THE CREED OF ISLÁM.[99]
Faith is defined by Muslim theologians as: "Confession with the tongue and
belief with the heart."[100] It is said to "stand midway between hope and
fear." It is sub-divided into Imán-í-mujmal and Imán-í-mufassal. The former
is an expression of the following faith: "I believe in God, His names and
attributes, and accept all His commands."[101] The latter is the acceptance
of the following dogmas: "I believe in God, Angels, Books, Prophets, the
Last Day, the Predestination by the Most High God of good and evil and the
Resurrection after death."[102] These form the articles of faith which
every Muslim must believe, to which belief, in order to render it perfect,
he must add the performance of the "acts of practice," _viz._: (1) "The
recital of the Kalima or creed:--'There is no deity but God, and Muhammad
is the Apostle of God.' (2) Sulát. The five daily prayers. (3) Roza. The
thirty days fast of Ramazán. (4) Zakát. The legal alms. (5) Hajj, or the
pilgrimage to Mecca." This chapter will contain an account of the Imán--the
dogmas of Islám. An account of the Dín--the practical duties, will be given
in the next chapter. {117}
1. GOD.--This article of the faith includes a belief in the existence of
God, His unity and attributes, and has given rise to a large number of
sects. Some acquaintance with the various controversies which have thus
arisen is necessary to a correct knowledge of Islám. I commence the
consideration of this subject by giving the substance of a Sunní, or
orthodox treatise known as the Risála-i-Berkevi. The learned orientalist M.
Garcin de Tassy, considered it to be of such authority that in his
"L'Islamisme d'après le Coran" he has inserted a translation of the
Risála.[103] Muhammad Al-Berkevi, speaking of the Divine attributes,
says:--
(1). Life. (Hyát). God Most High is alone to be adored. He has neither
associate nor equal. He is free from the imperfections of humanity. He
is neither begotten nor does He beget. He is invisible. He is without
figure, form, colour or parts. His existence has neither beginning nor
end. He is immutable. If He so wills, He can annihilate the world in a
moment of time and, if it seem good to Him, recreate it in an instant.
Nothing is difficult to Him, whether it be the creation of a fly or
that of the seven heavens. He receives neither profit nor loss from
whatever may happen. If all the Infidels became Believers and all the
irreligious pious, He would gain no advantage. On the other hand, if
all Believers became Infidels, He would suffer no loss.
(2). Knowledge. ('Ilm). He has knowledge of all things hidden or
manifest, whether in heaven or on earth. He knows the number of the
leaves of the trees, of the grains of wheat and of sand. Events past
and future are known to Him. He knows what enters into the heart of man
and what he utters with his mouth. He alone, except those to whom He
has revealed them, knows the invisible things. He is free from
forgetfulness, negligence and error. His knowledge is eternal: it is
not posterior to His essence.
(3). Power. (Qudrat). He is Almighty. If He wills, He can raise the
dead, make stones talk, trees walk, annihilate the heavens and the
earth and recreate of gold or of silver thousands similar to those
destroyed. He can transport a man in a moment of time from the east to
the west, or from the west to the east, or to the seventh heaven. His
power is eternal à priori and à posteriori. It is not posterior to His
essence.
{118}
(4). Will (Irádah). He can do what He wills, and whatever He wills
comes to pass. He is not obliged to act. Everything, good or evil, in
this world exists by His will. He wills the faith of the believer and
the piety of the religious. If He were to change His will there would
be neither a true believer nor a pious man. He willeth also the
unbelief of the unbeliever and the irreligion of the wicked and,
without that will, there would neither be unbelief nor irreligion. All
we do we do by His will: what He willeth not does not come to pass. If
one should ask why God does not will that all men should believe we
answer: "We have no right to enquire about what God wills and does. He
is perfectly free to will and to do what He pleases." In creating
unbelievers, in willing that they should remain in that state; in
making serpents, scorpions and pigs: in willing, in short, all that is
evil God has wise ends in view which it is not necessary that we should
know. We must acknowledge that the will of God is eternal and that it
is not posterior to His essence.
(5). Hearing. (Sama'). He hears all sounds whether low or loud. He
hears without an ear for His attributes are not like those of men.
(6). Seeing. (Basr). He sees all things, even the steps of a black ant
on a black stone in a dark night; yet He has no eye as men have.
(7). Speech. (Kalám). He speaks, but not with a tongue as men do. He
speaks to some of His servants without the intervention of another,
even as He spoke to Moses, and to Muhammad on the night of the
ascension to heaven. He speaks to others by the instrumentality of
Gabriel, and this is the usual way in which He communicates His will to
the prophets. It follows from this that the Qurán is the word of God,
and is eternal and uncreated.
These are the "haft sifát," or seven attributes of God. There is unanimity
of opinion as to the number of attributes, but not as regards their nature
and the extent of the knowledge concerning them to which men can attain.
Thus some say that the knowledge of God is the first thing to acquire; but
Imám Sháfa'í and the Mutazilites say that a man must first attain to the
_idea_ of the knowledge of God. The meaning of the expression "Knowledge of
God" is the ascertaining the truth of His existence, and of His positive
and privative attributes, as far as the human understanding can enter into
these matters. The unity is not a mere numerical unity but absolute, for
the number one is the first of a series and implies a second, but God has
not a {119} second. He is "singular without anything like Him, separate
having no equal;" for, "had there been either in heaven or earth gods
beside God, both surely had gone to ruin." (Súra xxi. 22). God is not a
substance, for substance has accidents, but God has none: otherwise His
nature would be that of "dependent existence." God is without parts, for
otherwise he would not exist till all the parts were formed, and His
existence would depend on the parts, that is, on something beside Himself.
The orthodox strictly prohibit the discussion of minute particulars, for
say they, "just as the eye turning to the brightness of the sun finds
darkness intervene to prevent all observation, so the understanding finds
itself bewildered if it attempts to pry into the nature of God." The
Prophet said: "We did not know the reality of the knowledge of Thee;" and
to his followers he gave this advice: "Think of God's gifts, not of His
nature: certainly you have no power for that." The Khalíf Akbar is reported
to have said: "to be helpless in the search of knowledge is knowledge and
to enquire into the nature of God is Shirk (infidelity)."[104] A moderate
acquaintance with Muslim theology shows that neither the injunction of the
Prophet nor the warning of the Khalíf has been heeded.
According to the early Muslims, the Companions and their followers,
enquiries into the nature of God and His attributes were not lawful. The
Prophet knowing what was good for men, had plainly revealed the way of
salvation and had taught them:--
"Say: He is God alone:
God the eternal!
