prophet speaking of
the trumpet stated as follows: "After the creation of the heavens and the
earth God created the trumpet and gave it to Isráfíl who, with his mouth
placed to it, is ever looking up and waiting for the order to blow it. He
will blow three times.[157] The first time, the blast of consternation, to
terrify; the second, the blast of examination, to slay; the third, the
blast of resurrection, to quicken the dead." Most persons believe that
everything, save God and His attributes, will perish. The Karamians and
some other sects deny this.
{162}
The resurrection of the body is clearly proved by the Qurán. Thus, "They
say, 'Who will bring us back?' Say: 'He who created you at first.'" (Súra
xvii. 53). "'Who shall give life to bones when they are rotten?' Say: 'He
shall give life to them who gave them being at first, for in all creation
is He skilled.'" (Súra xxxvi. 79). "Man saith: 'What! after I am dead,
shall I in the end be brought forth alive?' Doth not man bear in mind that
we made him at first, when he was nought?" (Súra xix. 68). "The infidels
will say, 'shall we indeed be restored as at first? What! When we have
become rotten bones?' 'This then,' say they, 'will be a return to loss.'
Verily, it will be but a single blast, and lo! they are on the surface of
the earth." (Súra lxxix. 10-14). "Is He not powerful enough to quicken the
dead?" (Súra lxxv. 40). This resurrection will be to judgment. "'Never,'
say the unbelievers, 'will the hour come upon us.' Say: 'Yea, by my Lord
who knoweth the unseen, it will surely come upon you, ... to the intent
that God may reward those who have believed, ... but as for those who aim
to invalidate our signs, a chastisement of painful torment awaiteth them.'"
(Súra xxxiv. 3, 4). "A terrible chastisement doth await them _on the Day_
when faces shall turn white, and faces shall turn black. 'What! after your
belief have ye become infidels? Taste, then, the chastisement for that ye
have been unbelievers.' And as to those whose faces shall have become
white, they shall be within the mercy of God." (Súra iii, 102). The Prophet
knew not the time when all this would take place. "They will ask thee of
the 'Hour,' when will be its fixed time? But what knowledge hast thou of
it? Its period is known only to thy Lord; and thou art charged with the
warning of those who fear it." (Súra lxxix. 41-45.) These and similar texts
show the certainty of the resurrection. According to the Ijmá' of the
Faithful, he who has any doubts on this article of the faith is an infidel.
The {163} Mutazilites show from reason that a resurrection of the body is
necessary in order that rewards and punishment may be bestowed. The
orthodox agree with the conclusion, but hesitate to base it on reason.[158]
The Karamians hold that the different parts of the body will not cease to
be, but that at the last God will gather them together. "Thinketh man that
we shall not re-unite his bones? Aye! his very finger tips we are able
evenly to replace." (Súra lxxv. 3, 4.) The orthodox, however, hold that
this verse does not disprove the fact of previous annihilation, a belief
supported by the Prophet's saying, "All the sons of men will be
annihilated." It will be a re-creation though the body will return to its
former state.
The learned are not agreed as to the state of the soul during this period
of the death of the body, and therefore disagree with regard to its
revival. Some assert that it is wrong to speak of a resurrection of the
soul, for it exists in the body as "fire in coal," hence its revival is
included in the resurrection of the body; others maintain that as it is a
distinct entity, it is not annihilated with the body. The scholastics
favour the first idea. Practically the result seems the same in both cases.
The resurrection body has a soul. Wise and foolish, devils and beasts,
insects and birds--all will rise at the last day. Muhammad will come first
in order and be the first to enter Paradise.
(2). The descent of the Books (Tatáír-i-sahá,íf). After the resurrection,
men will wander about for forty years, during which time the "Books of
Actions" will be given to them. These books contain the record kept by the
Kirám-ul-Kátibín, (Ante p. 141). Traditions recorded by Abu Huraira state:
"Men will rise up naked, and confused; some will walk about, some stand for
forty years. All will be constantly looking up toward the heavens (_i.e._
expecting the books.) They will perspire profusely through {164} excess of
sorrow.[159] Then God will say to Abraham, 'put on clothes.' He will put on
a robe of Paradise. Then He will call Muhammad for whose benefit a fountain
will flow forth not far from Mecca. The people, too, shall thirst no more."
The Prophet said: "I will also put on a dress and will stand near the
throne, where no one else will be allowed to stand and God will say: 'Ask
and it shall be granted to thee; intercede, thy intercession shall be
accepted.'" Each book flies from the treasury under the Throne of God and
is given to its proper owner. "Every man's fate have We fastened about his
neck; and on the day of resurrection will We bring forth to him (every man)
a book which shall be proffered to him wide open: 'Read thy book, there
needeth none but thyself to make out an account against thee this day.'"
(Súra xvii. 15). "He into whose _right_ hand his book shall be given, shall
be reckoned, with an easy reckoning, and shall turn, rejoicing, to his
kindred. But he whose book shall be given behind his back (_i.e._ into his
_left_ hand) shall invoke destruction." (Súra lxxxiv. 8-11.) "He, who shall
have his book given into his _left_ hand will say: 'O that my book had
never been given me! and that I had not known my reckoning.'" (Súra lxix.
