THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLÁM.
1. MUHARRAM.--Muharram, the name of the first month of the Muhammadan year,
has now become the name by which are known the days of mourning spent by
the Shía'hs in commemoration of the martyrdoms of 'Alí and of his two sons
Hasan and Husain. The historical events thus referred to have been already
described in the third chapter, so that it is only necessary now to give an
account of the ceremonies connected with the Muharram. They differ in
different countries. The following is a description of an Indian Muharram.
Some days previous to the feast, the 'Áshúr Khána (literally, ten-day
house) is prepared. As soon as the new moon appears, the people gather
together in the various 'Áshúr Khánas, and offer a Fátiha over some sherbet
or some sugar in the name of Husain. The Fátiha concludes thus: "O God,
grant the reward of this to the soul of Husain." The sherbet and sugar are
then given to the poor. Then they mark a spot for the Alláwa, or hole for
the bonfire which is to be lit. Every night during the festival these fires
are kindled, and the people, both old and young, fence across the fire with
swords or sticks, and jump about calling out: "'Alí! Noble Husain! Noble
Husain! Dulha! Dulha! Bridegroom! Bridegroom! Friend! &c." These words they
repeat hundreds of times.
In some parts of the country they erect an Imám Bára (Imám-house). This is
often a substantial building, frequently used afterwards as a mausoleum for
the founder and his family. In South India the 'Áshúr Khána only is known.
This is generally a temporary structure, or {238} some large hall fitted up
for the occasion. Sometimes the walls are draped with black cloth, bordered
with texts of the Qurán written in a large and elegant style. The place is
brilliantly illuminated. On one side stands the Tázíahs or
Tábúts--structures made of bamboos covered with tinsel and profusely
ornamented. They are intended to represent the mausoleum erected on the
plains of Karbalá over the remains of Husain. Sometimes the Tázíah is
constructed to represent the Prophet's tomb at Madína. Large sums of money
are spent on these Tázíahs, which when lighted up have a very elegant
appearance. At the back of the Tázíahs are laid the several articles
similar to those supposed to have been used by Husain at Karbalá,--a turban
of gold, a rich sword, a shield, a bow and arrow. The Mimbar, or pulpit is
so placed that the speaker can face Mecca. The 'Alams, or standards, which
are commonly made of copper and brass, though occasionally of gold or of
silver, are placed against the walls. The usual standard is that of a hand
placed on a pole. This is emblematic of the five members who compose the
family of the Prophet, and is the special standard of the Shía'hs. These
standards have many different names, such as--the standard of the palm of
'Alí, the Lady Fátima's standard, the standard of the Horse-shoe, to
represent the shoe of Husain's swift horse, and others too numerous to
mention. Mirrors, chandeliers and coloured lanterns add lustre to the
scene.
Every evening large crowds of people assemble in these 'Áshúr Khánas. In
the centre, on a slightly raised platform a band of singers chant the
Marsiya, an elegiac poem in honour of the martyred Husain. It is a
monotonous performance lasting about an hour; but it has a wonderful effect
on the audience, who, seated on the ground, listen patiently and
attentively. At each pause the hearers beat their breasts, and say Husain!
Husain! Real or stimulated grief often finds expression in groans and
tears, though the more violent expression of the anguish felt is reserved
for a later ceremony.
{239}
This over, the Wáqi'a Khán (literally, narrator of events) ascends the
Mimbar, or pulpit, and seats himself on the top, or on a lower step. He
proceeds to relate the historical facts, adding many curious stories
gathered from the vast heap of Traditions which have cast such a halo of
glory around the martyr. Sometimes he becomes very excited, and the
audience is stirred up to great enthusiasm. The following account is that
of an eye-witness who passed an evening in an 'Áshúr Khána. "The first
Wáqi'a Khán was a Persian who delivered a very eloquent oration in his own
tongue. It was calm but effective. He was succeeded by an eloquent old
gentleman who spoke rapidly in Hindustani at the top of his voice, then
rose up, ran down the steps, and casting off his turban rushed in and out
amongst the audience, vociferating vigorously all the while. The effect was
marvellous, old and venerable men wept like little children, whilst from
the adjoining Zanána was heard the bitter weeping of the women who, though
not exposed to view, could hear all that was said. After a while, the
assembly rose and formed two lines facing each other. A boy then chanted a
few words and the whole assembly began, slowly at first, to sway their
bodies to and fro, calling out 'Alí! 'Alí! Husain! Husain! Each one then
began to beat his breast vigorously. The excitement at last became intense
and the men in the rows looked like so many wild creatures."
In some cases blood has been known to flow from the breast, so severe is
the self-inflicted beating. This continues till they are well-nigh
exhausted, when the whole company goes away to repeat the performance over
again in some other 'Áshúr Khána. A devout person will visit several each
evening. During the day some pious Shía'hs recite the Qurán.
During this season women who can read, visit the Zanánas and chant Marsiyas
to the ladies of the Harem, by whom this season of Muharram is celebrated
with great earnestness.
For the first six days, nothing else takes place, but on the {240} seventh
day the 'Alam-i-Qásím is taken out in public procession. This is to
represent the marriage of Qásím, the son of Hasan, to the favourite
daughter of Husain, just before the death of the latter. The event is now
commemorated by the bearing of Qásím's standard in procession. It is
usually borne by a man on horseback. If it is carried by a man on foot, he
reels about like a drunken man to show his grief. The crowd shout out:
Bridegroom! Bridegroom! After perambulating the principal thoroughfares,
the people bring the standard back to its own 'Áshúr Khána. As the standard
which represents Qásím is supposed to be a martyr, it is then laid down,
covered over, and treated as a corpse. Lamentation is made over it as for
one dead. Sherbet is then produced, and a Fátiha is said, after which the
standard is again set up in its own place.
The Neza, a lance or spear, with a lime on the top, to recall to
remembrance the fact that Yezíd caused Husain's head to be thus carried
about, is taken in procession from one place to another. The Na'l Sáhib
(literally, Mr. Horse-shoe) is the representation of a horse shoe, and is
meant to remind the people of the swift horse of Husain. Vows are
frequently made to this standard. Thus a woman may say to it: "Should I
through your favour be blessed with offspring, I shall make it run in your
procession." If she attains her wish, the child when seven or eight years
old has a small parasol placed in its hand and is made to run after the
Na'l Sáhib.
If two 'Alams, or standards, meet, they embrace each other, that is they
are made to touch. Fátiha is then said and the respective processions pass
on their way. The Buráq, supposed to be a fac-simile of the horse sent by
Gabriel for Muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven (Ante. p. 159) is
also taken out.
On the evening before the tenth day, which according to the Muslim mode of
computing time is the tenth night, the whole of the Tázías and the 'Alams
are taken out in {241} procession. It is a scene of great confusion, for
men and boys disguised in all sorts of quaint devices run about. It is the
carnival of the Musalmán year.
On the following day, the 'Áshúrá, they kindle the fires in the Alláwas,
and say a Fátiha in each 'Áshúr Khána. After this the 'Alams and the Tázías
are taken away to a large open spot near water, which represents the plain
of Karbalá. Another Fátiha is said, the ornaments and decorations are taken
off the Tázías, the frameworks of which are then cast into the water.[249]
Sometimes they are reserved for use the following year. The water reminds
the people of the parching thirst which Husain felt before his death. Only
the 'Alams, not the Buráqs nor the Na'l Sáhibs, are immersed. The people
then burn incense, recite the Marsiyas, return home and say Fátiha over the
'Alams, Buráqs, &c. On the evening of the 12th, they sit up all night
reading the Qurán, reciting Marsiyas and verses in the praise of Husain. On
the 13th day, a quantity of food is cooked which, when a Fátiha has been
said over it, is distributed to the poor. Some very pious Shía'hs celebrate
the fortieth day after the first of Muharram. It is on this day, according
to some accounts, that the head and body of Husain were reunited. It is
known as the 'Íd-i-sar wa tan (head and body feast).
The Sunnís do not, except as spectators, take any part in the Muharram
ceremonies. Indeed, where the ruling power is not strong, there is often
much ill-feeling aroused by the enthusiasm excited for all that concerns
'Alí and his family. The three first Khalífs are often well abused, and
that no Sunní can bear with patience. The breach between the Sunní and the
Shía'h is very wide, and the annual recurrence of the Muharram feast tends
to keep alive the distinction.
{242}
The tenth day--the 'Áshúrá is, however, a Sunnat feast and, as such, is
observed by all Sunnís. It is considered to be a most excellent day, for on
it God is said to have created Adam and Eve, His throne, heaven, hell, the
seat of judgment, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, life and death.
The Sunnís about three o'clock in the afternoon of this day prepare sherbet
and khichrí--a dish composed of boiled rice and pulse mixed with clarified
butter and spices. A Fátiha in the name of Husain and of those who were
martyred with him is then said. The food is disposed of as usual in such
cases. A Namáz of some nafl rak'ats is said and sometimes a Du'á is added.
On this day also they go to the burial grounds and place flowers on, and
say Fátiha over the graves of their friends.
Indian Musalmáns have copied in their feast many Hindu ceremonies. The
procession of the Tázías, and the casting of them into the water is very
similar to the procession at the Hindu feast of the Durga Puja,[250] when
on the tenth day the Hindus cast the idol Durga, the wife of Siva, into the
Ganges. The oblations offered at different shrines are similar to those
offered by the Hindus, such as rice, clarified butter and flowers.
The Muhammadan form of worship was too simple for a country, in which an
allegorical and idolatrous religion predominated, addressing itself to the
senses and the imaginations rather than to the understanding and the heart;
consequently the Musalmán festivals have borrowed from it a variety of
pagan rites, and a pompous and splendid ceremonial. While this has done
much to add to the superstition of the Musalmáns in India, it has no doubt
softened their intolerant spirit. Though the Sunnís consider the Shía'h
observances as impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. The
fact that the British Government punishes all who break {243} the peace may
have something to do with this. Still the Sunní and the Shía'h in India
live on much better terms, and have more respect for each other than the
Turk has for the Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some Musalmán poets,
indeed, are both Sunnís and Shía'hs. Thus Wálí, begins his poem with a
brief encomium on the four first Khalífs, and then bestows an eulogy on
'Alí and his sons Hasan and Husain whom he calls "Imáms of the world."
The following is a prayer used in a Fátiha for 'Alí:--
I pray, "That God may deign for the sake of that pure soul, the
ornament of the book of nature, the first of mortals after the Prophet,
the star of mortals, the most precious jewel of the jewel-box of
virtue, the lord of the high and the low, he who occupies a
distinguished place on the bridge of eternity, the mihráb[251] of the
faith, he who sits upon the throne of the palace of the law, the ship
of the sea of religion, the sun of the firmament of glory, the power of
the arm of the Prophet, he who has merited access to the tabernacle of
the Divine Unity, the most profound of all religious people, the
resplendent brightness of the marvels of God, the father of victory,
the Imám of the gate of heaven, the cup-bearer of the water of Kausar,
he who has merited the praise of Muhammad, he who is the best of men,
the holy martyr, the chief of Believers, the Imám of the Faithful,
'Alí, son of Abu Tálib, 'Alí the victorious lion of the Most High. I
pray that God for the sake of this holy Khalíf may favourably hear the
vows which I offer to Him."
The following prayer occurs in a Fátiha said for Hasan and Husain:--
I pray, "That the eternal God may deign to accept the vows which I make
for the repose of the glorious souls of the two brave Imáms, the
martyrs well-beloved by God, the innocent victims of wickedness, the
blessed Abu Muhammad Al-Hasan and Abu 'Abd-Alláh Al-Husain, and for the
twelve Imáms, and the fourteen[252] pure ones, and for the seventy-two
martyrs of the plain of Karbalá."
{244}
2. AKHIR-I-CHÁR SHAMBA.--This feast is held on the last Wednesday of the
month Safar. It is kept in commemoration of the fact, that, as on this day,
the Prophet experienced some mitigation of the disorder which in the next
month terminated his life. Sweet cakes are prepared, and Fátihas in the
name of the Prophet are said over them; but the most extraordinary custom
is the drinking of the seven Saláms. A plantain, or a mango tree leaf, or a
piece of paper is taken to a Mullá, or a religious teacher, who writes
seven short sentences from the Qurán upon it. The writing whilst still wet
is washed off, and the mixture drunk by the person for whom it was written.
Peace and happiness are thus ensured for the future. The seven Saláms are:
(1) "Peace! shall be the word on the part of a merciful Lord." (Súra xxxvi.
58). (2) "Peace be on Noah throughout the worlds." (Súra xxxvii. 77). (3)
"Peace be on Abraham." (Súra xxxvii. 109). (4) "Peace be on Moses and
Aaron." (Súra xxxvii. 120). (5) "Peace be on Elias." (Súra xxxvii. 130).
(6) "Peace be on you, ye have been good; enter into Paradise." (Súra xxxix.
73). (7) "It is peace till the breaking of the morn." (Súra xcvii. 5). The
Shía'hs consider this an unlucky day. They call it "Chár
Shamba-i-Súrí."--The "Wednesday of the Trumpet;" that is, of the trumpet of
the last day. The Sunnís, on the other hand, rejoice in the day, and esteem
it an excellent and auspicious season.