He begetteth not, and He is not begotten;
And there is none like unto Him." (Súra cxii)
This was sufficient for them to know of the mystery of the Godhead. God is
far beyond the reach of the human {120} understanding. He alone embraces
all in His comprehension. Men should therefore mistrust their own
perceptive faculties and notions and should obey the inspired legislator
Muhammad, who loving them better than they love themselves, and knowing
better than they do what is truly useful, has revealed both what they ought
to believe and what they ought to do. It is true that men must exercise
their reason, but they must not do so with regard to the divine
attributes.[105]
Dogma is divided into two portions, usúl and farú'--(_i.e._, roots and
branches.) The former include the doctrine about God; the latter, as the
name implies, consist of truths which result from the acceptance of the
former. The orthodox belief is that reason has only to do with the "farú',"
for the usúl being founded on the Qurán and Sunnat have an objective basis.
Differences of opinion about various branches of the "farú'," led to
discussions which did not stop there but went on to the "usúl," and so
paved the way for the rise of scholastic theology ('Ilm-i-kalám.) I have
already in the chapter on the exegesis of the Qurán explained the
difference in meaning between muhkam (obvious) verses and mutashábih
(intricate) ones. This difference lies at the very foundation of the
present subject. It is, therefore, necessary to enter a little into detail.
The question turns very much on the interpretation of the 5th verse of the
3rd Súra: "He it is who hath sent down to thee 'the Book.' Some of its
signs are of themselves perspicuous (muhkam): these are the basis of the
{121} Book--and others are figurative (mutashábih.) But they whose hearts
are given to err, follow its figures, craving discord, craving an
interpretation; yet none knoweth its interpretation but God. And the stable
in knowledge say, 'We believe in it: it is all from our Lord.' But none
will bear this in mind, save men endued with understanding." Here it is
clearly stated (1) that no one except God can know the interpretation of
mutashábih verses, and (2) that wise men though they know not their
interpretation, yet believe them all. Many learned men, however, say that
the full stop should not be placed after the word "God" but after
"knowledge," and so this portion of the verse would read thus: "None
knoweth its interpretation but God and the stable in knowledge. They say:
'we believe, &c.'" On this slight change in punctuation, which shows that
the 'stable in knowledge' can interpret the mutashábih verses, opposite
schools of theology have arisen in Islám.
The latter reading opens the way to a fearless investigation of subjects
which all the early Muslims avoided as beyond their province. In the early
days of Islám it was held that all parts of the Qurán, except the muhkam
verses and the purely narrative portions, were mutashábih; that is, all
verses which related to the attributes of God, to the existence of angels
and genii, to the appearance of Antichrist, the period and signs of the day
of judgment, and generally all matters which are beyond the daily
experience of mankind. It was strongly felt that not only must there be no
discussion on them,[106] but no attempt should be made to understand or act
on them. Ibn 'Abbás, a Companion, says: "One must believe the mutashábih
verses, but not take them for a rule of conduct." Ibn Jubair was once {122}
asked to put the meaning of the Qurán into writing. He became angry and
said: "I should rather be palsied in one-half of my body than do so."[107]
'Ayesha said: "Avoid those persons who dispute about the meaning of the
Qurán, for they are those whom God has referred to in the words, 'whose
hearts are given to err.'"
The first reading is the one adopted by the Asháb, the Tábi'ín and the
Taba-i-Tábi'ín and the great majority of Commentators. The Sunnís
generally, and, according to the testimony of Fakr-ud-dín Rází (A.H.
544-606), the Sháfa'í sect are of the same opinion.
Those who take the opposite view are the Commentators Mujáhid (died A.H.
101), Rábí' bin Ans and others. The scholastic theologians[108]
(Mutakallimán) generally adopt the latter reading.[109] They argued thus:
how could men believe what they did not know; to which their opponents
answered, that the act of belief in the unknown is the very thing here
praised by God. The scholastics then enquired why, since the Qurán was sent
to be a guide and direction to men, were not all its verses muhkam? The
answer was, that the Arabs acknowledged two kinds of eloquence. One kind
was to arrange words and ideas in a plain and simple style so that the
meaning might be at once apparent, the other was to speak in figurative
language. Now, if the Qurán had not contained both these styles of
composition, it could not have claimed the position it does as a book
absolutely perfect in form as well as in matter.[110]
Bearing in mind this fundamental difference of opinion, we can now pass on
to the consideration of the attributes.
{123} The essential attributes are Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, for
without these the others could not exist. Then the attributes of Hearing,
Seeing, Speech give us a further idea of perfection. These are the
"Sifát-i-Sabútiah," or affirmative attributes, the privation of which would
imply loss; there are also Sifát-i-Salbiah, or privative attributes, such
as--God has no form, is not limited by place, has no equal, &c. The acts of
sitting, rising, descending, the possession of face, hands, eyes, &c.,
being connected with the idea of corporeal existences imply imperfection
and apparently contradict the doctrine of "exemption" (tenzih) according to
which God is, in virtue of His essence, in no way like the creatures He has
made. This was a difficulty, but the four great Imáms all taught that it
was impious to enquire into these matters for all such allusions were
mutashábih. "The Imám Hanbal and other early divines followed in the path
of the early Muslims and said: 'We believe in the Book and the Sunnat, and
do not desire explanations. We know that the High God is not to be compared
to any created object: nor any creature with Him.'"[111] Imám As-Sháfa'í
said that a man who enquired into such matters should be tied to a stake,
and carried about, and that the following proclamation should be made
before him: "This is the reward of him who left the Qurán and the
Traditions for the study of scholastic theology." Imám Hanbal says:
"Whosoever moves his hand when he reads in the Qurán the words, 'I have
created with my hand,' ought to have his hand cut off; and whoever
stretches forth his finger in repeating the saying of Muhammad, 'The heart
of the believer is between two fingers of the Merciful,' deserves to have
his finger cut off." At-Tirmízí when consulted about the statement of the
Prophet that God had descended to the lowest of the seven heavens, said:
"The descent is intelligible, the manner how is unknown; the belief therein
{124} is obligatory; and the asking about it is a blameable innovation."
But all such attempts to restrain discussion and investigation failed.
The two main points in the discussion of this question are (1) whether the
attributes of God are internal or external, whether they are part of His
essence or not, and (2) whether they are eternal or not.
The two leading Sects were the Sifátians (or Attributists) and the
Mutazilites. The Sifátians whom the early orthodox Muslims follow, taught
that the attributes of God are eternally inherent in His essence without
separation or change. Every attribute is conjoined with Him as life with
knowledge, or knowledge with power. They also taught that the mutashábih
verses were not to be explained, and such were those which seemed to show a
resemblance between God and His creatures. So at first they did not attempt
to give the meaning of the terms, "hands, eyes, face, &c.," when applied to
God. They simply accepted them as they stood. In course of time, as will be
seen, differences of opinion on this point led to some sub-divisions of
this sect.