25). It is always said that wicked Musalmáns will be seized by the _right_
hand before they are cast into the fire, which is a proof that they are not
always to remain there. Some hold that the expression "Read thy book"
implies a literal reading; others that it is a metaphorical expression
which simply means that all the past actions will be known. Those who
believe in a literal reading say that each believer will read the account
of his faults only, and that other persons will read that of his good
deeds. The face of the believer as he reads will shine resplendently, but
black will be the face of the infidel.
{165}
(3). The Balances (Mízán). This belief is based on the authority of the
Qurán, Sunnat and the Ijmá'; no Muslim, therefore, can have any doubt about
it. Thus: "They whose balances shall be heavy, shall be the blest; but they
whose balances shall be light,--these are they who shall lose their souls,
abiding in hell for ever." (Súra xxiii. 104). "As to him whose balances are
heavy, his shall be a life that shall please him well: and as to him whose
balances are light, his dwelling-place shall be the pit. And who shall
teach thee what the pit (Al-Háwía) is? A raging fire!" (Súra ci. 5-8). The
Traditions on this point are very numerous. The Ijmá' is also strong on the
reality, the objective existence, of a balance with scales, &c., complete.
They also state that the "Books of Actions" (Sahá,íf-i-A'mál) will be
weighed. In the Sahíh-i-Bukhárí it is said that the Believers will not be
weighed in the balances, for "God will say, 'O Muhammad make those of thy
people, from whom no account is taken, enter into Paradise.'" Prophets and
angels will also be exempt. Such a test also is not required for the
unbelievers, for their state is very evident; "By their tokens shall the
sinners be known, and they shall be seized by their forelocks and their
feet." (Súra lv. 41). Thus it is evident that, with regard to true
believers and unbelievers, the works of such only as God may choose need be
weighed. Some, however, maintain that no unbeliever will have this test
applied to his case and quote: "Vain therefore, are their works; and no
weight will we allow them on the day of resurrection." (Súra xviii. 105).
To this it is answered, that all that is here denied is the fact of "a
weighing in _their favour_." The place where the weighing will take place
is situated midway between heaven and hell. Gabriel standing by watches the
movement of the scales and Michael guards the balance. The orthodox are not
agreed as to whether there will be a separate balance for each tribe of
men, and also for each of the 'good works' {166} of the believers. Those
who hold that there will be a balance for prayer, another for fasting and
so on, adduce the use of the plural form, balances (muwázín) in proof of
their statement. There is also a difference of opinion as to whether the
"works" themselves, or the books (sahá,íf) will be weighed. The latter
opinion is supported by a Tradition recorded by Tirmízí. "The Prophet said:
'Ninety-nine registers will be distributed. Each register will extend as
far as the eye can reach. God will say: 'What! dost thou deny this, or have
the recording angels treated thee unjustly?' Each will say: 'No! O Lord.'
'Hast thou then any excuse?' 'No! O Lord.' Then God will display a cloth on
which the Kalima is written. This will be put into one scale, and God will
say: 'To thee will be no evil if thou hast a register in this scale, and
this cloth in the other, for the first scale will be light.'" This is
considered conclusive testimony with regard to the weighing of the Sahá,íf.
The Mutazilites objected to statements such as these, for said they:
"actions are accidents, and the qualities of lightness and heaviness cannot
be attributed to accidents." They explained the verses of the Qurán and the
statements of the Traditions on this point, as being a figurative way of
saying that perfect justice will be done to all in the Day of Judgment.
(4). The Bridge (Sirát). The meaning of the word Sirát is a road, a way. It
is so used in the Qurán. In connection with the Day of Judgment it is said:
"If we pleased we would surely put out their eyes: yet even then would they
speed on with rivalry in their path (Sirát)." (Súra xxxvi. 66). "Gather
together those who have acted unjustly, and their consorts (demons), and
the gods whom they have adored beside God; and guide them to the road
(Sirát) for hell." (Súra xxxvii. 23). It is nowhere in the Qurán called a
bridge, but Tradition is very clear on this point. The Prophet said: "There
will be a bridge sharper than the edge of a sword, finer than a hair,
suspended over {167} hell. Iron spikes on it will pierce those whom God
wills. Some will pass over it in the twinkling of an eye, some like a flash
of lightning, others with the speed of a swift horse. The angels will call
out, 'O Lord! save and protect.' Some Muslims will be saved, some will fall
headlong into hell." Bukhárí relates a similar Tradition. The infidels will
all fall into hell and there remain for ever. Muslims will be released
after a while.
The Mutazilites deny the existence of such a bridge. "If we admit it," say
they, "it would be a trouble for the believers, and such there is not for
them in the Day of Judgment." To this the orthodox reply that the believers
pass over it to show how they are saved from fire, and that thus they may
be delighted with Paradise, and also that the infidels may feel chagrin at
those who were with them on the bridge being now safe for ever.