3. BÁRÁ WAFÁT.--This feast is held on the twelfth day of the month
Rabí'-ul-Awwal. The name is derived from bárá, twelve and wafát, death,
because many suppose that on this day the Prophet died. According to a
well-known Muslim writer "the terrific intelligence, circulating throughout
the world, produced universal consternation, and all hastened to offer to
God their vows and prayers for the repose of the Prophet's soul." Others,
however, maintain that he died on the second of the month and, as there is
some doubt on the subject, many persons make a Fátiha {245} every day, from
the first to the twelfth of the month inclusive. Those who keep the feast
as Bárá Wafát observe the ceremony called Sandal on the previous evening,
and the 'Urs, that is, the prayers and the oblations, on the twelfth. The
Sandal consists in making a perfumed embrocation from sandal wood. This is
then placed into a vessel and carried in procession to the 'Íd-gáh,[253] or
to the place where Fátiha will be said. It is then distributed to the
people. It is a sort of public notice on the eve of a Feast day, or of a
Saint's day, that on the morrow the usual prayers and offerings will be
made in such and such a place. On the morning of the twelfth, the Qurán is
read in the Mosque, or in private houses: then food is cooked and Fátihas
are said.
Some persons possess a Qadam-i-Rasúl, or footstep of the Prophet. This is a
stone with the impression of a footstep on it. It is a sacred thing and on
this day the place in which it is kept is elegantly decorated. When a
company has assembled, some persons appointed for the purpose, repeat the
story of the birth, miracles and death of the Prophet. Portions of the
Qurán are read and the Darúd is said.[254]
In Madras, and in some other parts, it is more customary to keep this day,
not as the anniversary of the death of the Prophet, but as the
"'Jashn-i-milád-i-Sharíf," the "Feast of the noble birth." The practical
duties are the same. Instead of the Qadam-i-Rasúl, the Ásár-i-Sharíf is
exhibited. This is supposed to be a real portion of the hair of the
Prophet's beard and moustache. It is said to possess {246} the miraculous
property of growing again when a portion is broken off. On this day it is
put into rose water which those present then drink and rub on their eyes.
Great virtue is attached to this proceeding. In the Ásár Khána, or house in
which this hair is kept Fátihas, Darúds, &c., are repeated.
The observance of this festival is neither wájib nor sunnat, but mustahab.
It is generally kept, and it is a very rare thing to meet a person who does
not believe in the miraculous growth of the Ásár-i-Sharíf.
4. SHAB BARÁT.--This feast, the name of which signifies the "night of the
record," is held on the fourteenth day of the month Sh'abán. The 'Arfa, or
vigil is kept on the preceding day.[255] It is commonly but erroneously
called Shab-i-Barát.
The word Barát signifies a book or record. It is said that God on this
night registers in the Barát all the actions men are to perform during the
ensuing year. On the thirteenth day food is prepared for the poor and a
Fátiha for the benefit of deceased ancestors and relatives is said over it.
When all in the house are assembled, the Súrat-ul-Fátiha is read once, the
Súrat-ul-Iklás (112) three times, the Áyat-ul-Kursí once, and then the
Darúd. After this a prayer is offered, in which God is asked to transfer
the reward of this Service, and of the charity shown in the gift of food to
the poor, to the souls of deceased relatives and friends of this family.
This petition is offered in the name of the Prophet. The men then go to the
Mosque and after the Namáz-i-'Ishá they repeat a number of nafl rak'ats.
This over, the Súrat-ul-Yá Sín is read three times. It must be done with
the niyyat, intention. The first time, the intention is that the worshipper
may have a long life; the second time, that his means of subsistence may be
increased; the third time, that he may be protected from evil. {247} The
Súra-i-Dukhán (144) is then read with the same intentions. Any other
portions may then be read. After this those present rise, and go to the
various cemeteries. On the way they purchase flowers which are afterwards
strewn on the graves. A Fátiha is then said. If the worshipper has no
relatives or friends buried there, prayer is offered for the benefit of the
Arwáh-i-Qubúr, the souls of those there buried. The very pious spend the
whole night in going from one cemetery to another.
These observances are neither farz, nor sunnat, but nawáfil, (sing. nafl),
works of supererogation. Still though they are bid'at, yet they are
esteemed good and so are called bid'at-i-Hasana, or "excellent innovation."
The general merry-making of the fourteenth day has no religious
signification. The night of the fifteenth is the Guy Fawkes night of Islám.
Large sums of money are spent on fireworks, of which more are let off on
this feast than at any other.
The following prayer occurs in the Fátiha: "O our God, by the merits of the
Apostleship of Muhammad, grant that the lamps which are lit up on this holy
night may be for the dead a pledge of the light eternal, which we pray Thee
to shed on them. O God, admit them, we beseech Thee, unto the abode of
eternal felicity."
5. RAMAZÁN AND 'ÍD-UL-FITR--It is one of the five pillars of the practical
religious duties to fast during the thirty days of the month Ramazán. The
subject of fasting has been fully treated of in the preceding chapter; and
so it is only necessary now to describe the other ceremonies connected with
the religious observance of this month.
From the earliest days of Islám this month has been held in the greatest
esteem by Muslims, for it was in this month that Muhammad used to retire
for meditation, year after year, to the cave of Hira, situated on a low
hill some few miles distant from Mecca. In the second year of the Hijra, or
flight from Mecca, it was ordained that the month of Ramazán should be kept
as a fast. "As to the month {248} Ramazán, in which the Qurán was sent down
to be man's guidance, and an explanation of that guidance, and of that
illumination, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set
about the fast." (Súra ii. 181).
The Muslims had hitherto observed as the principal fast the 'Ashúrá, the
tenth of Muharram. This fast was probably connected with the Jewish fast on
the tenth day of the seventh month. "Also on the tenth day of this seventh
month there shall be a day of atonement: it shall be an holy convocation
unto you; and ye shall afflict your souls, &c." (Leviticus xxiii. 27). Now,
when Muhammad first went to Madína he had great hopes of winning over the
Jews to his side; but when he failed he took every opportunity of making
Islám differ as much as possible from Judaism. This was the reason why the
Qibla was changed (Ante. p. 60), and that in the second year of his
residence at Madína the fast of Ramazán was appointed. The reasons assigned
by learned Muslims for the selection of this month, are that in Ramazán God
gave to the previous prophets the revelations connected with their names,
and that in this month the Qurán was sent down from the Secret Tablet in
the seventh heaven to the first or lowest, and that on the Laylut-ul-Qadr,
or 'night of power' the first revelation was made to Muhammad. "Verily we
have caused it (Qurán) to descend on the 'night of power.' And who shall
teach thee what the night of power is? The night of power excelleth a
thousand nights." (Súra xcvii. 1-3). To illustrate the sacredness of this
month the Prophet used to say that in it "the gates of Paradise are open,
and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg."
"Only those who observe it will be allowed to enter by the gate of heaven
called Rayyán." Those who keep the fast "will be pardoned all their past
venial sins."[256]
In making the fast one for the day, and none for the night, {249} Muhammad
doubtless had reference to the verse: "God wisheth you ease, but wisheth
not your discomfort." (Súra ii. 181).
The special ceremonies connected with the Ramazán are the Taráwíh Namáz and
'Itikáf (retirement). The Taráwíh prayers have been described already (p.
205). Each night in Ramazán one-thirtieth part (sípára) of the Qurán is
recited in the Mosque. The duty of performing the 'Itikáf is a
Sunnat-ul-maukadda, a very strict duty. The Mu'takif, one who makes
'Itikáf, must remain apart in a Mosque used for public services, and there
meditate. Bukhárí says that the Prophet made 'Itikáf the last ten days of
each Ramazán, and that the practice was continued by his wives after his
death. Usually a man should thus sit and meditate one of the days between
the twentieth and the thirtieth of Ramazán. If his meditation is disturbed
by any illegal interruption, another day should be devoted to it; but Imám
Muhammad says: "The least legal time is one hour." Some theologians hold
that 'Itikáf is farz-i-kifáya, that is, if one person of a community does
it the obligation does not rest on the others. If, however, a person makes
a vow in Ramazán, then 'Itikáf is considered wájib. 'Itikáf can be
performed at any time other than the last ten days of Ramazán, but then it
is only mustahab, a work of supererogation. All the sects except the
Sháfa'ítes hold that the Mu'takif must fast. He should also make the
nizzat, or intention, of performing what he is about to do. The Mu'takif
must not go out of the Mosque except for obviously necessary purposes, and
for making the legal wazú and ghusl (purifications). At night he may eat,
drink and sleep in the Mosque: acts quite unlawful at other times. He may
speak with others on religious matters, and if a man of business, he may
give orders with regard to the purchase and sale of merchandize, but on no
account must any goods be brought to him. It is highly meritorious for him
to read the Qurán in an audible voice. By such an act he becomes {250} a
man of penetration, whose words are as powerful as a sharp sword.[257]
When the thirty days have passed the fast is broken. This act is called
Iftár, and the first day on which food is taken is called the
'Íd-ul-Fitr--the 'Feast of the breaking of the fast.' On that day the
Sadqa, or alms are given before the Namáz is said in the Mosque. The Sadqa
of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr is confined to Muslims: no other persons receive it. If
any one neglects to give these alms before the Namáz is said, he will not
merit so great a reward as he otherwise would. The reason assigned for this
is that, unless they are given early in the day, the poor cannot refresh
themselves before coming to the Mosque for the Namáz. The Sadqa are given
for the good of one's own soul, for that of young children, slaves male and
female--Muslim or Infidel; but not for the spiritual benefit of one's wife
or elder children.
In South India, the Sadqa consists of a gift of sufficient rice to feed one
person. When this has been done the people go to the Mosque saying, 'God is
great! God is great!' The Namáz is like that of a Friday, except that only
two rak'ats are said, and the Khutba which is said after the Namáz is
sunnat; whereas the Friday Khutba is said before the farz rak'ats, and is
itself of farz obligation. After hearing the sermon, the people disperse,
visit each other and thoroughly enjoy themselves.
A very usual form of the Khutba of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr which is preached in
Arabic is as follows:--
SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UL-FITR.
In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.
"Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and
in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into
heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is
great! God is great! and worthy of praise. It {251} is of His grace and
favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: 'I will
give in the future world houses and palaces, and many excellent
blessings to those who fast. God is great! God is great! Holy is He who
certainly sent the Qurán to our Prophet in the month of Ramazán, and
who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is great!
and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank Him for the 'Íd-ul-Fitr,
that great blessing; and we testify that beside Him there is no God. He
is alone. He has no partner. This witness which we give to His Unity
will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to
Paradise. Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all
famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men.
From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muhammad and his family, so long as
the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is none beside
Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. O company of
Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on
you. He says that this Feast day is a blessing to you, and a curse to
the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your prayers
will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the
sadqa.[258] O congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wájib
duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent.
Your duty in Ramazán was to say the Taráwíh prayers, to make
supplication to God, to sit and meditate ('Itikáf) and to read the
Qurán. The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramazán gain the
mercy of God, those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of
the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God
has declared that Ramazán is a noble month, for is not one of its
nights, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, better than a thousand months? On that
night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven: till the morning
breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its
clearest proof is the Qurán, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is
God who says in the Qurán: "This word of God comes down in the month of
Ramazán." This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right and
wrong. O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of your
God and fast; but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other
days on which to fast so that no days be lost, and say: "God is great!"
and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God
will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Qurán. Every verse of it
is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, the
{252} Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful,
the Clement."[259]
"The assemblies of the ladies on this 'Íd are marked by all the amusements
and indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their secluded state.
Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing
honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dress. The
Zanána rings with festive songs and loud music, the cheerful meeting of
friends, the distribution of presents to dependents, and remembrances to
the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happy
day of 'Íd, when the good lady of the Mansion sits in state to receive
presents from inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to others."[260]
6. The Baqr-'Íd.--This is the most important Feast in the whole year. It is
also known as the 'Íd-i-Qurbán, and as the 'Íd-ul-Azhá, commonly called the
Íd-uz-Zuhá, the feast of sacrifice. In Turkey and in Egypt it is called
Bairám. Its origin was as follows: A few months after the Hijra, or flight
from Mecca, Muhammad, dwelling in Madína, observed that the Jews kept, on
the tenth day of the seventh month, the great fast of the Atonement. A
Tradition records that the Prophet asked them why they kept this fast. He
was informed that it was a memorial of the deliverance of Moses and the
children of Israel from the hands of Pharaoh. "We have a greater right in
Moses than they," said Muhammad, so he fasted with the Jews and commanded
his followers to fast also. This was at the period of his mission when
Muhammad was friendly with the Jews of Madína, who occasionally came to
hear him preach. The Prophet also occasionally attended the synagogue. Then
came the change of the Qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca, for the Jews were not
so ready to change their {253} creed as Muhammad had at first hoped. In the
second year of the Hijra, Muhammad and his followers did not participate in
the Jewish fast, for the Prophet now instituted the feast of the Baqr-'Íd.