The Mutazilites were the great opponents of the Sifátians. They rejected
the idea of eternal attributes, saying that eternity was the formal
attribute of the essence of God. "If," said they, "we admit the eternal
existence of an attribute then we must recognize the multiplicity of
eternal existences." They also rejected the attributes of hearing, seeing
and speech, as these were accidents proper to corporeal existences. They
looked upon the divine attributes as mental abstractions, and not as having
a real existence in the divine essence. The Mutazilites were emphatically
the Free thinkers of Islám. The origin of the sect was as follows: Al
Hasan, a famous divine, was one day seated in the Mosque at Basra when a
discussion arose on the question whether a believer who committed a mortal
sin became thereby an unbeliever. The Khárigites (Ante p. 76) {125}
affirmed that it was so. The orthodox denied this, saying that, though
guilty of sin, yet that as he believed rightly he was not an infidel.[112]
One of the scholars Wásil Ibn Atá, (who was born at Madína A.H. 80), then
rose up and said: "I maintain that a Muslim who has committed a mortal sin
should be regarded neither as a believer nor an unbeliever, but as
occupying a middle station between the two." He then retired to another
part of the Mosque where he was joined by his friend 'Umr Ibn Obaid and
others. They resumed the discussion. A learned man, named Katáda, entering
the Mosque, went up to them, but on finding that they were not the party in
which Al Hasan was, said 'these are the Seceders (Al-Mutazila).' Al Hasan
soon expelled them from his school. Wásil then founded a school of his own
of which, after the death of his master, 'Umr Ibn Obaid became the head.
Wásil felt that a believer, though sinful, did not merit the same degree of
punishment as an infidel, and thus starting off on the question of
_degrees_ of punishment, he soon opened up the whole subject of man's
responsibility and the question of free-will. This soon brought him into
conflict with the orthodox on the subject of predestination and that again
to the subject of the inspiration, the interpretation and the eternity of
the Qurán, and of the divine attributes. His followers rejected the
doctrine of the "divine right" of the Imám, and held that the entire body
of the Faithful had the right to elect the most suitable person, who need
not necessarily be a man of the Quraish tribe, to fill that office. The
principles of logic and the teaching of philosophy were brought to bear on
the precepts of religion. According to Shahrastání the Mutazilites hold:--
"That God is eternal; and that eternity is the peculiar property of His
essence; but they deny the existence of any eternal attributes (as
distinct from His nature). For they say, He is Omniscient as to {126}
His nature; Living as to His nature; Almighty as to His nature; but not
through any knowledge, power or life existing in Him as eternal
attributes; for knowledge, power and life are part of His essence,
otherwise, if they are to be looked upon as eternal attributes of the
Deity, it will give rise to a multiplicity of eternal entities."
"They maintain that the knowledge of God is as much within the province
of reason as that of any other entity; that He cannot be beheld with
the corporeal sight; and with the exception of Himself everything else
is liable to change or to suffer extinction. They also maintain that
Justice is the animating principle of human actions: Justice according
to them being the dictates of Reason and the concordance of the
ultimate results of this conduct of man with such dictates."
"Again, they hold that there is no eternal law as regards human
actions; that the divine ordinances which regulate the conduct of men
are the results of growth and development; that God has commanded and
forbidden, promised and threatened by a law which grew gradually. At
the same time, say they, he who works righteousness merits rewards and
he who works evil deserves punishment. They also say, that all
knowledge is attained through reason, and must necessarily be so
obtained. They hold that the cognition of good and evil is also within
the province of reason; that nothing is known to be right or wrong
until reason has enlightened us as to the distinction; and that
thankfulness for the blessings of the Benefactor is made obligatory by
reason, even before the promulgation of any law upon the subject. They
also maintain that man has perfect freedom; is the author of his
actions both good and evil, and deserves reward or punishment hereafter
accordingly."
During the reigns of the 'Abbásside Khalífs Mámún, Mutasim and Wathik
(198-232 A.H.) at Baghdád, the Mutazilites were in high favour at Court,
Under the 'Abbásside dynasty[113] the ancient Arab Society was
revolutionized, Persians filled the most important offices of State;
Persian doctrines took the place of Arab ones. The orthodox suffered bitter
persecution. The story of that persecution will be told later on. The
Khalíf Wathik at length relented. {127} An old man, heavily chained, was
one day brought into his presence. The prisoner obtained permission to put
a few questions to Ahmad Ibn Abu Dá,úd, a Mutazilite and the President of
the Court of Inquisition. The following dialogue took place. "Ahmad," said
the prisoner, "what is the dogma which you desire to have established."
"That the Qurán is created," replied Ahmad. "This dogma, then, is without
doubt an essential part of religion, insomuch that the latter cannot
without it be said to be complete?" "Certainly." "Has the Apostle of God
taught this to men or has he left them free?" "He has left them free." "Was
the Apostle of God acquainted with this dogma or not?" "He was acquainted
with it." "Wherefore, then, do you desire to impose a belief regarding
which the Apostle of God has left men free to think as they please?" Ahmad
remaining silent, the old man turned to Wathik and said, "O Prince of
Believers, here is my first position made good." Then turning to Ahmad, he
said, "God has said, 'This day have I perfected religion for you, and have
filled up the measures of my favours upon you; and it is my pleasure that
Islám be your religion.' (Súra v. 5). But according to you Islám is not
perfected unless we adopt this doctrine that the Qurán is created. Which
now is most worthy of credence--God, when He declares Islám to be complete
and perfect, or you when you announce the contrary?" Ahmad was still
silent. "Prince of Believers," said the old man, "there is my second point
made good." He continued, "Ahmad, how do you explain the following words of
God in His Holy Book?--'O Apostle! proclaim all that hath been sent down to
thee from thy Lord; for if thou dost not, thou hast not proclaimed His
message at all.' Now this doctrine that you desire to spread among the
Faithful, has the Apostle taught it, or has he abstained from doing so?"
Ahmad remained silent. The old man resumed, "Prince of Believers, such is
my third argument." Then turning to Ahmad he said: "If the Prophet was
acquainted with the doctrine {128} which you desire to impose upon us, had
he the right to pass by it in silence?" "He had the right." "And did the
same right appertain to Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Ali?" "It did," "Prince
of Believers," said the prisoner, "God will, in truth, be severe on us, if
He deprives us of a liberty which He accorded to the Prophet and his
Companions." The Khalíf assented, and at once restored the old man to
liberty. So ended one of the fiercest persecutions the orthodox have ever
had to endure, but so also ended the attempt to break through the barriers
of traditionalism.[114] The next Khalíf, Al Mutawakhil, a ferocious and
cruel man, restored the orthodox party to place and power. He issued a
fatva (decree) declaring that the dogma that the Qurán was created was an
utter falsehood. He instituted severe measures against Christians, Jews,
Shía'hs and Mutazilites. Ahmad Ibn Abu Dá,úd was one of the first to be
disgraced. Heresy and latitudinarianism were banished.