Al A'ráf is situated between heaven and hell. It is described thus: "On
(the wall) Al A'ráf shall be men who know all, by their tokens,[160] and
they shall cry to the inhabitants of Paradise, 'Peace be on you!' but they
shall not yet enter it, although they long to do so. And when their eyes
are turned towards the inmates of the fire, they shall say, 'O our Lord!
place us not with offending people &c.'" (Súra vii. 44, 45). Sale's summary
of the opinions regarding Al A'ráf in his Preliminary Discourse is
exceedingly good. It is as follows:--
"They call it Al Orf, and more frequently in the plural, Al Aráf, a
word derived from the verb _Arafa_, which signifies to distinguish
between things, or to part them; though some commentators give another
reason for the imposition of this name, because, say they, those who
stand on this partition will _know_ and _distinguish_ the blessed from
the damned, by their respective marks or characteristics: and others
way the word properly intends anything that is _high raised_ or
_elevated_, as such a wall of separation must be supposed to {168} be.
Some imagine it to be a sort of _limbo_ for the patriarchs and
prophets, or for the martyrs and those who have been most eminent for
sanctity. Others place here such whose good and evil works are so equal
that they exactly counterpoise each other, and therefore deserve
neither reward nor punishment; and these, say they, will on the last
day be admitted into Paradise, after they shall have performed an act
of adoration, which will be imputed to them as a merit, and will make
the scale of their good works to overbalance. Others suppose this
intermediate space will be a receptacle for those who have gone to war,
without their parents' leave, and therein suffered martyrdom; being
excluded from Paradise for their disobedience, and escaping hell
because they are martyrs."
There is also an interval, between the death of the body in this world and
the Last Day, called Al-Barzakh. "Behind them shall be a barrier (barzakh),
until the day when they shall be raised again." (Súra xxiii. 102). When
death takes place, the soul is separated from the body by the Angel of
death; in the case of the good with ease, in that of the wicked with
violence. It then enters into Al-Barzakh.[161]
It is a doctrine founded on Ijmá', that God will not pardon Shirk, that is,
the ascribing plurality to the Divine Being. The Mushrik, one who does so,
will remain in hell for ever, for as Kufr, infidelity, is an eternal crime,
its punishment must also be eternal. "The unbelievers among the people of
the Book, and among the Polytheists shall go into the fire of Gehenna to
abide therein for aye. Of all creatures are they the worst?" (Súra xcviii.
5). "Cast into Hell every infidel, every hardened one, the hinderer of the
good, the transgressor, the doubter who set up other Gods with God. Cast ye
him into the fierce torment." (Súra 1. 23-25.)
Muslims who commit great (Kabíra) sins, though they die unrepentant, will
not remain in hell for ever, for, "whosoever shall have wrought an atom's
weight of good shall {169} behold it." (Súra xcix. 7). It is asserted that
the fact of believing in Islám is a good work and merits a reward: this
cannot be given before the man enters hell to be punished for his sins, and
therefore he must be, after a while, released from punishment. "Perfect
faith (Imán-i-Kámil) consists in believing with sincerity of heart and
acting in accordance thereto, but the actions are not the faith itself.
Great sins, therefore, prevent a man from having "perfect faith," but do
not destroy faith (Imán), nor make the Muslim an infidel, but only a
sinner."[162] The Mutazilites teach that the Muslim who enters hell will
remain there for ever. They maintain that the person who, having committed
great sins, dies unrepentant, though not an infidel, ceases to be a
believer and hence suffers as the infidels do.
The orthodox belief is that Muhammad is now an Intercessor and will be so
at the Last Day. The intercession then is of several kinds. There is the
'great intercession' to which the words, "it may be that thy Lord will
raise thee to a _glorious station_," (Súra xvii. 81) are supposed to refer.
The Maqám-i-mahmúd, (glorious station), is said to be the place of
intercession in which all persons will praise the Prophet.[163] In the
Zád-ul-Masír it is said that the Maqám-i-mahmúd refers to the fact that God
will place the Prophet on His Throne. Others say that it is a place in
which a standard will be given to the Prophet, around whom all the other
prophets will then gather to do him honour. The first interpretation is,
however, the ordinary one. The people will be in great fear. Muhammad will
say: "O my people! I am appointed for intercession." Their fear will then
pass away. The second intercession is made so that they may enter into
Paradise without rendering an account. The authorities differ with regard
to this. The third intercession is on behalf of those Muslims who {170}
ought to go to hell. The fourth for those who are already there. No one but
the Prophet can make these intercessions. The fifth intercession is for an
increase of rank to those who are in Paradise. The Mutazilites maintained
that there would be no intercession for Muslims guilty of great sins, and
adduced in favour of their opinion the verse: "Fear ye the day when soul
shall not satisfy for soul at all, nor shall any intercession be accepted
from them, nor shall any ransom be taken, neither shall they be helped."
(Súra ii. 45). The orthodox bring in reply this Hadís-i-Sahíh: "The Prophet
said: 'my intercession is for the men of my following who have committed
great sins.'" If this Tradition is disputed, they then say that the verse
in the Qurán just quoted does not refer to Muslims at all, but to the
Infidels.[164]
According to a Tradition related by Anas the Prophet said: "In the day of
resurrection Musalmáns will not be able to move, and they will be greatly
distressed and say: 'would to God that we had asked Him to create some one
to intercede for us, that we might be taken from this place, and be
delivered from tribulation and sorrow.'" The Tradition goes on to state how
they sought help from Adam and the prophets of the old dispensation, who,
one and all, excused themselves on account of their own sinfulness. At
length Moses told them to go to Jesus, the Apostle of God, the Spirit of
God and the Word of God. They did so and Jesus said: "Go to Muhammad who is
a servant, whose sins God has forgiven both first and last." The Prophet
continued, according to the Tradition, "then the Musalmáns will come to me,
and I will ask permission to go into God's presence and intercede for
them."[165]
The second advent of Christ is a sign of the last day. "Jesus is no more
than a servant whom We favoured ... {171} and he shall be a sign of the
last hour." (Súra xliii. 61). He will not, according to the Qurán, come as
a judge, but like other prophets to be judged. "We formed with them (_i.e._
prophets) a strict covenant, that God may question the men of truth as to
their truth, (_i.e._ how they have discharged their prophetic functions)."