The idolatrous Arabs had been in the habit of making an annual pilgrimage
to Mecca at this season of the year. The offering of animals in sacrifice
formed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage. That
portion--the sacrifice of animals--Muhammad adopted in the feast which now,
at Madína, he substituted for the Jewish fast. This was well calculated to
attract the attention of the Meccans and to gain the goodwill of the Arabs.
Muhammad could not then make the pilgrimage to Mecca, for as yet there was
a hostile feeling between the inhabitants of the two cities; but on the
tenth day of the month Zu'l-Hajja, at the very time when the Arabs at Mecca
were engaged in sacrificing victims, Muhammad went forth from his house at
Madína, and assembling his followers instituted the Íd-uz-Zuhá or Baqr-'Íd.
Two young kids were brought before him. One he sacrificed and said: "O
Lord! I sacrifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witness to
Thy unity and to my mission. O Lord! this is for Muhammad and for the
family of Muhammad."
Great merit is obtained by all who keep this feast. 'Áyesha relates how the
Prophet once said: "Man hath not done anything on the 'Íd-ul-Azhá more
pleasing to God than spilling blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will
come on the day of resurrection with its horns, hair and hoofs, and will
make the scale of his good actions very heavy. Verily its blood reached the
acceptance of God before it falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful in
it."
Musalmáns say that the Patriarch Abraham was ordered to sacrifice Ishmael,
and that he made several ineffectual attempts to cut the throat of his son.
Ishmael then said to his father: "It is through pity and compassion for me
that you allow the knife to miss: blindfold yourself and then sacrifice
me." Abraham acted upon this advice, {254} blindfolded himself, drew his
knife, repeated the Bismilláh, and, as he thought, cut the throat of his
son; but, behold, in the meantime Gabriel had substituted a sheep for the
lad. This event is commemorated in this feast.
On the day before the feast, the Arfa, or vigil, is kept. Food of various
kinds is prepared, over which a Fátiha is offered, first, in the name of
the Prophet; secondly, in the names of deceased relatives, and of others
for whom a blessing is desired, or from whom some favor is expected. The
food is then sent as a present to friends.
On the morning of the feast day, the devout Muslims proceed to the 'Íd-gáh
or, if there is no 'Íd-gáh, to the principal Mosque, repeating on the way
the Takbír "God is Great!" and "There is no other God save the one true
God, God is great, praise be to God." At the time of making wazú, the
worshipper should say: "O God, make this (_i.e._ the sacrifice I shall
offer to-day) an atonement for my sin, and purify my religion and take evil
away from me."
The Service at the 'Íd-gáh, or in the Mosque consists of two farz rak'ats,
as in the Salát-ul-Juma (p. 201), after the Khutba is delivered. It will,
however, be seen from the following sermon that it is mustahab to say four
more rak'ats.
SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UZ-ZUHÁ.
In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.
Alláhu Akbar! God is Great. There is no God but God. God is Great! God
is Great and worthy of all praise. He is Holy. Day and night we should
praise Him. He is without partner, without equal. All praise be to Him.
Holy is He, Who makes the rich generous, Who provides the sacrifice for
the wise. He is Great, without an equal. All praise be to Him. Listen!
I testify that there is no God but God. He is alone, without partner.
This testimony is as bright as the early dawn, as brilliant as the
glorious feast day. Muhammad is His servant who delivered His message.
On Muhammad, and on his family, and on his Companions may the peace of
God rest. On you who are present, O congregation of Muslimín, may the
{255} mercy of God for ever rest. O servants of God! our first duty is
to fear God and to be kind. God has said: "I will be with those who
fear Me and are kind."
Know O servants of God! that to rejoice on the feast day is the sign
and mark of the pure and good. Exalted will be the rank of such in
Paradise (Dár-ul-Qarár), especially on the day of resurrection will
they obtain dignity and honour. Do not on this day foolish acts. It is
no time for amusements and negligence. This is the day on which to
utter the praises of God. (Tasbíh.) Read the Kalíma, the Takbír and the
Tamhíd. This is a high festival season and the feast of sacrifice. Read
now the Takbír-ut-Tashríq. God is great! God is great! There is no God
but God! God is great! God is great! All praise be to Him! From the
morning of the 'Arfa, after every farz rak'at it is good (mustahab) for
a person to repeat the Takbír-ut-Tashríq. The woman before whom is a
man as Imám, and the traveller whose Imám is a permanent resident
(Muqím) should also repeat this Takbír. It should be said at each Namáz
until the Salát-ul-'Asr of the Feast day (10th). Some, however, say
that it should be recited every day till the afternoon ('Asr) of the
thirteenth day, as these are the days of the Tashríq (p. 231).[261] If
the Imám forgets to recite, let not the worshipper forget. Know, O
believers, that every free man who is a Sáhib-i-Nisáb (_i.e._ worth Rs.
52) should offer sacrifice on this day, provided that this sum is
exclusive of his horse, his clothes, his tools, and his household goods
and slaves. It is wájib for every one to offer sacrifice for himself,
but it is not a wájib order that he should do it for his children.[262]
A goat, a ram or a cow should be offered in sacrifice for every seven
persons. The victim must not be one-eyed, blind, lame or very thin.
If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well, and carry you
across the Sirát. O Believers, thus said the Prophet, on whom be the
mercy and peace of God, "Sacrifice the victim with your own hands, this
was the Sunnat of Ibráhím, on whom be peace."
In the Kitáb-uz-zád-ut-Taqwá, it is said that on the 'Íd-ul-Fitr and
the 'Íd-uz-Zuhá, four nafl rak'ats should be said after the farz Namáz
{256} of the 'Íd. In the first rak'at after the Súrat-ul-Fátiha recite
the Súrat-ul-A'lá (Súra lxxvii); in the second, the Súrat-ush-Shams
(Súra xci); in the third, the Súrat-uz-Zuhá (Súra xciii); in the
fourth, the Súrat-ul-Ikhlás (cxii).
O Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon the sins of fifty years which
are past and of fifty years to come. The reading of these Súras are
equal as an act of merit to the reading of all the books God has sent
by His prophets.
May God include us amongst those who are accepted by Him, who act
according to the Law, whose desire will be granted at the last day. To
all such there will be no fear in the day of resurrection; no sorrow in
the examination at the day of judgment. The best of all books is the
Qurán. O believers! May God give to us, and to you a blessing for ever
by the grace of the Noble Qurán. May its verses be our guide, and may
its wise mention of God direct us aright. I desire that God may pardon
all believers, male and female, the Muslimín and the Muslimát. O
believers, also seek for pardon. Truly God is the Forgiver, the
Merciful, the Eternal King, the Compassionate, the Clement. O
believers, the Khutba is over. Let all desire that on Muhammad Mustafá
the mercy and peace of God may rest.
The worshippers then return to their respective homes and offer up the
sacrifice,[263] for it is a wájib order that every Muslim should keep this
feast, and sacrifice an animal for himself. He need not fear though he has
to incur debt for the purchase of an animal, for it is said that God will
in some way help him to pay the debt. If a camel is sacrificed, it should
be one not less than five years of age, if a cow or sheep it should at
least be in its second year, though the third year is better; if a goat it
must not be less than six months old. All of these animals must be without
a blemish, or defect of any kind. It is a sunnat order that the head of the
household should himself slay the victim. If, however, from any cause, he
cannot do so, he may call in a butcher; but in that case he must place his
hand upon that of the butcher when the operation is performed. If the {257}
victim is a camel, it must be placed with the head towards Mecca. Its front
legs being bandaged together the sacrificer must stand on the right hand
side of the victim, and plunge the knife into its throat with such force
that the animal may fall at once. Any other mode of slaying it is unlawful.
Other animals must be slain in the same way. Just before slaying the victim
the following verse of the Qurán should be repeated: "Say! my prayers, and
my worship, and my life and my death are unto God, the Lord of the worlds.
He hath no associate. This am I commanded, and I am the first of the
Muslims." (Súra vi. 163). The operator also adds: "O God, from Thee, and to
Thee (I do this), in the name of God, God is Great!" Then having slain the
victim he says: "O God accept this for me." The first meal taken should be
prepared from the flesh of the animal just slaughtered, after which the
members of the family, the neighbours, and the poor should receive some
portions.
It is considered highly meritorious to sacrifice one animal for each member
of the family; but as that would involve an expenditure few could bear, it
is allowable to sacrifice one victim for the household. In extreme cases
men may combine together and make one sacrifice do for the whole, but the
number of persons so combining must not exceed seventy. Some authorities
limit the number to seven. This feast is strictly observed by all Muslims
wherever they may be.
The Baqr-'Íd and the 'Íd-ul-Fitr constitute the 'Ídain, the two great
Feasts of Islám. A country in which Musalmáns could not observe them both
would at once become Dár-ul-Harb, or House of Enmity, in which it would be
the bounden duty of every Muslim to join in a Jíhád, against the Infidel
rulers of the land.
This completes the principal Feasts of the Muslim year.
Among other practices borrowed from the Hindus must be placed the
pilgrimage made by Indian Musalmáns to the {258} shrines of Saints, the
ceremonies connected with them and the festivals instituted in their
honour. Properly speaking, the Sunnís have but two festivals--the Baqr-'Íd
and the 'Íd-ul-Fitr, but many others are now observed. Of these I have
described several. It only remains to notice a few of the festival days
which are peculiar to India. The title of Pír given to a Musalmán devotee
is equivalent to the term Guru amongst the Hindus. A man who seeks to be a
'religious' takes a Pír as a spiritual guide. "Follow," says the poet Walí,
"the footsteps of thy Pír, like a shadow." After death these Pírs are
venerated as Walís or Saints. The Pírs when alive, are frequently resorted
to for a ta'wíz, or charm, and the aid of their prayers is often invoked.
The sepulchre of a Walí is called a Dargáh, shrine; Mazár, place of
pilgrimage; Rauza, garden. The professional reciter of the Qurán, and the
Namáz at such places is called a Rauza Khán. As a rule, processions are
made to the shrines, and flowers, sweetmeats and food over which a Fátiha
has been said are offered. Usually the Fátiha is _for_ the Saint, not _to_
the Saint. It is considered a very meritorious act to give land for the
erection of such shrines and to endow them. An account of many of these
Saints is given in the Bara Masa by Jawán and the Áráyish-i-Mahfil by
Afsos. The following selection will give an idea of the customs
prevalent:--
1. FESTIVAL OF MADÁR.--Sayyid Badr-ud-dín Kutb-ul-Madár is said to have
descended from the Imám Husain. He was born at Aleppo about A.D. 1050, and
received from Muhammad permission to "hold his breath" (Habs-i-dam). Thus
he was able to live to a good old age. He is said to have had 1,442 sons,
and to have died when upwards of 300 years old. More rational people
explain the number of his sons by saying they were his spiritual children.
The length of his life is explained by saying that as each man has to make
a certain number of inspirations, the less frequently he does it the longer
he will live. Jawán in his account of {259} the festival states: "The tomb
of Madár is at Makanpúr, a place about forty miles from Cawnpore." On the
seventeenth of the month Jamádí-ul-Awwal an immense crowd fills the village
which is illuminated at night. Fires are lighted, around which Fakírs
dance, and through which they leap calling out "Dam Madár, Dam Madár,"
(breath of Madár.) An order of Fakírs, called Madária, look to this Saint
as their patron. In distant places where this feast is kept they set up an
Alam, or standard in honour of the Saint, and perform ceremonies common to
such days. The nights are spent in celebrating his praises, &c.
2. FESTIVAL OF MU'ÍN-UD-DÍN CHISTÍ.[264]--The tomb of this Saint is in
Ajmír. He was a Syed descended from Husain, the son of 'Alí, and was born
in Sajistán about the year 537 A.H. His father died when he was about
fifteen years old. Soon after this he fell in with a famous Fakír, Ibráhím
Qandúzí, through whose influence he began to seek the Taríqat, or mystical
road to the knowledge of God. When he was twenty years of age he received
further instruction from the famous 'Abd-ul-Qádir Jílání. After the
conquest of Hindustan by Shaháb-ud-dín Ghorí, Mu'ín-ud-dín retired to
Ajmír, where he died in the odour of sanctity 636 A.H. Pilgrimages to this
tomb have been and are very popular. Emperors and people vied with each
other in doing honour to the memory of this saint. Even Akbar, sceptic
though he was as regards orthodox Islám, made a pilgrimage to this shrine,
and offered vows that he might have a son who would live to manhood. Hindus
also visit this tomb and presents from rich men of this class are not
unusual.
3. FESTIVAL OF SÁLÁR MAS'ÚD GHÁZÍ.--There is some doubt as to the
nationality of this Saint. Some say he was a Husainí Syed, others that he
was a Pathán, and a martyr. His tomb is situated in Oude. Afsos thus
describes the {260} pilgrimage. "Once a year great crowds of people gather
from all parts. They carry red lances, and beat thousands of tambourines.