The final blow to the Mutazilites, however, came not from the Khalíf but a
little later on from Abu Hasan-al-Ash'arí (270-340 A.H.)
The Mutazilites expelled from power in Baghdád, still flourished at Basra
where one day the following incident occurred. Abu 'Alí Al-Jubbai, a
Mutazilite doctor, was lecturing to his students when Al-Ash'arí propounded
the following case to his master: "There were three brothers, one of whom
was a true believer, virtuous and pious; the second an infidel, a debauchee
and a reprobate; and the third an infant; they all died. What became of
them?" Al-Jubbai answered: "The virtuous brother holds a high station in
Paradise, the infidel is in the depths of hell, and the child is among
those who have obtained salvation." {129} "Suppose now," said Al-Ash'arí,
"that the child should wish to ascend to the place occupied by his virtuous
brother, would he be allowed to do so?" "No," replied Al-Jubbai, "it would
be said to him: 'thy brother arrived at this place through His numerous
works of obedience to God, and thou hast no such works to set forward.'"
"Suppose then," said Al-Ash'arí, "that the child should say: 'this is not
my fault, you did not let me live long enough, neither did you give me the
means of proving my obedience.'" "In that case," said Al-Jubbai, "the
Almighty would say: 'I knew that if I allowed thee to live, thou wouldest
have been disobedient and have incurred the punishment of hell: I acted,
therefore, for thy advantage.'" "Well," said Al-Ash'arí, "and suppose the
infidel brother were here to say: 'O God of the Universe! since Thou
knowest what awaited him, Thou must have known what awaited me; why then
didst Thou act for his advantage and not for mine?'"[115] Al-Jubbai was
silent, though very angry with his pupil, who was now convinced that the
Mutazilite dogma of man's free-will was false, and that God elects some for
mercy and some for punishment without any motive whatever. Disagreeing with
his teacher on this point, he soon began to find other points of
difference, and soon announced his belief that the Qurán was not created.
This occurred on a Friday in the Great Mosque at Basra. Seated in his chair
he cried out in a loud voice: "They who know me know who I am; as for those
who do not know me I shall tell them; I am 'Alí Ibn Ismá'íl Al-Ash'arí, and
I used to hold that the Qurán was created, that the eyes (of men) shall not
see God, and that we ourselves are the authors of our evil deeds; now, I
have returned to the truth: I renounce these opinions, and I take the
engagement to refute the Mutazilites and expose their infamy and
turpitude."[116]
He then, adopting scholastic methods, started a school of {130} thought of
his own, which was in the main a return to orthodoxy. The Ash'arían
doctrines differ slightly from the tenets of the Sifátians of which sect
Al-Ash'arí's disciples form a branch. The Ash'aríans hold--
(i.) That the attributes of God are distinct from His essence, yet in such
a way as to forbid any comparison being made between God and His creatures.
They say they are not "_'ain_ nor _ghair_:" not of His essence, nor
distinct from it: _i.e.,_ they cannot be compared with any other things.
(ii.) That God has one eternal will from which proceed all things, the good
and the evil, the useful and the hurtful. The destiny of man was written on
the eternal table before the world was created. So far they go with the
Sifátians, but in order to preserve the moral responsibility of man they
say that he has power to convert will into action. But this power cannot
create anything new for then God's sovereignty would be impaired; so they
say that God in His providence so orders matters that whenever "a man
desires to do a certain thing, good or bad, the action corresponding to the
desire is, there and then, created by God, and, as it were, fitted on to
the desire." Thus it seems as if it came naturally from the will of the
man, whereas it does not. This action is called Kasb (acquisition) because
it is acquired by a special creative act of God. It is an act directed to
the obtaining of profit, or the removing of injury: the term is, therefore,
inapplicable to the Deity. Abu Bakr-al-Bakillání, a disciple of Al-Ash'arí,
says: "The essence or substance of the action is the effect of the power of
God, but its being an action of obedience, such as prayer, or an action of
disobedience, such as fornication, are qualities of the action, which
proceed from the power of man." The Imám Al-Haramain (419-478 A.H.) held
"that the actions of men were effected by the power which God has created
in man." Abu Isháq al Isfarayain says: "That which maketh impression, or
hath influence on action, is a compound of the power of God and the power
of man." {131}
(iii.) They say that the word of God is eternal, though they acknowledge
that the vocal sounds used in the Qurán, which is the manifestation of that
word, are created. They say, in short, that the Qurán contains (1) the
eternal word which existed in the essence of God before time was; and (2)
the word which consists of sounds and combinations of letters. This last
they call the created word.
Thus Al-Ash'arí traversed the main positions of the Mutazilites, denying
that man can by the aid of his reason alone rise to the knowledge of good
and evil. He must exercise no judgment but accept all that is revealed. He
has no right to apply the moral laws which affect men to the actions of
God. It cannot be asserted by the human reason that the good will be
rewarded, or the bad punished in a future world. Man must always approach
God as a slave, in whom there is no light or knowledge to judge of the
actions of the Supreme. Whether God will accept the penitent sinner or not
cannot be asserted, for He is an absolute Sovereign, above all law.[117]
The opinions of the more irrational sub-divisions of the Sifátians need not
be entered into at any length.
The Mushábihites (or Assimilators), interpreting some of the mutashábih
verses literally, held that there is a resemblance between God and His
creatures; and that the Deity is capable of local motion, of ascending,
descending, &c. These they called "declarative attributes." The
Mujassimians (or Corporealists) declared God to be corporeal, by which some
of them meant, a self-subsisting body, whilst others declared the Deity to
be finite. They are acknowledged to be heretics.
{132}
The Jabríans gave great prominence to the denial of free agency in man, and
thus opposed the Mutazilites, who in this respect are Kadríans, that is,
they deny "Al-Kadr," God's absolute sovereignty, and recognize free will in
man.
These and various other sub-divisions are not now of much importance. The
Sunnís follow the teaching of Al-Ash'arí, whilst the Shí'ahs incline to
that of the Mutazilites.
Connected with the subject of the attributes of God is that of the names to
be used when speaking of Him. All sects agree in this, that the names "The
Living, the Wise, the Powerful, the Hearer, the Seer, the Speaker," &c.,
are to be applied to God; but the orthodox belief is that all such names
must be "tauqífi," that is dependent on some revelation. Thus it is not
lawful to apply a name to God expressive of one of His attributes, unless
there is some statement made, or order given by Muhammad to legalize it.