(Súra xxxiii. 7, 8). He will come to bear witness against the Jews who
reject him: "In the day of resurrection, He will be a witness against
them." (Súra iv. 158).
It is necessary to believe in the pond of the Prophet called Kausar. This
faith is founded on the verse "Truly we have given thee an _abundance_."
(Súra cviii. 1). Bukhárí says: "The meaning of Kausar is the 'abundance of
good' which God gives to the Prophet. Abu Básh said to one Sa'íd, 'the
people think that Kausar is a river of Paradise.' Sa'íd replied, 'Kausar is
a river in which there is abundance of good.'" According to the same
authority Muhammad said: "My pond is square, its water is whiter than milk,
its perfume better than that of musk, whosoever drinks thereof will thirst
no more."
There are many degrees of felicity in heaven to which the believers are
admitted. The Prophet, according to Tirmízí, said there were one hundred.
Some of these may possibly be meant by the eight names they give to
Paradise. (1.) Jannat-ul-Khuld. "Say: Is this, or the _Garden of Eternity_
which was promised to the God-fearing, best?" (Súra xxv. 16.) (2.)
Jannat-us-Salám. "For them is a _Dwelling of Peace_ with their Lord." (Súra
vi. 127.) (3.) Dár-ul-Qarár. "The life to come is the _Mansion which
abideth_." (Súra xl. 42.) (4.) Jannat-ul-'Adan. "To the Faithful, both men
and women, God promiseth gardens and goodly mansions in the _Garden of
Eden_." (Súra ix. 73.) (5.) Jannat-ul-Mawá. "Near which is the _Garden of
Repose_." (Súra liii. 15.) (6) Jannat-un-Na'ím. "Amid _delights_ shall the
righteous dwell." (Súra lxxxii. 13.) (7) Jannat-ul-Illiyún. "The register
of the righteous is {172} in _Illiyún_." (Súra lxxxiii. 18,) (8.)
Jannat-ul-Firdaus. "Those who believe and do the things that are right,
they shall have the _Gardens of Paradise_ for their abode." (Súra xviii.
107.)
Hell is said to have seven divisions. The Qurán, though it mentions the
names of these divisions, does not state what classes of persons will be
sent to each; but Muslim Commentators have supplied the needed information.
They classify them thus:--(1.) Jahannam, for sinners who die without
repentance. (2.) Lazwá, for the infidels (_i.e._, Christians.) (3.) Hutama,
a fire for Jews, and according to some for Christians. (4.) Sa'ir, for
devils, the descendants of Iblís. (5.) Saqar, for the magians: also for
those who neglect prayer. (6.) Jahím, a boiling caldron for idolaters: also
for Gog and Magog. (7.) Háwía, a bottomless pit for hypocrites. It is said
that heaven has one division more than hell to show that God's mercy
exceeds His justice.
The Muhammadan writers give very full and minute accounts of the events
connected with the resurrection, judgment and future state of those who are
lost, and of those who are saved. Sale gives such an excellent summary of
these opinions, that it is not necessary to enter into details here. The
orthodox belief is that the statements in the Qurán and the Traditions
regarding the pleasures of Paradise are to be taken literally.[166]
6. THE PREDESTINATION OF GOOD AND EVIL.--I have already in the section in
which the attribute "will" is described (p. 118) given some account of the
dogmatic statements concerning the doctrine of predestination; but as it
always forms a distinct chapter in Musalmán books, I treat it separately
here. Having, however, in the passage referred {173} to, given Al Berkevi's
words on the attribute "will," it is only necessary to make a short extract
from his dogmatic statement concerning Predestination. He says:--
"It is necessary to confess that good and evil take place by the
predestination and predetermination of God, that all that has been and
all that will be was decreed in eternity, and written on the _preserved
table_;[167] that the faith of the believer, the piety of the pious and
good actions are foreseen, willed, predestinated, decreed by the
writing on the _preserved table_, produced and approved by God; that
the unbelief of the unbeliever, the impiety of the impious and bad
actions come to pass with the fore-knowledge, will, predestination and
decree of God, but not with His satisfaction and approval. Should any
ask why God willeth and produceth evil, we can only reply that He may
have wise ends in view which we cannot comprehend."
Another confession of faith has:--
"Whoever shall say, that God is not delighted with virtue and faith,
and is not wroth with vice and infidelity, or that God has decreed good
and evil with equal complacency is an infidel."
There are three well-defined schools of thought on the subject:--
First.--The Jabríans, so called from the word "_jabr_" compulsion, deny all
free agency in man and say that man is necessarily constrained by the force
of God's eternal and immutable decree to act as he does.[168] They hold
that as {174} God is the absolute Lord, He can, if He so wills, admit all
men into Paradise, or cast all into hell. This sect is one of the branches
of the Ash'aríans with whom on most points they agree.