The 'Urs is held on the first Sunday of the month Jíth (May-June). The
people believe that this was his wedding day, because it is said that he
had on wedding garments when he was killed. This belief once led a certain
oilman, a resident of Radúlí, to send a bedstead, chair, and other marriage
presents to the shrine at this time. The custom is still kept up by the
descendants of the oilman. The common people fasten ropes to the branches
of the trees in the neighbourhood, and swing, some by the hands and some by
the heels, and assume various disguises. They thus hope to obtain what they
desire." The Hindus venerate this Saint very highly. The Musalmáns look
upon him as a most sacred person, for he slew many idolatrous Hindus, and
so earned the title of Ghází, the warrior: the Hindus consider that it was
only by the power of God that he could do so many acts of prowess.
4. FESTIVAL OF THE BÍRA OR OF KHÁJA KHIZR.--Of this Saint, M. Garcin de
Tassy says: "Khája Khizr is a personage respecting whom the opinions of
orientals vary. Many consider him the same as Phineas, the grandson of
Aaron; others that he is the prophet Elias; and lastly, the Turks confound
him with St. George. In order to reconcile these conflicting opinions, some
allege that the same soul has animated three different persons. Whatever be
the fact, Khizr, according to the Musalmáns, discovered the source of the
Water of Life of which he is the guardian. He is believed to be very clever
in divination, and to be the patron of waters. As such a festival is held
in his honour." Jawán describes it thus: "In the month of Bhádún
(August-September) all whose wishes have been fulfilled, make it a point of
duty to set afloat the boat (náú) in honour of Khája Khizr, and to make
according to their means offerings of milk and bruised grain to the holy
personage. On every Friday, and in some places on every Thursday, in the
month {261} in question, the devotees having prepared the bíra carry it at
night to the bank of the river, with many ceremonies. There great and
small, having lighted lamps and tapers, make their respective oblations,
whilst a number of swimmers together jointly push the bíra into the middle
of the river." Sometimes a number of small bíras, made of clay, are also
launched, and as each carries a lamp the general effect is striking. It is
said that the Musalmán natives of the Maldive Islands annually launch a
small vessel laden with perfumes, gum, and odoriferous flowers, and leave
it to the mercy of the winds and waves as an offering to the god of the
sea. There can be no doubt that this god of the sea is Khizr, the patron of
the waters.
The following prayer is recited in the Fátiha of Khizr: "To obtain purity
of heart, and the benediction of Him who hears the vows of mortals, and who
alone can keep from them all evils, I rest upon the merits of Khája Khizr,
the great prophet Elias."
5. THE FEAST OF PÍR DASTGÍR SÁHIB.--This is held on the eleventh day of the
month of Rabí'-us-Sání. The Sunnis hold this Saint in great reverence. He
has no less than ninety-nine names. His tomb is at Baghdád. On the tenth of
the month the ceremony called Sandal (p. 245) is performed, followed on the
next day by the 'Urs, when the Maulad, or the account of the circumstances
connected with the birth of the saint is read; Qasá,id, or elegiac poems
are recited; the Darúd is repeated and Fátihas are said. The Qurán is also
read through. Vows are frequently made to this Saint and in time of any
special visitation, such as cholera, a flag is carried about in honour of
this Pír by some of his devotees to whom presents of food, &c, are offered.
Fátiha is then said over them. He is said to appear to his followers during
their sleep and to give them directions. Ja'far Sharíf, the compiler of the
Qánún-i-Islám speaking, on this point relates his own experience thus: "The
author speaks from personal experience, for at the time of need, when he
{262} was oppressed in mind concerning things which he desired, he used to
repeat constantly the ninety-nine names of the Pír and vow before the Holy
God, imploring His assistance by the soul of Dastgír; and through the mercy
of the Almighty, his Excellency Ghaus-ul-A'zam (Dastgír) presented himself
in his sleep, and relieved him of his perplexities and vouchsafed his
behests."
Syed Ahmad Kabír Rafáí, the founder of the Rafái Darwíshes was a nephew of
this Saint.
6. FESTIVAL OF QÁDIR WALÍ SÁHIB.--This is the great saint of Southern
India. The 'Urs is celebrated on the tenth day of Jamádí-us-Sání. The
shrine is at Nagore, a town situated four miles north of Negapatam. The
sandal and other ceremonies are similar to those described already. He is
the patron saint of sailors, who in times of difficulty vow that, if they
reach the shore in safety, they will offer a Fátiha in the name of Qádir
Walí. The common people have a profound faith in the power of the saint to
work miracles. The story of the following one is frequently related: "A
vessel springing a leak was about to founder, when the Captain made a vow
that should Qádir Walí stop the leak, he would offer in his name the value
of the cargo. At that time the saint was being shaved, but being
miraculously acquainted with the perilous position of the Captain he cast
away the looking-glass which he held in his hand. This glass attached
itself to the hole in the bottom of the ship which then came safely to
land. The Captain, in due course, presented his offering to the saint who
requested him to return the glass to the barber. The Captain was astonished
at this request and enquired what glass was meant. He was then directed to
look at the bottom of his ship. He did so, and discovered how the saint had
saved the ship."
The festival affords a curious illustration of the way in which Hindu
influences have acted on Islám, and how even Hindus pay regard to Muslim
Saints. Qádir Walí is said to {263} have been a Fakír who lived on the
charity of both Hindus and Musalmáns. Indeed both parties claim him as
belonging to their respective religions, which may be accounted for by the
fact that in his preaching to mixed audiences he suited his addresses to
both classes of his hearers. After his death a small Mosque was erected on
or near his tomb. The fame of the Walí gradually grew, and a Hindu Rajah
made a vow that if he were blessed with the birth of a son, he would
enlarge and beautify the Mosque. His wish was fulfilled, and the present
elegant structure is the result. So famous has the shrine of the Saint now
become that the Musalmáns there say: "First Mecca, then Nagore." The same
reason which induced the Hindu Rajah to make a votive offering years ago,
still influences large numbers of people. On Thursday evenings, the
commencement of the Muhammadan Sabbath, many Hindu women resort to the
shrine of the Saint. On the closing night of the Annual Feast, Tábúts are
taken in procession from Negapatam, and rich presents are sent from the
Tanjore Palace to the Nagore Mosque. Thus is the Hindu connection still
kept up with the festival of this Musalmán Saint.
There are many other Walís and Pírs to whose tombs pilgrimages are made,
and in memory of whom many superstitious observances are still kept up; but
all such pilgrimages to a Dargáh (shrine) are no necessary part of Islám.
In all parts of the country there are the shrines of Saints who have a
local reputation and whose annual festivals are more or less observed.
Still it is not necessary for me to give a further account of these. This
brings me to the close of my subject.
In the preceding chapters, I have endeavoured to set forth the main
features of the Faith of Islám, and the religious duties it enjoins. I
might now go on to show its relation to Judaism and Christianity, the
elements it has drawn from them, and the distortions it has made in the
borrowing, as well as the protest it raised against much that was {264}
corrupt in the Christianity with which it came in contact. I might also
enlarge upon its moral and social effects, and the character it produces in
the individual and the state. But these subjects would lead me far beyond
my present scope. I prefer to content myself with giving a representation
of the Faith of Islám from its own authorities, and with leaving my readers
to make comparisons and draw inferences for themselves.
THE END.
{265}
* * * * *
INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS.
A.
Aiyám-i-Bíz, 214
Aiyám-ut-Tashríq, 231
'Alam, 238
Al-A'ráf, 167
Al-Barzakh, 168
Al-Mahdí, 80
Akhir-Chár Shambah, 244
'Amm, 48
Amr-i-Takwíti, 176
Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, 150
Ásár-i-Sharíf, 245
Asháb, 7
'Áshúrá, 241
'Áshúr Khána, 237
Asmá-i-Husná, 133
Attahíyát, 197
Auliya, 152
Áyat, 54
Áyat-ul-Kursí, 212
Azád, 95
Azán, 193
B.
Bárá Wafát, 244
Baqáb-i-Qausain, 158
Baqr-'íd, 252
bid'at, 14
Buráq, 241
D.
Dá,írí, 81
Dalálat, 53
Dalíl-i-qata'í, 187
Dalíl-i-zani, 187
Darwíshes, 94
Dargáh, 258
Du'á, 197
F.
Faná, 93
Farú', 120
Farz, 187
Farz-í-'ain, 208
Farz-i-kifáya, 207
Fatrah, 3
Fitrat, 187
Fuqihá, 33
G.
Ghair-i-Mahdí, 81
Ghusl, 190
Gunáh-i-kabíra, 154
Gunáh-i-saghíra, 154
{266}
H.
Hadís-i-Ahád, 70
Hadís-i-Hasan, 71
Hadís-i-Mua'llaq, 72
Hadís-i-Mursal, 72
Hadís-i-Mutawátír, 70
Hadís-i-Sahíh, 71
Hadís-i-Z'aíf, 71
Hadd, 179
Háfiz, 42
Haft Sifát, 118
Hajj, 223
Hajr-ul-Aswad, 226
Hál, 93
Haqíqat, 52, 93
Harám, 188
Hárút, 142
Hasal Khazaf, 230
I.
Ibádhiyah, 76
Ibárat, 53
Iblís, 140
'Íd-gáh, 245
'Íd-ul-Fitr, 247
Iftár, 250
Ihlál, 224
Ihrám, 224
Ijmá', 16
Ijmá'-i-Ummat, 17
Ijtihád, 17, 26, 32
Ijtihád fi'l-Masá,íl, 34
Ijtihád fi'l-Mazhab, 34
Ijtihád fi'l-Sharí', 34
Ilhám, 37
Ilká, 40
'Ilm-i-usúl, 41
Imám, 75
Imám Abu Hanífa, 19
Imám Ibn Málik, 20
Imám As-Sháfa'í, 21
Imám Ibn Hanbal, 22
Imámat, 75
Imám Bára, 237
Imán-i-mufassal, 116
Imán-i-mujmal, 116
Istidlál, 53
Ishárat, 53
Ishrák fi'l-'ibádat, 108
Ishrák fi'l-adab, 109
Isnád, 67
'Itikáf, 249
Iqámat, 194
Iqtizá, 54
I'tibár-ul-Amsál, 27
J.
Jabríans, 132
Jahannum, 172
Jámí'-i-Tirmizí, 86
Jamrat-ul-Akahah, 230
Jannat, 171
Jashn-i-milád-i-sharíf, 245
Jinn, 145
Juz, 56
K.
K'aba, 227
Kalám, 135
{267}
Kalima, 54, 116
Karámians, 163
Kasb, 130
Kausar, 171
Kináyah, 52
Kirám-ul-Kátibín, 141
Kitmán, 91
Khafí, 50
Khárigites, 76
Kháss, 48
Kharq-i-'ádat, 157
Khulafá-i-Ráshidín, 66
Khutba, 201
L.
Labbaik, 225
Lahad, 211
Lailat-ul-Qadr, 2
M.
Mahmúdiah, 83
Majáz, 52
Majzúb, 95
Maukadda', 200
Makrúh, 188
Mansúkh, 59
Maqám-i-Mahmúd, 169
Marsiya, 238
Márút, 142
Mihráb, 243
Mimbar, 239
Míqát, 225
Mízán, 165
Mua'qqibát, 141
Muawwal, 48
Mu,azzin, 193
Mubáh, 188
Mufassir, 33, 50
Mufsid, 188
Muhaddis, 67
Mujassimians, 131
Mu'jizát, 157
Mujmal, 51
Mujtahid, 17
Mukham, 50
Munkir, 145
Murshid, 92
Mutashábih, 52
Musallí, 193
Mushábihites, 131
Mus-haf, 147
Muharram, 237
Muskhil, 51
Mustahab, 188
Mu'takif, 249
Mustarik, 48
Muta'h, 84
Mutazilites, 125
N.
Nabí, 153
Nafkhatain-i-Súr, 161
Nafl, 199
Nakír, 145
Namáz, 193
Nass, 50
Násikh, 59
Nisáb, 218
Niyyat, 194
Núr-i-Muhammadí, 77
{268}
Q.
Qadam-i-Rasúl, 245
Qadríans, 174
Qazá, 214
Qíám, 194
Qíás, 27, 28
Qirá,at, 43
Qárí, 43
R.
Rak'at, 195
Ramazán, 247
Ramí-ul-Jamár, 230
Rasúl, 153
Rauza Khán, 258
Roza, 213
Roza-i-nazr, 214
Roza-i-kafára, 214
Rúh-ul-Ámín, 4
Rukú', 56
Rúz-i-Tarwiáh, 229
S.
Sadqa, 250
Sahá,íf-i-A'mál, 165
Sahíh-i-Bukhárí, 67
Sahíh-i-Muslim, 68
S'ai, 229
Salát, 193
Salát-ul-'Asr, 200
Salát-ul-Fajr, 200
Salát-ul-'Ishá, 200
Salát-ul-Ishráq, 200
Salát-ul-Istisqá, 206
Salát-ul-Istikhára, 213
Salát-ul-Janáza, 207
Salát-ul-Juma', 200
Salát-ul-Khauf, 204
Salát-ul-Khusúf, 206
Salát-ul-Kusúf, 205
Salát-ul-Maghrib, 200
Salát-ul-Musáfir, 204
Salát-ut-Taráwíh, 206
Salát-ul-Tahajjud, 200
Salát-uz-Zuhá, 200
Salát-uz-Zuhr, 200
Sálik, 92
Saríh, 52
Shafá'at-i-ba-izn, 108
Shafá'at-i-muhabbat, 107
Shafá'at-i-wajahat, 107
Shirk, 105
Shirk-ul-'Ádat, 109
Shirk-ul-ibádat, 108
Shirk-ul-'ilm, 107
Shirk-ut-tasarruf, 107
Sifát-i-Salbiah, 123
Sifát-i-Sabútiah, 123
Sihah-Sittah, 67
Sípára, 56
Sirát, 166
Sufíism, 87-101
Sunan-i-Abu Dáúd, 68
Sunan-i-Nasáí, 68
Sunan-i-Májah, 69
Sunnat, 10
Súra, 55
T.