God is rightly called Sháfí (Healer), but He cannot be called Tabíb which
means much the same thing, for the simple reason that the word Tabíb is
never applied in the Qurán or the Traditions to God. In like manner the
term 'Álim (Knower) is lawful, but not so the expression 'Áqil (Wise). The
Mutazilites say that if, in the Qurán or Traditions, there is any praise of
an attribute, then the adjective formed from the name of that attribute can
be applied to God even though the actual word does not occur in any
revelation. Al-Ghazzálí (A.H. 450-505), who gave in the East the death-blow
to the Muslim philosophers, says: "The names of God not given in the Law,
if expressive of His glory, may be used of Him, but only as expressive of
His attributes, not of His nature." On the ground that it does not occur in
the Law, the Persian word "Khuda" has been objected to, an objection which
also holds good with regard to the use of such terms as God, Dieu, Gott,
&c. To this it is answered, that as "Khuda" means "one who comes by
himself" it is equivalent to the term Wájib-ul-Wajúd, {133} "one who has
necessary existence," and therefore so long as it is not considered as the
"Ism-i-Zát (name of His nature) it may with propriety be used."[118]
The current belief now seems to be that the proper name equal to the term
Alláh, current in a language, can be used, provided always that such a name
is not taken from the language of the Infidels; so God, Dieu, &c, still
remain unlawful. The names of God authorised by the Qurán and Traditions
are, exclusive of the term Alláh, ninety-nine in number. They are called
the Asmá-i-Husná[119] (noble names); but in addition to these there are
many synonyms used on the authority of Ijmá'. Such are Hanán, equal to
Rahím (Merciful) and Manán, "one who puts another under an obligation." In
the Tafsír-i-Bahr it is stated that there are three thousand names of God;
one thousand of which are known to angels; one thousand to prophets; whilst
one thousand are thus distributed, _viz._, in the Pentateuch there are
three hundred, in the Psalms three hundred, in the Gospels three hundred,
in the Qurán ninety-nine, and one still hidden.
The following texts of the Qurán are adduced to prove the nature of the
divine attributes:--
(1). Life. "There is no God but He, the Living, the Eternal." (Súra ii.
256). "Put thy trust in Him that liveth and dieth not." (Súra xxv. 60).
(2). Knowledge. "Dost thou not see that God knoweth all that is in the
heavens, and all that is in the earth." (Súra lviii. 8). "With Him are the
keys of the secret things; none knoweth them but He: He knoweth whatever is
on the land and in the sea; and no leaf falleth but He knoweth it; neither
is there a grain in the darknesses of the earth, nor a thing green or sere,
but it is noted in a distinct writing." (Súra vi. 59).
{134}
(3). Power. "If God pleased, of their ears and of their eyes would He
surely deprive them. Verily God is Almighty." (Súra ii. 19). "Is He not
powerful enough to quicken the dead." (Súra lxxv. 40). "God hath power over
all things." (Súra iii. 159.)
(4). Will. "God is worker of that He willeth." (Súra lxxxv. 16). "But if
God pleased, He would surely bring them, one and all, to the guidance."
(Súra vi. 35). "God misleadeth whom He will, and whom He will He
guideth--God doeth His pleasure." (Súra xiv. 4, 32).
As this attribute is closely connected with the article of the Creed which
refers to Predestination, the different opinions regarding it will be
stated under that head.
There has never been any difference of opinion as to the existence of these
four attributes so clearly described in the Qurán: the difference is with
regard to the mode of their existence and their operation. There is, first,
the ancient Sifátian doctrine that the attributes are eternal and of the
essence of God: secondly, the Mutazilite theory that they are not eternal;
and, thirdly, the Ash'arían dogma that they are eternal, but distinct from
His essence.
There is also great difference of opinion with regard to the next three
attributes--hearing, sight, speech. For the existence of the two first of
these the following verses are quoted, "He truly heareth and knoweth all
things." (Súra xliv. 5). "No vision taketh in Him, but He taketh in all
vision." (Súra vi. 103).
The use of the terms sitting, rising, &c., hands, face, eyes, and so on,
gave rise as I have shown to several sub-divisions of the Sifátians.
Al-Ghazzálí says: "He sits upon His throne after that manner which He has
Himself described and in that sense which He Himself means, which is a
sitting far remote from any notion of contact or resting upon, or local
situation." This is the Ash'arían idea, but between the Ash'aríans and
those who fell into the error of the {135} Mujassimians,[120] there was
another school. The followers of Imám Ibn Hanbal say that such words
represent the attributes existing in God. The words "God sits on His
throne" mean that He has the power of sitting. Thus, they say, "We keep the
literal meaning of the words, we allow no figurative interpretation. To do
so is to introduce a dangerous principle of interpretation, for the
negation of the apparent sense of a passage may tend to weaken the
authority of revelation. At the same time we do not pretend to explain the
act, for it is written: 'There is none like unto Him.' (Súra cxii.) 'Nought
is there like Him.' (Súra xlii. 9.) 'Unworthy the estimate they form of
God.'" (Súra xxii. 73.) To prove that God occupies a place they produce the
following Tradition: "Ibn-al-Hákim wished to give liberty to a female slave
Saouda and consulted the Prophet about it. Muhammad said to her, 'Where is
God?' 'In heaven,' she replied. 'Set her at liberty, she is a true
believer.'" Not, say the Commentators, because she believed that God
occupied a place but because she took the words in their literal
signification. The Shí'ahs consider it wrong to attribute to God movement,
quiescence, &c, for these imply the possession of a body. They hold, too,
in opposition to the orthodox that God will never be seen, for that which
is seen is limited by space.
The seventh attribute--speech--has been fruitful of a very long and
important controversy connected with the nature of the Qurán, for the word
"Kalám" means not mere speech, but revelation and every other mode of
communicating intelligence. Al-Ghazzálí says:--
"He doth speak, command, forbid, promise, and threaten by an eternal
ancient word, subsisting in His essence. Neither is it like to the word
of the creatures, nor doth it consist in a voice arising from the
commotion of the air and the collision of bodies, nor letters {136}
which are separated by the joining together of the lips or the motion
of the tongue. The Qurán, the Law, the Gospel and the Psalter are books
sent down by Him to His Apostles, and the Qurán, indeed, is read with
tongues written in books, and is kept in hearts; yet, as subsisting in
the essence of God, it doth not become liable to separation and
division whilst it is transferred into the hearts and on to paper. Thus
Moses also heard the word of God without voice or letter, even as the
saints behold the essence of God without substance or accident."