Secondly.--The Qadríans, who deny _Al-Qadr_, or God's absolute decree, say
that evil and injustice ought not to be attributed to God but to man, who
is altogether a free agent. God has given him the power to do or not to do
an act. This sect is generally considered to be a branch of the Mutazilite
body, though in reality it existed before Wásil quitted the school of his
master Hasan (Ante. p. 125). As Wásil, however, followed the opinions of
Mábad-al-Johní, the leading Kadrían divine, the Mutazilites and Qadríans
are practically one and the same.
Thirdly.--The Ash'aríans, of whom I have already given some account,
maintain that God has one eternal will which is applied to whatsoever He
willeth, both of His own actions and those of men; that He willeth that
which He knoweth and what is written on the _preserved table_; that He
willeth both good and evil. So far they agree with the Jabríans; but then
they seem to allow some power to man, a tenet I have already explained when
describing their idea of "Kasb" (Ante. p. 130). The orthodox, or Sunní
belief is theoretically Ash'arían, but practically the Sunnís are confirmed
Jabríans. The Mutazilite doctrines are looked upon as quite heretical.
No subject has been more warmly discussed in Islám than that of
predestination. The following abstract of some lengthy discussions will
present the points of difference.
The Ash'aríans, who in this matter represent in the main orthodox views,
formulate their objections to the Mutazilite system thus:--
(i). If man is the causer of an action by the force of his own will, then
he should also have the power of controlling the result of that action.
(ii). If it be granted that man has the power to _originate_ {175} an act
it is necessary that he should know all acts, because a creator should be
independent in act and choice. Intention must be conditioned by knowledge.
To this the Mutazilites well reply that a man need not know the length of a
road before he walks, or the structure of the throat before he talks.
(iii). Suppose a man wills to move his body and God at the same time wills
it to be steady, then if both intentions come to pass there will be a
collection of opposites; if neither, a removal of opposites; if the
exaltation of the first, an unreasonable preference.
(iv). If man can create an act, some of his works will be better than some
of the works of God, _e.g._ a man determines to have faith: now faith is a
better thing than reptiles, which are created by God.
(v). If man is free to act, why can he not make at once a human body; why
does he need to thank God for grace and faith?
(vi). But better far than all argument, the orthodox say, is the testimony
of the Book. "All things have we created under a fixed decree." (Súra liv.
49). "When God created you and _that ye make_." (Súra xxxvii. 94). "Some of
them there were whom God guided and there were others decreed to err."
(Súra xvi. 38). As God decrees faith and obedience He must be the causer of
it, for "on the hearts of these hath God graven the Faith." (Súra lviii.
22). "It is he who causeth you to laugh and weep, to die and make alive."
(Súra liii. 44). "If God pleased He would surely bring them, one and all,
to the guidance." (Súra vi. 36). "Had God pleased, He had guided you all
aright." (Súra vi. 150). "Had the Lord pleased, He would have made mankind
of one religion." (Súra xi. 120). "God will mislead whom he pleaseth, and
whom He pleaseth He will place upon the straight path." (Súra vi. 39.)
Tradition records that the Prophet said: "God is the maker of all makers
and of their actions."[169]
{176}
The Mutazilites took up the opposite side of this great question and
said:--
(i). If man has no power to will or to do, then what is the difference
between praising God and sinning against Him; between faith and infidelity;
good and evil; what is the use of commands and prohibitions; rewards and
punishments; promises and threats; what is the use of prophets, books, &c.
(ii). Some acts of men are bad, such as tyranny and polytheism. If these
are created by God, it follows that to tyrannise and to ascribe plurality
to the Deity is to render obedience. To this the Ash'aríans reply that
orders are of two kinds, immediate and mediate. The former which they call
"Amr-i-takwíti," is the order, "Be and it was." This comprehends all
existences, and according to it whatever is ordered must come to pass. The
latter they call "Amr-i-tashri'í," an order given in the Law. This comes to
men through prophets and thus is to be obeyed. True obedience is to act
according to that which is revealed, not according to the secret intentions
of God, for that we know not.
(iii). If God decrees the acts of men, He should bear the name of that
which he decrees. Thus the causer of infidelity is an infidel; of tyranny a
tyrant, and so on; but to speak thus of God is blasphemy.
(iv). If infidelity is decreed by God He must wish it; but a prophet
desires faith and obedience and so is opposed to God. To this the orthodox
reply, that God knows by His eternal knowledge that such a man will die an
infidel. {177} If a prophet intends by bringing the message of salvation to
such an one to make God's knowledge become ignorance, he would be doing
wrong; but as he does not know the secret decrees of God, his duty is to
deliver his message according to the Hadís: "A prophet has only to deliver
the clear message."
(v). The Mutazilites claimed as on their side all verses of the Qurán, in
which the words to do, to construct, to renew, to create, &c., are applied
to men. Such are the verses: "Whatever is in the heavens and in the earth
is God's that He may reward those who _do_ evil according to their deeds:
and those who _do_ good will He reward with good things." (Súra liii. 32).
"Whoso shall have _wrought_ evil shall not be recompensed but with its
like: but whoso shall have _done_ the things that are right, whether male
or female and is a believer, these shall enter Paradise." (Súra xl. 43).