Ta'awwuz, 195
{269}
Taba-i-Tábi'ín, 7
Tábi'ín, 7
Tábút, 238
Tahárat, 189
Tahríf, 149
Takbír, 193
Takía, 84
Talbíyah, 225
Talqín, 212
Tasbíh, 195
Tashahhud, 188
Tasmía', 195
Tasmíyah, 195
Tatáír-i-Sahá,íf, 163
Tauhíd, 106
Tauqífi, 132
Tawáf, 227
Tawáf-ul-Widá', 231
Tayammum, 190
Tázíah, 238
U.
Usúl, 120
'Umráh, 231
W.
Wahhábís, 101
Wahí, 37
Wajd, 93
Wájib, 187
Wájib-ul-Wajúd, 132
Wáqi'a Khán, 239
Wazú, 189
Witr, 198
Z.
Zakát, 218-222
Záhir, 49
Ziárat, 233
* * * * *
NOTES
[1] There is an excellent one by Neil B. E. Baillie. The question of Jihád
is fully discussed in Dr. Hunter's _Our Indian Musalmáns_.
[2] "Let none touch it but the purified." (Súra lvi. 78.)
[3] "It was certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his to bring
down the whole Korán at once to the lowest heaven only, and not to the
earth, as a bungling prophet would have done; for if the whole had been
published at once, innumerable objections might have been made, which it
would have been very hard, if not impossible for him to solve; but as he
pretended to receive it by parcels, as God saw proper that they should be
published for the conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sure
way to answer all emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour from
any difficulty which might occur." (Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section
III.)
[4] Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 77.
[5] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. p. 195.
[6] "The grandeur of the Qurán consists, its contents apart, in its
diction. We cannot explain the peculiarly dignified, impressive, sonorous
nature of Semitic sound and parlance; its sesquipedalia verba with their
crowd of affixes and prefixes, each of them affirming its own position,
whilst consciously bearing upon and influencing the central root--which
they envelope like a garment of many folds, or as chosen courtiers move
around the anointed person of the king." Literary Remains of Emmanuel
Deutsch, p. 122.
[7] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 194.
[8] Those who were in constant intercourse with the prophet are called
Asháb (Companions); their disciples are named Tábi'ín (Followers); their
disciples are known as Taba-i-Tábi'ín (Followers of the Followers)."
[9] "Thus, after the usual distribution of the spoils taken on the field of
Cadesia (A.H. 14) the residue was divided among those who knew most of the
Corán." Muir, vol. i. p. 5.
[10] Muavia.
[11] The twelve Imáms.
[12] Al-Mahdí is still supposed to be alive.
[13] These are called (1) Sunnat-i-Fi'lí; that which Muhammad himself did.
(2) Sunnat-i-Qaulí, that which he said should be practised. (3)
Sunnat-i-Taqrírí, that which was done in his presence and which he did not
forbid.
[14] Risála-i-Berkeví.
[15] The great Wahhábí preacher Muhammad Ismá'íl, of whom some account will
be given later on, says in the Takwiat-ul-Imán:--"The best of all ways is
to have for principles the words (holy writings) of God and _of His
Apostle_; to hold them alone as precedents, and not to allow our own
opinion to be exercised."
[16] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 195.
[17] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 16.
[18] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 285.
[19] "Les docteurs de la loi sont unaniment d'accord sur l'obligation de
conformer ses actions à ce qui est indiqué dans les traditions attribuées
au Prophète," Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 465.
[20] In June 1827, A.D., Sultán Mahmud issued a manifesto protesting
against interference in the affairs of the Ottomán Empire, "the affairs of
which are conducted upon the principles of _sacred legislation_, and all
the regulations of which are strictly connected with the principles of
religion." These principles still remain in force, for the famous Fatvá
given by the Council of the 'Ulamá, in July 1879, anent Khair-ud-dín's
proposed reforms, speaks of "the unalterable principles of the Sheri," or
Law.
[21] "The respect which modern Muslims pay to their Prophet is almost
idolatrous. The Imám Ibn Hanbal would not even eat water-melons because
although he knew the Prophet ate them, he could not learn whether he ate
them with or without the rind, or whether he broke, bit or cut them: and he
forbade a woman, who questioned him as to the propriety of the act, to spin
by the light of torches passing in the streets by night, because the
Prophet had not mentioned that it was lawful to do so." Lane's Modern
Egyptians, vol. i. p. 354.
[22] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 1009.
[23] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 469.
[24] Journal Asiatique 4me série, tom. xii.
[25] Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs, p. 29.
[26] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 594.
[27] Ibid., p. 546.
[28] Ibid., vol. ii. p. 548.
[29] In South India, the Muhammadan money-changer resorts to a curious
piece of casuistry to reconcile the practice of his profession with the
faith he holds. It is wrong to gain money by money as a direct agency.
Suppose, then, for example, that the charge for changing a shilling is one
farthing. It is unlawful for the money-changer to give four three-penny
pieces for one shilling plus one farthing, for then he will have sinned
against the laws anent usury by gaining money (one farthing) by money; but
if he gives three three-penny pieces plus two pence three farthings in
copper the transaction will be lawful, as his profit of one farthing is
then gained by selling as merchandize certain pieces of silver and copper
for one shilling, and not by exactly changing the shilling.
Again, pictures or representations of living creatures are unlawful; and
so, when British rupees were first circulated in India, good Muslims
doubted whether they could use them, but after a long consultation the
'Ulamá declared that, as the eye of His Majesty was so small as not to be
clearly visible, the use of such coins was legal. This kind of casuistry is
very common and very demoralizing; but it shows how rigid the law is.
[30] "Authority becomes sacred because sanctioned by heaven. Despotism,
being the first form of consolidated political authority, is thus rendered
unchangeable and identical in fact with Government at large." "Supreme
Government has four stages: (1) where the absolute Prince (Muhammad) is
among them concentrating in his own person the four cardinal virtues, and
this we call the reign of wisdom; (2) where the Prince appears no longer,
neither do these virtues centre in any single person: but are found in four
(Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Alí), who govern in concert with each other, as
if they were one, and this we call the reign of the pious; (3) where none
of these is to be found any longer, but a chief (Khalíf) arises with a
knowledge of the rules propounded by the previous ones, and with judgment
enough to apply and explain them, and this we call the reign of the Sunnat;
(4) Where these latter qualities, again, are not to be met with in a single
person, but only in a variety who govern in concert; and this we call the
reign of the Sunnat-followers.--Akhlák-i-Jalálí, pp. 374. 378.
[31] Life of Muhammad, by Syed Amír 'Alí, p. 289.
[32] The Muslim 'Ulamá are certainly much fettered by their religion in the
pursuit of some of the paths of learning; and superstition sometimes
decides a point which has been controverted for centuries. Lane's Modern
Egyptians, vol. i. p. 269.
[33] The Goth might ravage Italy, but the Goth came forth purified from the
flames which he himself had kindled. The Saxon swept Britain, but the music
of the Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and wooed him into less
churlish habits. Visigoth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted out their
ferocity in the very light of the civilisation they had striven to
extinguish. Even the Hun, wildest Tartar from the Scythian waste, was
touched and softened in his wicker encampment amid Pannonian plains; but
the Turk--wherever his scymitar reached--degraded, defiled, and defamed;
blasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and Latin civilisation, until,
when all had gone, he sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for two
hundred years into hopeless decrepitude. Lieut.-Col. W. F. Butler, C.B., in
_Good Words_ for September 1880.
[34] "The Muslim everywhere, after a brilliant passage of prosperity, seems
to stagnate and wither, because there is nothing in his system or his
belief which lifts him above the level of a servant, and on that level
man's life in the long run must not only stagnate but decay. The Christian,
on the other hand, seems everywhere in the last extremity to bid
disorganization and decay defiance, and to find, Antæus-like, in the earth
which he touches, the spring of a new and fruitful progress. For there is
that in his belief, his traditions, and in the silent influences which
pervade the very atmosphere around him, which is ever moving him, often in
ways that he knows not, to rise to the dignity and to clothe himself with
the power which the Gospel proposes as the prize of his Christian calling.
The submissive servant of Allah is the highest type of Moslem perfection;
the Christian ideal is the Christ-like son."--_British Quarterly, No._
cxxx.
[35] A Mukallif is one who is subject to the Law. A Ghair-i-Mukallif is one
not so subject, such as a minor, an idiot, &c. The term Mukallif is thus
equivalent to a consistent Muslim, one who takes trouble (taklíf) in his
religious duties.
[36] Commentators on the Qurán.
[37] The Traditionists.
[38] Plural of Faqíh, a theologian.
[39] I have given the dates of their death.
[40] Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs p. 72.
[41] Dabistán, p. 214.
[42] pp. 508-510.
[43] "It (the Qurán) is simply an instruction for all mankind" (Súra xii.
104).
[44] Zawábit-al-Qurán, pp. 110, 111.
[45] The opinion of Von Hammer, quoted by Sir W. Muir, in his life of
Muhammad (vol. i. page 27) seems to be correct, "We may hold the Qurán to
be as surely Muhammad's words as the Muhammadans hold it to be the Word of
God."
[46] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. iii. p. 16.
[47] "Were we to examine the Qurán by the rules of rhetoric and criticism
as they are taught in Muslim schools, we should be obliged to acknowledge
that it is the perfection of thought and expression; an inevitable result
as the Muslims drew their principles of rhetoric from that very
book."--Baron M. de Slane, in the introduction to Ibu Khallikan's
Biographical Dictionary.
[48] There are many Traditions which refer to this fact. Omar Ibn al
Khattáb said; "I accorded with my cherisher (_i.e._, God) in three things.
One is that I said, 'O messenger of God! if we were to say our prayers in
Abraham's place it would be better.' Then a revelation came down 'Take the
place of Abraham for a place of prayer.' The second is, that I said, 'O
messenger of God! good and bad people come to your house; and I do not see
that it is fitting; therefore, if you order your women to be shut up it
will be better.' Then the revelation for doing so came down. The third is,
that his Majesty's wives were all agreed in a story about his drinking
honey; and he had vowed never to drink it more. Then I said to his
Majesty's wives, 'Should the Prophet divorce you, God will give him better
in exchange.' Then a revelation, came down agreeing with what I said."
'Áyesha said:--"I was reflecting on those women who had given themselves to
the Prophet, and said 'What! does a woman give herself away?' Then the
revelation descended:, 'Thou mayest decline for the present whom thou wilt
of them, and thou mayest take to thy bed her whom thou wilt, and whomsoever
thou shalt long for of those thou shalt have before neglected: and this
shall be no crime in thee.' (Súra xxxiii. 51). I said; 'I see nothing in
which your God doth not hasten to please you: whatsoever you wish He
doeth.'"
[49] Les Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 459.
[50] This includes even the orthography, for:--"La génération suivante, je
veux dire les Tábis (Tába'ín), adopta l'orthographe des Compagnons du
Prophète et se fit un mérite de ne point s'écarter des formes adoptées par
ceux qui, après Mahommed, étaient les plus excellent des hommes et qui
avaient recu de lui les révélations célestes, soit par écrit, soit de vive
voix." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 397.
[51] This interpretation God made known to the Prophet, who communicated it
to the Companions, hence all orthodox opinion must be in strict accordance
with theirs. They were the sole depositaries of the inspired commentary
given by Muhammad. There is now no room for, as there is no need of, any
other.
[52] Speaking on this very subject Ibn Khaldoun says:--"Rien de tout cela
n'a pu se connaître que par des indications provenant des Compagnons et de
leurs disciples." Vol. ii. p. 460.
[53] Ibn Khaldoun says that Zamakchori, (a theologian of good repute for
learning in the sixth century A.H.), remarked on these letters as
follows:--They indicate that the style of the Qurán is carried to such a
degree of excellence, that it defies every attempt to imitate it; for this
book which has been sent down to us from heaven is composed of letters. All
men know them all alike, but this power disappears when, in order to
express their ideas, they want to use these same letters combined."
On this curious passage Baron de Slane remarks that the author is not very
clear, and that the Turkish translator of Ibn Khaldoun gives the sense of
the passage as:--"God has placed these letters in several Súras as a sort
of defiance; as if He had said:--'Voilà les éléments dont se compose le
Coran; prenez-les et faites-eu un livre qui l'égale par le style.'" Ibn
Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 68.
[54] The last verse revealed at Mecca was, "This day have I perfected your
religion for you, and have filled up the measure of my favours upon you;
and it is my pleasure that Islám be your religion; but whoso without wilful
leanings to wrong shall be forced by hunger to transgress, to him, verily,
will God be indulgent, merciful." (Súra v. 5). Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 206.