The orthodox believe that God is really a speaker: the Mutazilites deny
this, and say that He is only called a speaker because He is the originator
of words and sounds.
They also bring the following objections to bear against the doctrine of
the eternity of the Qurán. (1) It is written in Arabic, it descended, is
read, is heard, and is written. It was the subject of a miracle. It is
divided into parts and some verses are abrogated by others. (2) Events are
described in the past tense, but if the Qurán had been eternal the future
tense would have been used. (3) The Qurán contains commands and
prohibitions; if it is eternal who were commanded and who were admonished?
(4) If it has existed from eternity it must exist to eternity, and so even
in the last day, and in the next world, men will be under the obligation of
performing the same religious duties as they do now, and of keeping all the
outward precepts of the law. (5) If the Qurán is eternal, then there are
two eternals.
The position thus assailed was not at first a hard and fast dogma of Islám.
It was more a speculative opinion than anything else, but the opposition of
the Mutazilites soon led all who wished to be considered orthodox to become
not only stout assertors of the eternity of the Qurán, but to give up their
lives in defence of what they believed to be true. The Mutazilites by
asserting the subjective nature of the Quránic inspiration brought the book
itself within the reach of criticism. This was too much for orthodox Islám
to bear even though the Khalíf Mámún in the {137} year 212 A.H. issued a
fatva declaring that all who asserted the eternity of the Qurán were guilty
of heresy. Some six years after this, the Imám Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was
severely beaten, and then imprisoned because he refused to assent to the
truth of the decree issued by the Khalíf. Al Buwaiti, a famous disciple of
As-Sháfa'í, used an ingenious argument to fortify his own mind when being
punished by the order of the Khalíf. He was taken all the way from Cairo to
Baghdád and told to confess that the Qurán was created. On his refusal, he
was imprisoned at Baghdád and there remained in chains till the day of his
death. As Ar-Rábí Ibn Sulaimán says: "I saw Al Buwaiti mounted on a mule:
round his neck was a wooden collar, on his legs were fetters, from these to
the collar extended an iron chain to which was attached a clog weighing
fifty pounds. Whilst they led him on he continued repeating these words,
'Almighty God created the world by means of the word _Be!_ Now, if that
word was created, one created thing would have created another.'"[121] Al
Buwaiti here refers to the verse, "Verily our speech unto a thing when we
will the same, is that we only say to it, 'Be,' and it is,--Kun fayakúna."
(Súra xxxvi. 82). This, in the way Al Buwaiti applied it, is a standing
argument of the orthodox to prove the eternity of the Qurán.
When times changed men were put to death for holding the opposite opinion.
The Imám As-Sháfa'í held a public disputation in Baghdád with Hafs, a
Mutazilite preacher, on this very point. Sháfa'í quoted the verse, "God
said _be, and it was_," and asked, "Did not God create all things by the
word _be?_" Hafs assented. "If then the Qurán was created, must not the
word _be_ have been created with it?" Hafs could not deny so plain a
proposition. "Then," said Sháfa'í, "All things, according to you, were
created by a created being, which is a gross inconsistency and manifest
{138} impiety." Hafs was reduced to silence, and such an effect had
Sháfa'í's logic on the audience that they put Hafs to death as a pestilent
heretic. Thus did the Ash'arían opinions on the subject of the Divine
attributes again gain the mastery.[122]
The Mutazilites failed, and the reason why is plain. They were, as a rule,
influenced by no high spiritual motives; often they were mere quibblers.
They sought no light in an external revelation. Driven to a reaction by the
rigid system they combated, they would have made reason alone their chief
guide. The nobler spirits among them were impotent to regenerate the faith
they professed to follow. It was, however, a great movement, and at one
time, it threatened to change the whole nature of Islám. This period of
Muslim history, famed as that in which the effort was made to cast off the
fetters of the rigid system which Islám was gradually tightening by the
increased authority given to traditionalism, and to the refinements of the
four Imáms, was undoubtedly a period of, comparatively speaking, high
civilization. Baghdád, the capital of the Khalífate, was a busy, populous,
well-governed city. This it mainly owed to the influence of the Persian
family of the Barmecides, one of whom was Vizier to the Khalíf
Hárún-ur-Rashíd. Hárún's fame as a good man is quite undeserved. It is true
that he was a patron of learning, that his Empire was extensive, that he
gained many victories, that his reign was the culminating point of Arab
grandeur. But for all that, he was a morose despot, a cruel man, thoroughly
given up to pleasures of a very questionable nature. Drunkenness and
debauchery were common at court. Plots and intrigues were ever at work.
Such was the state of one of the greatest, if not the greatest, periods
{139} of Muslim rule. This, too, was at a time most favourable for the
development of any good which Islám might have possessed. It should be
remembered that whatever glory is rightly attached to this period is
connected with an epoch when heresy was specially prevalent, when orthodoxy
was weak in Baghdád. The culture of the time was in spite of, not on
account of, the influence of orthodox Islám.
2. ANGELS.--Of this article of the creed Muhammad Al-Berkevi says:--
"We must confess that God has angels who act according to His order and
who do not rebel against Him. They neither eat nor drink, nor is there
amongst them any difference of sex. Some are near the throne of God;
those are His messengers. Each one has his particular work. Some are on
earth, some in heaven, some are always standing, some always prostrate
themselves and some laud and praise God. Others have charge of men and
record all their actions. Some angels are high in stature and are
possessed of great power. Such an one is Gabriel (Jibrá,íl) who in the
space of one hour can descend from heaven to earth, and who with one
wing can lift up a mountain.
We must believe in 'Izrá,íl who receives the souls of men when they
die, and in Isráfíl into whose charge is committed the trumpet. This
trumpet he has actually in his hand, and placed to his mouth ready to
blow when God gives the order. When he receives that order he will blow
such a terrible blast that all living things will die.[123] This is the
commencement of the last day. The world will remain in this state of
death forty years. Then God Most High will revive Isráfíl who will blow
a second blast, at the sound of which all the dead will rise to
life."[124]
This confession of faith makes no mention of Míká,íl (Michael), the fourth
of the archangels. His special duty is to see that all created beings have
what is needful for them. He has charge of the rain-fall, plants, grain and
all that is required for the sustenance of men, beasts, fishes, &c.
Gabriel's special charge is the communication of God's will to prophets.
The words "one terrible in power" (Súra liii. 5) {140} are generally
applied to him. He is honoured with the privilege of nearness to God.
Tradition says that on the night of the Mi'ráj, the Prophet saw that
Gabriel had six hundred wings, and that his body was so large that from one
shoulder to the other the distance was so great that a swift flying bird
would require five hundred years to pass over it.