Say: "the truth is from the Lord; let him then who will believe; and let
him who will, be an infidel." (Súra xviii. 28).[170] "Those who add Gods to
God will say: 'If God had pleased neither we nor our fathers had given Him
companions.' Say: 'Verily ye follow only a conceit, ye utter lies.'" (Súra
vi. 149). The Hadís is also very plain. "All good is in Thy hands and evil
is not to Thee." (Al-khair kuluhu fí yadaika wash-sharru laisa 'alaika.)
The Ash'aríans have one famous text which they bring to bear against all
this reasoning and evidence. It is: "This truly is a warning; and whoso
willeth, taketh the way of his Lord; but _will it ye shall not_, unless God
will it, for God is knowing, wise." (Súra lxxvi. 29, 30). To the Hadís they
reply (1) that there is a difference between acquiescence in evil and
decreeing it. Thus the expression "God willeth not tyranny for His
servants," does not mean {178} that God hath not decreed it, but that
tyranny is not one of His attributes: so "evil is not to Thee" means it is
not an attribute of God; and (2) the Hadís must be explained in accordance
with the teaching of the Qurán.
The Muslim philosophers tried to find a way out of the difficulty. Averhoes
says: "We are free to act in this way or that, but our will is always
determined by some exterior cause. For example, we see something which
pleases us, we are drawn to it in spite of ourselves. Our will is thus
bound by exterior causes. These causes exist according to a certain order
of things which is founded on the general laws of nature. God alone knows
before hand the necessary connection which to us is a mystery. The
connection of our will with exterior causes is determined by the laws of
nature. It is this which in theology we call, 'decrees and
predestination.'"[171]
I have already shown how, as Islám grew into a system, the Muslims fell
into a Cabbalism, and a superstitious reverence for the mere letters and
words of the Qurán. With this declension came a still more distorted view
of the character of God. The quotations made from the Qurán in the last few
pages will have shown that whilst some passages seem to attribute freedom
to man and speak of his consequent responsibility, others teach a clear and
distinct fatalism. The great strength of Islám lay in the energy with which
Muhammad preached the doctrine that God was a divine Ruler, one who would
deal righteous judgment, who "taught man that which he knew not." As the
system became more complex and dogmatic--a very necessary result of its
first principles--men lost the sense of the nearness of God. He became an
unapproachable being. A harsh unfeeling Fate took the place of the
Omnipotent Ruler. It is this dark fatalism which, whatever the Qurán may
teach on the subject, is the ruling principle in all Muslim {179}
communities. It is this which makes all Muhammadan nations decay. Careless
of self-improvement,[172] heedless of the need of progress, the Muslim
nations, still independent, are in all that relates to the higher aspects
of intellectual and civilized life far behind the nations of the west.
The subject of _'Ilm-i-Aqáíd_, or the science of dogma properly ends here,
but most Muslim treatises include in this branch of the subject a few
practical remarks. I therefore add a summary of them here. The believer who
commits murder, fornication, &c., does not cease to be a Muslim provided
that he does not say that these are allowed: should he die unrepentant, God
can punish him for a while in hell, or forgive him without punishment. The
Hadd, a punishment based on a Záhir, or obvious sentence of the Qurán
requires that a Muslim who apostatizes shall be put to death.[173] In the
case of an apostate woman, Imám Abu Hanífa ruled that she should be
imprisoned and beaten every day. The other three Imáms, Málik, Sháfa'í and
Hanbal said that she should be put to death in accordance with the
Tradition which says: "He who changes his religion, kill." The Arabic word
"man," usually translated "He who" is of common gender, and so these Imáms
include women in the list of those who, after apostasy, are to be
killed.[174] God does not pardon polytheism and infidelity; but He can, if
He willeth, pardon all other crimes. If any one is asked, "dost thou
believe?" he should reply, "I am truly a believer," and not say: "If God
{180} willeth."[175] If any one says to him: "Wilt thou die in the faith?"
he should reply: "I do not know, God knows." Except when speaking of
prophets, or of those of whom the Prophets have spoken, such as Abu Bakr,
Omar, Osmán and 'Alí, it must not be said of any one, "he is gone to
Paradise," for God only knows his state. Prayer should be made for a
deceased Muslim whether he was a good or bad man. To give alms, to read the
Qurán, to perform other good works, and to apply the merit thus gained to
the souls of the dead is a pious and beneficial act.
{181}
NOTE TO CHAPTER IV.
MUSLIM PHILOSOPHY.