[55] The arrangement made by Professor Th. Nöldeke in his "Geschichte des
Quráns" is considered by Stanley Lane Poole to be the best. Rodwell's
English version of the Qurán is, with some exceptions, an example of this
order.
[56] On ordinary occasions any verses may be chosen. The 112th Súra is the
one generally repeated.
[57] Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 216.
[58] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 131.
[59] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268.
See note on this in chapter 4. Section 'Prophets.'
[60] Niáz Namáh, by Maulavi Safdar 'Ali, p. 250.
[61] Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii, p. 679.
[62] "He ranked as a high authority in the Traditions and was well versed
in all the sciences connected with them." Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii. p. 680.
[63] The Káfi, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A.H. 329. The
Man-lá-yastah-zirah-al-Faqíh, by Shaikh 'Alí, A.H. 381. The Tahzíb and the
Istibsár by Shaikh Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A.H. 466. The Nahaj-ul-Balághat by
Sayyud Razí A.H. 406.
[64] If the Isnád is good, internal improbability carries with it little
weight against the genuineness of a Tradition. There is a saying current to
this effect:--"A relation made by Sháfa'í on the authority of Málik, and by
him on the authority of Nafi, and by him on the authority of Ibn Omar, is
really the golden chain."
[65] Núr-ul-Hidáyah, p. 5.
[66] A full account of these will be found in the preface to the
Núr-ul-Hidáyah, the Urdu translation of the Sharh-i-Waqáyah.
[67] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 123.
[68] Kisas-ul-Anbiya,--"Lives of the Prophets."
[69] Hyát-un-Nafís.
[70] The Shía'hs in claiming freedom from sin for the infallible Imáms are
more logical than the Romanists, thus:--
"If we are to believe in the inerrability of a person, or a body of
persons, because it is, forsooth, necessary for the full preservation of
the truth, we must then also believe in all besides that can be shown to be
needful for the perfect attainment of that end. Now, the conservation of
all spiritual truth is not a mere operation of the intellect. It requires
the faultless action of the perceiving power of the spirit. That is to say,
it requires the exclusion of sin; and the man or body that is to be
infallible, must also be a sinless organ. It is necessary that the
tainting, blinding, distorting power of sin should be shut out from the
spiritual eye of the infallible judge." Gladstone's _Gleanings_, vol. iii.
p. 260.
[71] It is a common Musalmán belief that the body of a prophet casts no
shadow. A similar idea regarding necromancers was widely spread over
Northern Europe. It is alluded to by Scott in the "Lay of the Last
Minstrel," where speaking of the father of the Ladye, who in Padua, "had
learned the art that none might name," he says:--
"His form no darkening shadow traced
Upon the sunny wall."
It is said that at a certain stage of initiation candidates for magical
honours were in danger of being caught by the devil. Now if the devil could
only catch the shadow, and the man escaped, though so nearly captured, he
became a great magician. This is evidently a legend to explain a previous
belief. Muhammadan ideas in the middle ages were prevalent in the
Universities of Southern Europe, and Salamanca and Padua were the
universities, in which it was supposed that the greatest proficiency in
magic was obtained. The superstition has evidently some connection with the
Musalmán belief regarding the shadows of prophets.
[72] The Sunnís esteem and respect the Imáms, as Ahl-i-Beit--men of the
House, (of the Prophet); but do not give them precedence over the duly
appointed Khalífs.
[73] The names are 'Alí, Hasan, Husain, Zain-ul-'Abid-dín, Muhammad Báqr,
Ja'far Sádiq, Musa Kázim, 'Alí Músa Razá, Muhammad Taqí, Muhammad Naqí,
Hasan 'Askarí, Abu 'l-Qásim (or Imám Mahdí).
[74] Rauzat-ul-Aimmah by Sayyid 'Izzat 'Alí.
[75] For a good account of this movement see, Osborn's Islám under the
Arabs, pp. 168-184.
[76] Islám under the Khalífs, p. 139.
[77] Miskát-ul-Musábih.
[78] Hujjat-ullah-ul-Balaghah.
[79] Nothing shows this more plainly than the Fatvá pronounced by the
Council of the 'Ulamá in July 1879 anent Khaír-ud-din's proposed reform,
which would have placed the Sultán in the position of a constitutional
sovereign. This was declared to be directly contrary to the Law. Thus:--
"The law of the Sheri does not authorize the Khalíf to place beside him a
power superior to his own. The Khalíf ought to reign alone and govern as
master. The Vakils (Ministers) should never possess any authority beyond
that of representatives, always dependent and submissive. It would
consequently be a transgression of the unalterable principles of the Sheri,
which should be the guide of _all_ the actions of the Khalíf, to transfer
the supreme power of the Khalíf to one Vakil." This, the latest and most
important decision of the jurists of Islám, is quite in accordance with all
that has been said about Muhammadan Law. It proves as clearly as possible
that so long as the Sultán rules as Khalíf, he must oppose any attempt to
set up a constitutional Government. There is absolutely no hope of reform.
[80] It is instructive to compare the words of the Christian poet with the
Súfí idea of absorption into the Divine Being.
"That each who seems a separate whole
Should move his rounds, and fusing all
The skirts of self again, should fall
Remerging in the general soul,
Is faith as vague as all unsweet:
Eternal form shall still divide
The eternal soul from all beside;
And I shall know him when we meet."
Tennyson's "In Memoriam."
[81] "Le spiritualisme des Sofis, quoiqu'il soit le contraire du
matérialisme, lui est en réalité identique. Mais si leur doctrine n'est pas
plus raisonnable, elle est du moins plus élevee et plus poétique." Poésie
Philosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin De Tassy, p. 2.
[82] Kaf--a chain of mountains supposed to encircle the earth.
[83] 'Anka--the Phoenix.
[84] "Ils pensent que la Bible et le Coran ont été seulement écrits pour
l'homme qui se contente de l'apparence des choses, qui s'occupe de
l'extérieur, pour le _záhir parast_, comme ils le nomment, et non pour le
sofi qui sonde le fond des choses." La Poésie Philosophique et religieuse
chez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 13.
[85] The word Darvísh, or Darwísh, is of Persian origin. It is derived from
'dar,' a door, and 'wíz' the root of the verb 'awíkhtan,' to hang; hence
the idea of hanging about doors, or begging. The 'z' is changed into 'sh'
and the word becomes 'Darwísh.' Some Musalmáns, however, do not like this
idea of holy men being called by a name which implies the habit of begging,
and so they propose another derivation. They derive it from "dur," a pearl,
and "wísh," like; and so a durwísh is one 'like a pearl.' The wísh is from
wásh, a lengthened form of wash, an affix of common use to express
similitude; or the long vowel in wásh may by a figure of speech, called
Imála, be changed into the í of wísh. I think the first derivation the more
probable. A good Persian dictionary, the Ghíás-ul-Lugbát, gives both
derivations.
[86] For a very interesting account of this religious ceremony, see Hughes'
Notes on Muhammadanism, Chapter 51.
[87] La Poésie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin
de Tassy, p. 7.
[88] Súfí doctrines of the Moollá Sháh by Tawakkul Beg. Journal Asiatique
6me Série, tom. 13.
[89] "That Omar in his impiety was false to his better nature we may
readily admit, while, at the same time, we may find some excuse for his
errors, if we remember the state of the world at that time. His clear
strong sense revolted from the prevailing mysticism where all the earnest
spirits of his age found their refuge, and his honest independence was
equally shocked by the hypocrites who aped their fervour and enthusiasm;
and at that dark hour of man's history whither, out of Islám, was the
thoughtful Muhammadan to repair? No missionary's step, bringing good
tidings, had appeared on the mountains of Persia; the few Christians who
might cross his path in his native land, would only seem to him idolaters."
Speaking, too, of Sa'di's life the reviewer says: "almost the only point of
contact with Christendom is his slavery under the Crusaders at Tripoli. The
same isolation runs through all the golden period of Persian
Literature"--_Calcutta Review_, No. lix.
[90] The following are the names of the Wahhábí chiefs:--Muhammad-Ibn-Saud,
died A.D. 1765; 'Abd-ul-Azíz, assassinated, 1803; Saud-Ibn-'Abd-ul-Azíz,
died 1814; 'Abd-Ulláh-ibn-Saud, beheaded 1818; Turki, assassinated 1830;
Fayzul, died 1866; 'Abd-Ulláh, still living. Hughes Notes, p. 221.
[91] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. ii. p. 10.
[92] According to the latest Census Report there are 4,000 in the Madras
Presidency, where the total Musalmán population is about 2,000,000.
[93] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 149.
[94] Palgrave's Arabia vol. i. p. 369.
[95] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 372.
[96] Ibid, p. 372.
[97] Muhammad Ismá'íl concludes his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Imán, with
the prayer--"O Lord teach us by Thy grace, the meaning of the terms Bid'at
and Sunnat, and the Law of the Prophet. Make us pure Sunnís and strictly
submissive to the Sunnat." This is a clear and distinct proof that Wahhábís
do not reject Tradition as a basis of the Faith. It also shows their horror
of innovation, and reveals the little hope there is of any real progress
through their influence.
[98] "Mr. Finlay, the clever but partial author of "The Byzantine Empire,"
has declared in a sweeping way 'that there is no greater delusion than to
speak of the unity of the Christian Church.' However this may be, I can
affirm the perfect applicability of this sentence to Islám in the East. In
no part of the world is there more of secret division, aversion, misbelief
(taking Muhammadanism as our standard), and unbelief than in those very
lands which to a superficial survey, seem absolutely identified in the one
common creed of the Qurán and its author."--Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p.
10.
[99] Strictly speaking, this chapter should be entitled the 'Faith of
Islám,' as the subject of it is technically called Imán, or faith. The
Kalima, or creed is, in the strict sense, the expression of belief in one
God, and in Muhammad as His apostle. I here use the word creed in the usual
sense of a body of dogmas.
[100] Iqrárun bil-lisáni wa tasdíqun bil janáni.
[101] Amantu billáhi kama hua bismáíhi wa sifátíhi wa qabiltu jamí'a
ahkámihi.
[102] Amantu billáhi wa maláíkatihi wa kutubihi wa rusulihi
wal-youm-íl-ákhiri wal-qadri khairihi wa sharrihi min alláhi ta'álá
wal-ba'si ba'd al-mouti.
[103] He speaks of it thus: "l'ouvrage élémentaire de la religion Musulmane
le plus estimé et le plus répandu en Turquie," p. 154.
[104] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 27.
[105] The above statements form the substance of several pages in the
"Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun," in which also occurs the following: "Cela
n'est pas toutefois un motif pour déprécier notre intelligence et nos
facultés perceptives: l'intelligence est une balance parfaitement juste:
elle nous fournit des résultats certains sans nous tromper. Mais on ne doit
pas employer cette balance pour peser les choses qui se rattachent à
l'unité de Dieu, à la vie future, à la nature du prophétisme, au véritable
caractère des attributs divine et à tout ce qui est au delà de sa porteé.
Vouloir le faire, ce serait une absurdité." Vol. iii. p. 45.
[106] "Telle fut la règle suivie par les anciens musulmans à l'égard des
verses motachabeh; ils l'appliquaient aussi aux expressions du même genre
qui se présentent dans la Sonna, parce qu'elles proviennent de la même
source que celles du Coran." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 67.
This passage is of some interest as maintaining the common source and
origin of the Qurán and the Sunnat.
[107] Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. p. 565.
[108] "The Musulmán Authors distinguish between the earlier and later
Mutakallimán. The former (of whom we here treat) were occupied with purely
religious questions; the latter, who arose after the introduction of the
Greek philosophy amongst Muslims, embraced many philosophic notions, though
they tried to make them fit in with their religious opinions." Mélanges de
Philosophie Juive et Arabe, p. 320.
[109] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250.
[110] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250.
[111] Dabistán, p. 218.
[112] Ibn Khallikan, vol. iii, p. 343.
[113] "C'etait l'époque de la plus grande splendeur extérieure de l'empire
des Arabes, où leur pouvoir, et en même temps leur culture intellectuelle
et littáraire, atteignirent leur point culminant." Journal Asiatique 4me
Série, Tome xii. p. 104.
[114] To understand the bearing of all the discussions that then took
place, the reader should have some acquaintance with the history of the
Khalífs, and of the rise and progress of Muslim philosophy. The former can
be found in Osborn's "Khalífs of Baghdád." A short review of the latter
will be found in a note at the end of this chapter.
[115] Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii p. 669.
[116] Ibid, p. 228.
[117] Ibn Khaldoun says: "L'établissement des preuves (fondées sur la
raison) fut adopté par les (premiers) scolastiques pour le sujet de leur
traités, mais il ne fut pas, comme chez les philosophes, une tentative pour
arriver à la découverte de la vérité et pour obtenir, au moyen de la
démonstration, la connaissance de ce qui était ignoré jusqu' alors. Les
scolastiques recherchaient des preuves intellectuelles dans le but de
confirmer la vérité des dogmes, de justifier les opinions des premiers
Musalmans et de repousser les doctrines trompeuses que les novateurs
avaient émises." Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 169.