Nine-tenths of all created beings are said to be angels who are formed of
light. Their rank is stationary, and each is content with the position he
occupies. Their one desire is to love and to know God. Whatever he commands
they do. "All beings in the heaven and on the earth are His: and they who
are in His presence disdain not His service, neither are they wearied: they
praise Him day and night." (Súra xxi. 19, 20.) They are free from all
sin.[125] It is true that they did not wish for the creation of Adam, and
this may seem like a want of confidence in God. It is said, however, that
their object was not to oppose God, but to relieve their minds of the
doubts they had in the matter. Thus "when the Lord said to the angels,
'Verily, I am about to place one in my stead on earth,' they said: 'Wilt
Thou place there one who will do ill therein, and shed blood when we
celebrate thy praise and extol thy holiness.' God said: 'Verily I know what
ye know not.'" It is true that Iblís was disobedient, but then he belonged
not to the angelic order but to that of the jinn. "When we said to the
angels, 'prostrate yourselves before Adam,' they all prostrated themselves
save Iblís, who was of the jinn, and revolted from his Lord's behest."
(Súra xviii. 48.) (See also Súra ii. 33.)
Angels appear in human form on special occasions, but usually they are
invisible. It is a common belief that animals can see angels and devils.
This accounts for the saying, "If you hear a cock crow, pray for mercy, for
it has seen an angel; but if you hear an ass bray, take refuge with God,
for it has seen a devil."
{141}
The angels intercede for man: "The angels celebrate the praise of their
Lord and ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth." (Súra xlii. 3.) They
also act as guardian angels: "Each hath a succession of angels before him
and behind him who watch over him by God's behest." (Súra xiii. 12.) "Is it
not enough for you that your Lord aideth you with three thousand angels
sent down from on high?" (Súra iii. 120.) "Supreme over His servants He
sendeth forth guardians who watch over you, until when death overtaketh any
one of you our messengers take his soul and fail not." (Súra vi. 61.)
In the Traditions it is said that God has appointed for every man two
angels to watch over him by day, and two by night. The one stands on the
right hand side of the man, the other on his left. Some, however, say that
they reside in the teeth, and that the tongue of the man is the pen and the
saliva of the mouth the ink.[126] They protect the actions of men and
record them all whether good or bad. They are called the Mua'qqibát,
_i.e._, those who succeed one another. They also bear the name of
Kirám-ul-Kátibín, "the exalted writers." They are referred to in the Qurán.
"Think they that we hear not their secrets and their private talk? Yes, and
our angels who are at their sides write them down." (Súra xliii. 80).
There are eight angels who support the throne of God. "And the angels shall
be on its sides, and over them on that day eight shall bear up the throne
of thy Lord." (Súra lxix. 17). Nineteen have charge of hell. "Over it are
nineteen. None but angels have we made guardians of the fire." (Súra lxxiv.
30).
There is a special arrangement made by Providence to mitigate the evils of
Satanic interference. "Iblís," says Jábir Maghrabí, "though able to assume
all other forms is not permitted to appear in the semblance of the Deity,
or {142} any of His angels, or prophets. There would otherwise be much
danger to human salvation, as he might, under the appearance of one of the
prophets, or of some superior being, make use of this power to seduce men
to sin. To prevent this, whenever he attempts to assume such forms, fire
comes down from heaven and repulses him."
The story of Hárút and Márút is of some interest from its connection with
the question of the impeccability of the angels. Speaking of those who
reject God's Apostle the Qurán says: "And they followed what the Satans
read in the reign of Solomon; not that Solomon was unbelieving, but the
Satans were unbelieving. Sorcery did they teach to men, and what had been
revealed to the two angels Hárút and Márút at Bábel. Yet no man did these
two teach until they had said, 'We are only a temptation. Be not thou an
unbeliever.'" (Súra ii. 96). Here it is quite clear that two angels teach
sorcery, which is generally allowed to be an evil. Some explanation has to
be given. Commentators are by no means reticent on this subject. The story
goes that in the time of the prophet Enoch when the angels saw the bad
actions of men they said: "O Lord! Adam and his descendants whom Thou has
appointed as Thy vice-regents on earth act disobediently." To which the
Lord replied: "If I were to send you on earth, and to give you lustful and
angry dispositions, you too would sin." The angels thought otherwise; so
God told them to select two of their number who should undergo this ordeal.
They selected two, renowned for devotion and piety. God having implanted in
them the passions of lust and anger said: "All day go to and fro on the
earth, put an end to the quarrels of men, ascribe no equal to Me, do not
commit adultery, drink no wine, and every night repeat the Ism-ul-A'zam,
the exalted name (of God) and return to heaven." This they did for some
time, but at length a beautiful woman named Zuhra (Venus) led them astray.
One day she brought them a cup of wine. One said: {143} "God has forbidden
it;" the other, "God is merciful and forgiving." So they drank the wine,
killed the husband of Zuhra, to whom they revealed the "exalted name," and
fell into grievous sin. Immediately after, they found that the "name" had
gone from their memories and so they could not return to heaven as usual.
They were very much concerned at this and begged Enoch to intercede for
them. The prophet did so, and with such success that the angels were
allowed to choose between a present or a future punishment. They elected to
be punished here on earth. They were then suspended with their heads
downwards in a well at Bábel. Some say that angels came and whipped them
with rods of fire, and that a fresh spring ever flowed just beyond the
reach of their parched lips. The woman was changed to a star. Some assert
that it was a shooting star which has now passed out of existence. Others
say that she is the star Venus.
It is only right to state that the Qází 'Ayáz, Imám Fakhr-ud-dín Rází
(544-606 A.H.), Qází Násir-ud-dín Baidaví (620-691 A.H.) and most
scholastic divines deny the truth of this story. They say that angels are
immaculate, but it is plain that this does not meet the difficulty which
the Qurán itself raises in connection with Hárút and Márút. They want to
know how beings in such a state can teach, and whether it is likely that
men would have the courage to go near such a horrible scene. As to the
woman, they think the whole story absurd, not only because the star Venus
was created before the time of Adam, but also because it is inconceivable
that one who was so wicked should have the honour of shining in heaven for
ever. A solution, however, they are bound to give, and it is this. Magic is
a great art which God must allow mankind to know. The dignity of the order
of prophets is so great that they cannot teach men what is confessedly
hurtful. Two angels were therefore sent, and so men can now distinguish
between the miracles of prophets, the signs of {144} saints, the wonders of
magicians and others. Then Hárút and Márút always discouraged men from
learning magic. They said to those who came to them: "We are only a
temptation. Be not thou an unbeliever." Others assert that it is a Jewish
allegory in which the two angels represent reason and benevolence, the
woman the evil appetites. The woman's ascent to heaven represents death.