I have shown in the preceding chapter how the earlier scholastics, or
the Mutazilites, as they are called, were finally crushed by the
orthodox party. The later scholastics, or the philosophers, form the
subject of this note. The Khalíf Mámún (813-833 A.D.), a notorious
free-thinker, was the first to give an impulse to philosophic
researches. It was then that Greek philosophical works were translated
into Arabic. The Greek author most patronized was Aristotle, partly,
because his empirical method accorded with the positive tendencies of
the Arab mind better than the pure idealism of Plato; and, partly,
because his system of logic was considered an useful auxiliary in the
daily quarrels between the rival theological schools. It was quite
natural that Aristotle should be thus followed. "The Musalmán mind was
trained in habits of absolute obedience to the authority of fixed
dogmas. The Muslims did not so much wish to discover truth as to
cultivate their own intellect. For that purpose, a sharp and subtle
systematist like Aristotle was the very man they required."[176] Some
idea of the range of subjects then discussed may be gained from an
account given by the Arab historian, Masoudi, of a meeting held under
the Presidentship of Yahya, one of the famous Barmecide family.[177]
Yahya thus addressed the meeting: "You have discussed at length the
theory of concealment (Al-Kumún) and manifestation (Al-Zahúr), of
pre-existence and creation, of duration and stability, of movement and
quiescence, of the union and separation (of the Divine substance), of
existence and non-existence, of bodies and accidents, of the approval
and the refutation (of the Isnáds of the Traditions), of the absence or
the existence of attributes in God, of potential and active force, of
substance, quantity, modality and relation, of life and annihilation.
You have examined the question as to whether the Imám rules by divine
right, or by popular election; you have had an exhaustive discussion on
metaphysical subjects, in their principles and corollaries. Occupy
yourselves to-day with the subject of love," &c.
The translation of the works of Aristotle, as indeed of all the Greek
authors, was made by Syrian and Chaldean Christians, and {182}
especially by the Nestorians who, as physicians, were in high favour
with the liberal Khalífs of the 'Abbásside dynasty. In some cases the
translation into Arabic was made from Syriac versions, for in the time
of the Emperor Justinian many Greek works had been translated into the
latter language. The most celebrated translator was the historian
physician Honein-Ibn-Ishak (died 876 A.D.), a man profoundly acquainted
with the Syriac, Greek and Arabic languages. He was at the head of a
school of interpreters in Baghdád, to which his son Ishak-ben-Honein
and his nephew Hobeisch-Al-Asam also belonged. In the tenth century
(A.D.) Yahya-ben-Adi and Isa-ben-Zara'a translated some works and
corrected earlier translations of others. It is to these men that the
Arabs owe their chief acquaintance with Plato.
The study of Aristotle spread rapidly amongst the Muslim people,
especially amongst the heretical sects. The orthodox looked with grave
suspicion on the movement, but could not for a while stay the impulse.
The historian Makrizi says: "The doctrine of the Philosophers has
worked amongst the Muslims evils most fatal. It serves only to augment
the errors of the heretics and to increase their impiety."[178] It came
into contact with Muslim dogmas in such subjects as the creation of the
world, the special providence of God and the nature of the divine
attributes. To a certain extent the Mutazilites were supported by the
philosophical theories they embraced, but this did not diminish the
disfavour with which the orthodox looked upon the study of philosophy.
Still it grew, and men in self defence had to adopt philosophic
methods. Thus arose a later system of scholasticism. The earlier system
was confined mainly to matters of religion; the later school occupied
itself with the whole range of philosophic investigation, and thus went
farther and farther away from orthodox Islám.
The Muslims themselves did not write books on philosophy in the earlier
period. Men of liberal tendencies imbibed its teaching, but orthodoxy
finally gained the day over the earlier scholastics, and in the form
known as that of the Ash'arían School became again supreme.[179] The
great intellectual movement of the Philosophers proper, the later
scholastics (Mutakallimán), lasted longer, but by the end of the
twelfth century (A.D.) the whole Muhammadan world had again become
orthodox. Saláh-ud-dín (Saladin) and his successors in Egypt were
strong supporters of the Ash'aríans.
{183}
The period now under review was one prolific of authors on grammar,
rhetoric, logic, exegesis, traditions and the various branches of
philosophy; but the men who stand out most prominently as philosophers
were then, and are now, considered heretics.[180]
Al-Kendi, was born at Basra, on the Persian Gulf. He died about 870
A.D. He was a very scientific man, but a thorough rationalist in
theology. He composed commentaries on the logic of Aristotle. In his
great work on the unity of God he has strayed far away from Muslim
dogmas.
Al Farabi, another philosopher patronized by the 'Abbássides, seems to
have denied not only the rigid and formal Islámic view of inspiration,
but any objective revelation at all. He held that intuition was a true
inspiration, and that all who had acquired intuitive knowledge were
real prophets. This is the only revelation he admits. He received his
philosophical training at Baghdád, where for a while he taught; but
finally he went to Damascus, where he died 950 A.D.
Ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna, a man of Persian origin, was a
Philosopher of great note, but of him it is said that in spite of the
concessions he made to the religious ideas of his age, he could not
find favour for his opinions, which ill accord with the principles of
Islám. He was born near Bukhárá, in the year 980 A.D. For a while he
taught medicine and philosophy in Ispahán.
Ibn Badja, (Avempace) was one of the most celebrated Muslim
Philosophers of Spain. He was born at Saragossa towards the end of the
eleventh century. He is distinguished for having opposed the mystical
tendencies of the teaching of Al-Ghazzálí, and for maintaining that
speculative science alone was capable of leading man to a true
conception of his own proper nature. He was violently attacked by the
orthodox divines who declared that all philosophical teaching was "a
calamity for religion and an affliction to those who were in the good
way."