[118] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 63
[119] "Most excellent titles has God: by these call ye on Him and stand
aloof from those who pervert His titles." (Súra vii. 179.)
[120] "The Mujassimians, or Corporealists not only admitted a resemblance
between God and created beings, but declared God to be corporeal." Sale's
Preliminary discourse, Section viii. para. 3.
[121] Ibn Khallikan, vol. iv. p. 394.
[122] "The Freethinkers (Mutazilites) left no traces of themselves except
in the controversial treatises which they had written. These were
destroyed, and with their destruction the last vestiges of the conflict
between Free-thought and the spirit of Islám were obliterated." Osborn's
Khalífs of Baghdád, p. 148.
[123] Súra xxxix, 68, 69.
[124] L'Islamisme d'après le Coran, p. 135.
[125] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 112.
[126] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 187.
[127] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 58.
[128] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 19.
[129] "From the beginning of history the Caucasus is to civilized nations,
both Greek and Oriental, the boundary of geographical knowledge--indeed,
the boundary of the world itself."--Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat, p.
48.
[130] See also Súra xxxviii. 89.
[131] Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 140.
[132] Thus the famous Persian poet Sa'dí says in the Bustán, "Yetímí kih
nákardah Qurán darust, kutub khána-i-chand millat bashust."--"The Perfect
one who, ere the whole of Gabriel's book he reads, has blotted out the
library of all the peoples' creeds."
[133] Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 147. Mansukh shud tiláwatan wa Kitábatan,
_i.e._ abrogated both as regards reading and writing--entirely abrogated.
Also Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 64. Dín-i-wai Násikh-i-jami'-i-adián ast.--"His
religion abrogates all religions."
[134] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268.
This Commentary is written in Urdu, but the author has made a translation
for the benefit of the English reader. The passage referred to reads thus
in English: "Those who imagine it to be part of the Muhammadan creed that
one law has totally repealed another are utterly mistaken, and we do not
believe that the Zuboor (Book of Psalms) abrogated the Taureit
(Pentateuch); that the Taureit in turn gave way to the Injeel (New
Testament) and that the New Testament was suppressed by the Holy Korán. We
hold no such doctrine, and if any ignorant Muhammadan should assert to the
contrary, he simply knows nothing whatever about the doctrines and articles
of his faith." The learned Syed here assumes the rôle of a liberal
Musalmán, but the English translation is different from his Urdu text
which, literally translated, is as follows:--"Now it should be considered
that those who imagine it to be part of the creed of Muslims that the
Taurát by the coming of the Zabúr, and the Zabúr by the coming of the
Injíl, and the Injíl by the coming of the Qurán are abrogated _on account
of the idea that there is any defect in them_ are utterly mistaken, &c."
The clause which I have italicised is entirely omitted in the English text;
but it alters the import of the whole passage. To his co-religionists the
Syed says in effect: "The books _are abrogated_ but not because they were
imperfect." Now, as no Muslim would believe that a divine book was
defective, the Syed is simply asserting the fact of the abrogation of the
previous Scriptures and to the orthodox is orthodox. The leader of an
apparently liberal section of Indian Musalmáns is, in this instance, at
least, as conservative as the most bigoted.
[135] Syed Ahmad's Commentary on the Holy Bible, vol. i. p. 22.
[136] Ibid, p. 31.
[137] There are many other such passages. They are given in detail, with
the interpretation of approved commentators, in a small S. P. C. K.
publication--The Korán--by Sir W. Muir.
[138] Commentary on the Holy Bible, by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. pp.
64-95.
[139] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59.
[140] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59.
[141] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 65.
[142] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. pp. 196-205.
[143] "That the "Auliya" are distinguished above ordinary mortals is
maintained on the authority of:--"Are not the friends (Auliya) of God,
those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be put to grief." (Súra x.
63.)
[144] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 125.
[145] Sirát-ul-Islám, p. 18.
[146] This is an orthodox blow at the Shía'h practices in the month of
Muharram. Shía'hs consider this a good act.
[147] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 18.
[148] It is said Adam's sin was a mere slip but it brought good to the
world. Had he remained in Paradise the world would not have been peopled;
and the word of God "I have not created men and jinns, except for worship,"
would not have been fulfilled.
[149] That is, according to the commentator Beidawí,--"Thy remissness in
propagating Islám."
[150] Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 332.
[151] On the contrary, he seems to disclaim such a power. Thus the Quraish
said: "By no means will we believe on thee till thou cause a fountain to
gush forth for us from the earth; or, till thou have a garden of palm-trees
and grapes, and thou cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst;
or thou make the heaven to fall on us, as thou hast given out, in pieces;
or thou bring God and the angels to vouch for thee, &c. Say: Am I more than
a man, an Apostle?" (Súra xvii. 92-95). Former prophets, Muhammad used to
say, were sent to their own sect, but he was sent for all. Their miracles
were confined to their own times. The Qurán the great miracle of Islám, was
for all ages. He needed no other sign than this.
[152] "Have We not opened thine heart for thee." (Súra xciv. 1). Tradition
relates that when young, two angels cut open his breast, and took out a
black drop; many other marvels are also connected with this event.
[153] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí.
[154] Tafsír-i-Husainí. p. 362
[155] For a graphic account of these events see "Literary Remains of
Emmanuel Deutsch," pp. 99-112.
[156] "All that Muhammadans must believe respecting the Mi'ráj is that the
Prophet saw himself, in a vision, transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, and
that in such a vision he really beheld some of the greatest signs of his
Lord." Essays by Syed Ahmad, Essay vi. p. 34. This, though a legitimate, is
not, however, an orthodox opinion; which is, that he who denies an actual
bodily migration from Mecca to Jerusalem is a Káfir, (infidel) as he denies
the statement of a 'nass' or plain text of the Qurán. He who denies the
ascension to heaven, and the wonderful account of the night's proceedings
preserved in the Traditions is a "fásiq," (sinner), though he remains a
Muslim.
[157] Some commentators make no distinction between the first and second
blast, as only two are distinctly mentioned in the Qurán.
[158] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 183.
[159] According to Búkhárí and to Muslim, this perspiration will flow to a
distance of seventy yards from, and reach up to the lobe of the ears of
those who perspire.
[160] "That is, they will know the inhabitants of Paradise by their
whiteness, and the people of Hell by the blackness of their faces."
[161] For some curious opinions with regard to the state of the soul there
see Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv., p. 55.
[162] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 47.
[163] Tafsír-i-Husainí, vol. i. p. 397.
[164] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 25.
[165] Miskát-ul-Musábíh, book xxiii. ch. 12.
[166] "Although some Muhammadans, whose understandings are too refined to
admit such gross conceptions, look on their Prophet's description as
parabolical, and are willing to receive them in an allegorical or spiritual
acceptation, yet the general and orthodox doctrine is, that the whole is to
be strictly believed in the obvious and literal acceptance." Sale's
Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. p. 73.
[167] This, the Lauh-ul-Mahfúz, is referred to in Súra lxxxv. 22, as that
on which the Qurán is written. In Súra xxxvi. 11, the actions of men are
said to be written in "the clear book of our decrees." This is called the
Imám-ul-Mubín, the clear prototype.
[168] "The Prophet of God said that Adam and Moses (in the world of
Spirits) maintained a debate before God, and Adam got the better of Moses,
who said, "Thou art that Adam, whom God created and breathed into thee His
own Spirit, and made the angels bow down before thee, and placed thee in
Paradise; after which, thou threwest man upon the earth, from the fault
which thou didst commit.' Adam replied, 'Thou art that Moses, whom God
selected for His prophecy and to converse with, and He gave thee twelve
tables, in which are explained everything, and he made thee His confidant
and the bearer of His secrets; then how long was the Bible written before I
was created?' Moses said, 'Forty years.' Then said Adam, 'Didst thou see in
the Bible that Adam disobeyed God?' 'Yes.' 'Dost thou reproach me on a
matter, which God wrote in the Bible forty years before creating me?'"
[169] Ibn Kah, commenting on the verse, "When thy Lord brought forth their
descendants from the reins of the sons of Adam and took them to witness
against themselves, 'Am I not,' said He, 'your Lord,' They said: 'yes, we
witness it.'" (Súra vii. 171), goes on to say: "God formed all the prophets
and saints into one class, and the martyrs into another. The pious men,
also, were separated into one, and the wicked into another. One class was
formed of the obedient servants, while the unbelievers, _viz_., the Jews,
the Christians, the Majians, the Hindus, &c., were likewise divided into
several parties; next, they were shaped into forms, that is, into the shape
in which he was to appear in the world was predestined for each one." This
passage is quoted with approval by the Wahhábí author of the
Takwiyat-ul-Imán.
[170] The orthodox Commentator 'Abbás says: "This verse refers to the
decree, _e.g._ 'He whom God wills to believe certainly will do so, and whom
He wills to be an infidel will be one,' and not at all to man's free will."
Tafsír-Hisainí, vol. ii. page 9.
[171] Mélanges de Philosophe Juive et Arabe par S. Munk. p. 458.
[172] Thus the poet Faizí says: "Before thou and I were thought of, our
free will was taken from our hands; be without cares, for the Maker of both
worlds settled our affairs long before we were made."
[173] The punishment of death is sometimes decreed for lesser offences. In
the latter part of the year 1879, one of the Turkish 'Ulamá, named Ahmad,
was condemned to death for having assisted Dr. Koelle, an English clergyman
residing in Constantinople, in the translation of the Book of Common
Prayer, and a tract on 'Christ the Word of God.' Owing to the urgent
representations of the British Ambassador the Khojah's life was spared, but
he was banished to the island of Chio. The Porte promised to maintain his
family whilst he was absent. It need scarcely be said that nothing of the
kind has been done.
[174] Journal Asiatique 4me Série, tome 17, p. 582
[175] This is the Sháfa'íte form which the Hanifites consider wrong.
[176] Kingsley's Alexandria and her Schools, p. 160.
[177] Les Prairies D'or, tome sixième, p. 368.
[178] Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 315.
[179] For a statement of the Ash'arían doctrines see pp. 130-131.
[180] Strictly speaking, one should not speak of Arab but of Muslim
philosophy, for curiously enough only one famous Philosopher, Al-Kendi, was
an Arab.
[181] Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 429.
[182] "Aprés lui, nous ne trouvons plus chez les Arabes aucun philosophe
véritablement digne de ce nom." Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par
S. Munk, p. 458.
[183] Muslim rule in Spain is often referred to as an instance of the
height of culture and the liberality of sentiment which may exist in a
Muhammadan state. I have shown that the culture was not due to the teaching
of the Arab Prophet and his Companions, and with regard to the liberality
it is well to remember the words of G. H. Lewes. He says: "The Arabs,
though they conquered Spain, were too weak in numbers to hold that country
in subjection otherwise than by politic concessions to the opinion and
customs of the people." History of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 36.
[184] "There never was any Arabian science, strictly speaking. In the first
place, all the Philosophy and Science of the Muhammadans was Greek, Jewish,
and Persian.... It really designates a reaction against Islámism, which
arose in the distant parts of the Empire, in Samarcand, Bokhara, Morocco,
and Cordova. The Arabian language having become the language of the Empire,
this Philosophy is written in that language; but the ideas are not Arabian;
the spirit is not Arabian." History of Philosophy, by G. H. Lewes, vol. ii.
p. 34.
[185] The Persian term for this is Namáz, a word in commoner use in India
than Sulát. Both terms will henceforth be employed.
[186] There is a Tradition to the effect that "the whole body of him who
says the name of God when making wazú will be clean; whereas, if he says it
not, only the part washed will be pure."
[187] Before commencing the wazú, say: "I am going to purify myself from
all bodily uncleanness preparatory to commencing prayer, that holy act of
duty, which will draw my soul near to the throne of the Most High. In the
name of God, the Great and Mighty. Praise be to God who has given us grace
to be Muslims. Islám is a truth and infidelity a falsehood."
When cleaning the teeth say: "Vouchsafe O God, as I clean my teeth, to
purify me from my faults and accept my homage. O Lord, may the purity of my
teeth be for me a pledge of the whiteness of my face at the day of
judgment."
When washing the nostrils say: "O my God, if I am pleasing in Thy sight,
perfume me with the odours of Paradise."
When washing the right hand say: "O my God, on the day of judgment, place
the book of my actions in my right hand, and examine my account with
favour."
When washing the left hand, say: "O my God, place not at the resurrection
the book of my actions in my left hand." Similar prayers are said at each
act.
[188] From the account which follows it will be seen that the term Namáz
expresses what we term a 'Service.' The word for prayer in the ordinary
sense is 'Du'á.'
[189] It is taken from the Sirát-un-Naját, pp. 30-33.
[190] As the use of bells is unlawful a man is employed to call the people
to prayers.
[191] "God is Great."
[192] The followers of Imám As-Sháfa'í and the women of all sects place the
hands upon the breast. The feet should be about four inches apart; women
stand with the feet close together.
[193] The second rak'at begins here: all that precedes is only repeated at
the first rak'at.
[194] A fixed portion is said in each rak'at during the nights of Ramazán,
which portion is then called a rukú'. (Ante. p. 57.)
[195] In a mosque the Imám says the first sentences alone; the people the
second.
[196] Women in the Sijda keep all the limbs of the body close together, and
put both feet at right angles to the body. If their face is Qibla-wards it
is sufficient.
[197] Here the Shía'hs say:--"I rise and sit by the power of God."
[198] This is said at the close of every two rak'ats.
[199] The Shía'hs stop here and omit the rest.
[200] The Shía'hs omit the Du'á and say: "Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with
the mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be on us and on God's righteous
servants."
[201] The Fatvá, or decree, will be found in a note at the end of this
chapter.
[202] I am indebted to Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism for this excellent
table.
[203] The Musallí may say five or three witr rak'ats instead of seven.
[204] Núr-ul-Hidáayat, p. 155.
[205] In countries under Muslim rule he holds a wooden sword reversed.
[206] One who says, "Alláhu Akbar--God is Great."
[207] A reference to his presence with Muhammad in the cave (ghár) when
they fled from Mecca to Madína. See Súra ix. 40.
[208] Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 153.
[209] Sirát-un-Naját, p. 40.
[210] Qíám is one of the positions in a Namáz and is here used by
synecdoche for it. In Mecca the Salát-ut-Taráwíh is called with reference
to this Tradition the Salát-ul-Qíámíah.
[211] Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 141.
[212] That is, a non-Muslim who is allowed to reside in a Musalmán State on
payment of a special tax.
[213] The Sháfa'ítes raise the hands at the recital of each of the four
Takbírs; the other sects do so only at the first.
[214] If the deceased was a child or a mad person, they say:--
"O God, make him (or her, as the case may be) a guide for us, and make him
a cause of our gaining a future reward. O God, save him and make him an
intercessor for us."
[215] The Imám makes the Niyyat in his mind that the Salám may be on his
guardian angels, and on the worshippers who are behind him; each worshipper
makes the Niyyat that the Salám may be on his guardian angels, on his
fellow worshippers and on the Imám.
[216] _i.e._, the deceased's.
[217] Death, resurrection, judgment; &c.
[218] This contradicts verse 254 of this Súra. Muslims explain it thus. We
accept all prophets and as regards _faith_ in them make no difference,
though as regards _dignity_ we recognize the distinction indicated in the
254th verse.
[219] That is, the Jews and Christians, on whom, it is said by the Muslim
Commentators, many strict ceremonial observances were incumbent. The word
often used to express the idea of the burdensome nature of ceremonial
observance is taklilíf, trouble. Practically, Muslims are not free from
these "loads," a fact which finds expression in the word used for a pious
man--a mukhallif, one who has to take trouble in the way of performing
religious duties.
[220] In Madras, a branch of the pomegranate tree is usually stuck in.
[221] The name of the mother is here inserted. The mother's name is chosen
in preference to that of the father, as there can be no doubt as to the
maternity of the child. For the same reason it is said that at the Last Day
each man will be summoned as such an one, son of such a mother. This simple
fact reveals a sad state of morals, or, at least, a disbelief in the virtue
of women.
[222] The idea is that the reward of this act is transferred to the person
on whose behalf it is made.
[223] Súra ii. 256.
[224] There are others who maintain that this is a _mukham_ statement and
cannot therefore be abrogated. They hold that it must be restricted to the
aged and to persons who have chronic diseases. Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 30.
Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 120.
[225] Burton says that, when in the disguise of a Musalmán doctor he was in
Cairo making preparations for the Hajj, he had but one patient who would
break his fast to save his life. All the others refused though death should
be the consequence.
[226] "The former are called Zakát, either because they increase a man's
store by drawing down a blessing on him and produce in his soul the virtue
of liberality, or because they purify the remaining part of one's substance
from pollution and the soul from the filth of avarice; the latter are
called Sadqa because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship
of God." Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv.
[227] That is food or money sufficient to provide one meal for a poor
person.
[228] The technical term is 5 wasq. A wasq is equal to 60 sá', and a sá' is
equal to 8 ratal. A ratal is equal to 1 lb; so a wasq, a load for one
camel, is about 480 lb.
[229] Mosques are usually endowed. The property thus set apart is called
waqf. This supports the various officials connected with a Mosque.
[230] The two famous disciples of Imám Abu Hanífa, Abu Yúsuf and Muhammad.
[231] This ceremony is called Al-Ihrám (_i.e._, making unlawful), because
now various actions and pursuits must be abstained from. The ceremony of
doffing the pilgrim's garb is called Al-Ihlál (_i.e._, making lawful), for
now the pilgrim returns to the ordinary pursuits and joys of a life in the
world.
[232] This statement of names is taken from the Núr-ul-Hidáyat p. 211, and
that of the distance from Hughes' Notes on Islám; but Burton speaks of Al
Zaribah, a place 47 miles distant from Mecca as a Míqát. It was there that
he assumed the Ihrám. The explanation probably is that a Hájí must not
approach nearer to Mecca without the Ihrám than the places named in the
text. The farther from Mecca it is assumed, provided that it be during one
of the two months preceding Zu'l-Hajja, the more meritorious is the act.
[233] Talbíyah means the repetition of "Labbaik," a phrase equivalent to "I
am here." The Talbíyah can be said in any language, though Arabic is
preferred. It usually is as follows: "Labbaik, Alláhumma, Labbaik! Lá
Sharíka laka, Labbaik! Inna-l-hamda wa-n-ní'amata laka, w'-al-mulk! Lá
Sharíka laka, Labbaik!
[234] "The object of these minute details is that the "Truce of God" may be
kept." The five noxious creatures, however, may be slain, _viz._, a crow, a
kite, a scorpion, a rat and a biting dog." (Burton).
[235] The Musjid-ul-Harám is the large Mosque in Mecca. The K'aba (cube) is
a square stone building in the centre. This is also called the Qibla. The
Hajr-ul-Aswad is the black stone fixed in the corner of the K'aba.
[236] It is said to have been rebuilt ten times. A full description will be
found in Burton's Pilgrimage to Madína and Mecca, vol. iii. ch. 26. It is
far too long to quote, and it cannot be condensed. The following extract is
of some interest, as it states why the 'Ulama consider the K'aba so sacred
a place. They quote the verse: 'Verily the first house built for mankind
(to worship in) is that in Beccah (Mecca)--Blessed and a salvation to human
beings. Therein are manifest signs, even the standing-place of Abraham, and
he who entereth is safe.' (Súra iii. 90). The word 'therein' is said to
mean Mecca, and the "manifest signs" the K'aba, which contains such marvels
as the footprints on Abraham's platform, and is the spiritual safeguard of
all who enter it. In addition, other "signs" are the preservation of the
black stone, the miracles put forth to defend the House, the terrible death
of the sacrilegious, and the fact that in the Flood the big fish did not
eat the little fish in the Harám. Invalids recover their health by rubbing
themselves against the Kiswat (the covering of the K'aba), and the black
stone. One hundred thousand mercies descend on it every day, &c. Portions
of the Kiswat are highly valued as markers for the Qurán. Waistcoats made
of it are supposed to render the combatant invulnerable in battle.
[237] The whole seven are one Usbú'.
[238] The Maqám-i-Ibráhím is a small building, supported, by six pillars
about eight feet high, four of which are surrounded from top to bottom by a
fine iron railing, while the space between the two hinder pillars is left
open; within the railing is a frame about five feet square, said to contain
the sacred stone on which Abraham sat when he built the K'aba.
[239] In the first rak'at, the chapter usually recited is Súra cix; in the
second, Súra cxii.
[240] "Many find this inconvenient and so pass on to 'Arifát during the
afternoon of the eighth day" (Burton).
[241] The following legend is current about 'Arifát. "When our parents
forfeited heaven by eating wheat, which deprived them of their primeval
purity, they were cast down upon earth. The serpent descended at Ispahán,
the peacock at Cabul, Satan at Bilbays, Eve upon 'Arifát and Adam at
Ceylon. The latter determining to seek his wife, began a journey, to which
the earth owes its present mottled appearance. Wherever he placed his
foot--which was large--a town arose; between the strides will always be
country. Wandering for many years he came to the Mountain of mercy, where
our common mother was continually calling upon his name, and their
recognition gave the place the name of 'Arifát. They lived here till death
took place." (Burton).
[242] The Sháfa'í rules allow a traveller any time when on a journey of a
night and day to reduce the five Namáz to three by joining some. The Hanafí
code allows the shortened form only on this day.
[243] "The Shaitan-ul-Kabír is a dwarf buttress of rude masonry about eight
feet high, by two and a half broad, placed against a rough wall of stones."
(Burton).
[244] Most of the ceremonies connected with the Hajj, the Ihrám, the
shaving of the head, the going to Safá and Marwah, the throwing of the
stones, the circuit of the K'aba, the kissing of the black stone, and the
sacrifice were all pagan ceremonies performed by the idolatrous Arabs.
Muhammad by his time-serving policy, adopted to gain the Meccans to his
side, has confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probably
have been extinct long ago. Safá and Marwah were hills held in
superstitious reverence by the Meccans. The early Muslims had some doubt
about retaining them as sacred places: then came the revelation to the
Prophet, "Safá and Marwah are among the monuments of God, whosoever then
maketh a pilgrimage to the temple or visiteth it, shall not be to blame if
he go round about them both." (Súra ii. 153).
[245] These are the letters contained in words which direct the reader when
to pause. Thus toí stands for mutlaq (slight pause), qif (pause), jím for
já,íz (freedom to pause, or not to pause), lá for no (no pause), mím for
la'zim (necessary to pause), (.) is a full stop.
[246] Persian was the foreign language with which the early Muslims were
brought most into contact; but the objection applies equally to any other
language.
[247] A concession of no practical value, as any one with the power of
speech could learn these words in a very short time.
[248] This is because by so doing it would seem to ascribe to it similarity
to human compositions.
[249] During the first ten days they are supposed to contain the bodies of
the martyrs, but now being empty the Tázías become mere ordinary frames and
can be destroyed, Qánún-i-Islám, p. 146.
[250] This feast is known in South India as the Dassara. The idol is thrown
into a tank.
[251] The Mihráb is a niche in a wall which indicates the position of
Mecca. The face is always turned to it when prayers are said; so that the
expression in the prayer means that 'Alí is to be the object toward which
the faithful look.
[252] The twelve Imáms, Muhammad and Fátima.
[253] The 'Íd-gáh is usually built outside of the town, and consists of a
long wall of masonry with two minarets and a large raised open court. There
is a Mihráb in the wall: but no proper mimbar or pulpit, three raised steps
doing duty for it. Sometimes, however, a Mosque is used as an 'Íd-gáh.
[254] Tradition records that the Prophet, after the battle of Ohud, was one
day ascending a hill in a rage. The heat of his passion was such that the
mountain softened into the consistence of wax and retained, some say
eighteen; others, forty impressions of his feet. When rebuked by Gabriel
for his anger the Prophet enquired the cause of his rebuke. Gabriel told
him to look around. The Prophet seeing these impressions of his feet on the
stones was astonished. His anger instantly ceased. Qánún-i-Islám, p. 152.
[255] The Baqr-'Íd is the only other feast that has an 'Arfa.
[256] Mishkát-ul-Musábih, Book vii. ch. 1.
[257] That is, his blessing or his curse takes effect. Qánún-i-Islám p.
170.
[258] This is a warning to those who may have omitted this duty.
[259] Khutbahá-i-Muhtarjam, p. 104.
[260] "Observations on the Musalmáns of India." Mrs. Mír Husan 'Alí, p.
192."
[261] The opinion of the various Traditionists on this point is given in
the Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 61.
[262] Still it is mustahab, or a meritorious act so to do. It is also said
that, if a minor is possessed of property, his father or his guardian may
purchase at his expense an animal and sacrifice it. The child may then eat
as much as it can. The remainder of the meat must be exchanged for
something which the child can use, such as clothes, shoes, &c.
Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 60.
[263] According to the Imáms Sháfa'í and Málik no one must offer up the
sacrifice until the Imám who has officiated at the previous Namáz has slain
his victim. Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 61.
[264] Áráyish-i-Mahfil p. 144.
* * * * *
Corrections made to printed original.
Page 29 "It is moreover the unanimous opinion" - 'moveover' in original.
Page 33 "the Imám-i-A'zam or great Imám" - Imám-í-'Azam in original,
corrected by Errata.
Page 40 "This is technically called Ilká" - Ilka in original, corrected by
Errata.
Page 91 "Sa'dí in the Bustán says" - Bustun in original, corrected by
Errata.
Page 92 "the famous Maulána Jelál-ud-dín Rúmí" - Maolána in original,
corrected by Errata.
Page 93 "It is Faná--extinction." - Fana in original, corrected by Errata.
Page 188 "a still lower class of action which are mubáh." - mubah in
original, corrected by Errata.
Page 190 "(12) the whole head must be rubbed once" - '(13)' in original.
Page 192 "A man one day came to the Prophet" - 'come' in original.
Page 218 "Islám, Hurriat (freedom) and Nisáb (stock)." - Húrriat in
original, corrected by Errata.
Note 133 "Also Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 64." - Tamíl-ul-Imán in original,
corrected by Errata.