Al-Ghazzálí was born A.D. 1059 in Khorásán. He was a famous Muslim
divine. He adopted scholastic methods. For a while he was President of
the Nizámiah College at Baghdád. He travelled much, and wrote many
books to prove the superiority of Islám over all other religions and
over philosophy. The first result of his wide and extensive study of
the writings of the philosophers, and of the heretics was that he fell
into a state of scepticism with regard to religion and philosophy. From
this he emerged into Súfíism, in {184} which his restless spirit found
satisfaction. On Súfíism, however, he exercised no very notable
influence; but the scepticism which he still retained as regards
philosophy rendered him a very formidable opponent to those who were
trying to bring Islám into accord with philosophic theories. His works,
"Tendency of Philosophers," and "Destruction of the Philosophers" had
an immense influence. In the preface to the latter book, he speaks of
"those who arrogate to themselves a superior intelligence, and who, in
their pride, mistaking the precepts of religion, take as a guide the
authority of certain great men, instead of revealed religion." It is,
however, and with some show of reason supposed that Al-Ghazzálí did not
really object to all that he condemned, but that to gain the orthodox
he wrote what he did. Indeed, Moses of Narbonne states that Ghazzálí
later on in life wrote a book, circulated only amongst a few select
friends, in which he withdrew many of the objections he had raised in
the "Destruction of Philosophers." Be that as it may, it is
acknowledged that he dealt a blow to philosophy from which in the East
it has never recovered; that is, as far as the Muslim world is
concerned. His course marks a reaction of the exclusively religious
principle of Islám against philosophical speculation, which in spite of
all accommodation never made itself orthodox.
In Spain philosophy still found an ardent defender in Ibn Rashíd,
better known as Averhoes. This celebrated man was born at Cordova in
the year 1126 A.D., or about 520 of the Muhammadan era. He came of a
noble and learned family, whilst he himself must ever occupy a
distinguished place amongst the Muslim Philosophers. "Without dispute
he was one of the most learned men of the Muslim world, and one of the
profoundest commentators of Aristotle. He knew all the sciences then
accessible to the Muslims and was a most prolific writer."[181] One of
his most famous works was the "Refutation of the destruction of
Philosophers." Notwithstanding his philosophical opinions Averhoes
claimed to pass for a good Muslim. He held that the philosophic truths
are the highest object of research; but that only a few men could by
speculation arrive at them, and that, therefore, a divine revelation
through the medium of prophets was necessary for spreading amongst men
the eternal verities which are proclaimed alike by philosophy and
religion. He held, it is true, that the orthodox had paid too much
attention to the letter, and too little to the spirit, and that false
interpretations had educed principles not really to be found in
religion. This {185} profession and a rigid adherence to outward forms
of worship, however, did not save him from suspicion. He was accused of
preaching philosophy and the ancient sciences to the detriment of
religion. He was deprived of his honours and banished by the Khalíf
Al-Mansúr to Lucena, near Cordova. In his disgrace he had to suffer
many insults from the orthodox. One day on entering the mosque with his
son he was forcibly expelled by the people. He died at Morocco in 1198
A.D. Thus passed away in disgrace the last of the Muslim Philosophers
worthy of the name.[182] In Spain a strict prohibition was issued
against the study of Greek philosophy, and many valuable works were
committed to the flames. Soon after the rule of the Moors in Spain
began to decline. The study of philosophy came to an end, and liberal
culture sank under the pressure of the hard and fast dogmatic system of
Islám. In Spain,[183] as in Baghdád, orthodoxy gained the day. There
was much of doubtful value in the speculations of the Muslim
Philosophers, but they were Muslims, and if they went too far in their
efforts to rationalize Islám, they also tried to cast off what to them
seemed accretions, added on by the Traditionalists and the Canonical
Legists. They failed because like the earlier scholastics they had no
gospel to proclaim to men, no tidings to give of a new life which could
enable wearied humanity to bear the ills to which it was subject.
Another strong reason was that the orthodoxy against which they strove
was a logical development of the foundations of Islám, and these
foundations are too strongly laid for any power other than a spiritual
one to uproot. They were men of good position in life, voluminous
writers, profound admirers of Aristotle, and "more or less devoted to
science, especially to medicine." Yet they did not advance philosophy,
and science they left much as they found it. They preserved something
of what Grecian thought had achieved, and so far their labour is not
lost.
Thus Islám has, as a religion, no right to claim any of the glory which
Muslim philosophers are supposed to have shed around it. {186} The
founders of Islám, the Arabs, produced but one philosopher of
note.[184] The first impetus to the study was given by heretical
Khalífs employing Christians at Baghdád to translate Greek books;
whilst in Spain, where philosophy most flourished, it was due largely
to the contact of intelligent Muslims with learned Jews. Even there,
the philosophers were, as a rule, the objects of bitter persecution.
Now and again, a liberal minded Khalíf arose, but a system such as
Islám survives the liberal tendencies of a generation. From the close
of the twelfth century (A.D.) downwards it would be difficult to point
to any Muslim Philosopher, much more to an Arab one, whose work is of
any real value to the human race. For four hundred years the contest
raged, a contest such as Islám has never since seen. This great effort
to bring it into accordance with the main stream of human thought, to
introduce into it some element of progress utterly failed. The lesson
is plain. Any project of reform in Islám which admits in any degree its
fundamental principles must fail. Revolution, not reform, is the only
hope for the permanence of an independent Muslim state when it enters
into the circle of civilized nations.
{187}
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