To this solution of the difficulty, however, the great body of the
Traditionists do not agree. They declare that the story is a Hadís-i-Sahíh,
and that the Isnád is sound and good. I name only a few of the great
divines who hold this view. They are Imám Ibn Hanbal, Ibn Ma'súd, Ibn 'Umr,
Ibn 'Abbás, Háfiz 'Asqallání[127] and others. Jelál-ud-din Syútí in his
commentary the Dúrr-i-Mashúr, has given all the Traditions in order and,
though there is some variety in the details, the general purport accords
with the narrative as I have related it. The Traditionists answer the
objections of the Scholastics thus. They say that angels are immaculate
only so long as they remain in the angelic state; that, though confined,
Hárút and Márút can teach magic, for a word or two is quite sufficient for
that purpose; that some men have no fear and, if they have, it is quite
conceivable that the two angels may teach through the instrumentality of
devils or jinn. With regard to the woman Zuhra they grant that to be
changed into a bright star is of the nature of a reward; but they say the
desire to learn the "exalted name" was so meritorious an act that the good
she desired outweighs the evil she did. With regard to the date of the
creation of the star Venus, it is said that all our astronomical knowledge
is based on observations made since the Flood, whereas this story relates
to the times of Enoch who lived before the days of Noah. So the dispute
goes on and men of great repute for learning and knowledge believe in the
story.
{145}
Munkir and Nakír are two fierce-looking black angels with blue eyes who
visit every man in his grave, and examine him with regard to his faith in
God and in Muhammad. The dead are supposed to dwell in 'Álam-i-barzakh, a
state of existence intervening between the present life and the life of
mankind after the resurrection.[128] This is the meaning of the word
"grave" when used in this connection. Unbelievers and wicked Muslims suffer
trouble in that state; true believers who can give a good answer to the
angels are happy. Some suppose that a body of angels are appointed for this
purpose and that some of them bear the name of Munkir, and some that of
Nakír and that, just as each man has two recording angels during his
lifetime, two from this class are appointed to examine him after death.
There is a difference of opinion with regard to children. The general
belief is that the children of believers will be questioned, but that the
angels will teach them to say: "Alláh is my Lord, Islám my religion, and
Muhammad my Prophet." With regard to the children of unbelievers being
questioned, Imám Abu Hanífa hesitated to give an opinion. He also doubted
about their punishment. Some think they will be in A'ráf, a place between
heaven and hell; others suppose that they will be servants to the true
believers in Paradise.
Distinct from the angels there is another order of beings made of fire
called jinn (genii.) It is said that they were created thousands of years
before Adam came into existence. "We created man of dried clay, of dark
loam moulded, and the jinn had been before created of subtle fire." (Súra
xv. 26, 27.) They eat, drink, propagate their species and are subject to
death, though they generally live many centuries. They dwell chiefly in the
Koh-i-Káf, a chain of mountains supposed to encompass the world:[129] {146}
some are believers in Islám; some are infidels, and will be punished. "I
will wholly fill hell with jinn and men." (Súra xi. 120.) The Súra called
Súrat-ul-Jinn (lxxii.) refers to their belief in Islám. The passage is too
long to quote. They try to hear[130] what is going on in heaven. "We guard
them (_i.e._, men) from every stoned Satan, save such as steal a hearing."
(Súra xv. 18.) They were under the power of Solomon and served him. (Súra
xxxviii. 36.) An 'Ifrít of the jinn said, "I will bring it thee (Solomon)
ere thou risest from thy place: I have power for this and am trusty." (Súra
xxvii. 39.) At the last day the jinn also will be questioned. Imám Hanífa
doubted whether the jinn who are Muslims will be rewarded. The unbelieving
jinn will assuredly be punished. Tradition classifies them in the following
order: (1) Jánn, (2) Jinn, (3) Shaitán, (4) 'Ifrít, (5) Márid. Many fables
have been invented concerning these beings, and though intelligent Muslims
may doubt these wonderful accounts, yet a belief in the order of jinn is
imperative, at least, as long as there is belief in the Qurán. Those who
wish to know more of this subject will find a very interesting chapter on
it in Lane's Modern Egyptians.
3. THE BOOKS.--Al Berkevi says:--
"It is necessary to believe that the books of God have been sent
through the instrumentality of Gabriel, to prophets upon the earth. The
books are never sent except to prophets. The Qurán was sent to Muhammad
portion by portion during a space of 23 years. The Pentateuch came to
Moses, the Injíl to Jesus, the Zabúr to David, and the other books to
other prophets. The whole number of the Divine books is 104. The Qurán,
the last of all, is to be followed till the day of judgment. It can
neither be abrogated nor changed. Some laws of the previous books have
been abrogated by the Qurán and ought not to be followed."
The one hundred and four books were sent from heaven in the following
order:--To Adam, ten; to Seth, fifty; to Enoch (Idris), thirty; to Abraham,
ten; to Moses, the {147} Taurát (Pentateuch); to David, the Zabúr (Psalms);
to Jesus, the Injíl; to Muhammad, the Qurán. The one hundred to which no
distinctive name is given are known as the "Suhúf-ul-Anbiya,"--Books of the
Prophets. The Qurán is also known as the Furqán, the distinguisher; the
Qurán-i-Sharíf, noble Qurán; the Quran-i-Majíd, glorious Qurán; the Mushaf,
the Book. It is said to be the compendium of the Taurát, Zabúr and
Injíl[131]; so Muslims do not require to study these books.[132] The
orthodox belief is that they are entirely abrogated by the Qurán,[133]
though Syed Ahmad denounces as ignorant and foolish those Musalmáns who say
so.[134] Be that as it may, their inspiration is considered to be of a
lower order than that of the Qurán. A large {148} portion of the Injíl is
considered to be mere narrative. The actual words of Christ only are looked
upon as the revelation which descended from heaven. It is so in the case of
the Old Testament Prophets. "However, it was the rule to call a book by the
name of the prophet, whether the subject-matter was pure doctrine only, or
whether it was mixed up with narrative also." "It is to be observed that,
in the case of our own Prophet, the revelations made to him were intended
to impart a special miracle of eloquence and they were written down,
literally and exactly, in the form in which they were communicated without
any narrative being inserted in them."[135] The writings of the Apostles
are not considered to be inspired books. "We do not consider that the Acts
of the Apostles, or the various Epistles, although unquestionably very good
books, are to be taken as part and parcel of the New Testament itself;
nevertheless we look upon the writings of the Apostles in the same light as
we do the writings of the Companions of our own Prophet; that is to say, as
entitled to veneration and respect."[136] There are many verses in the
Qurán which speak of previous revelations, thus: "We also caused Jesus, the
son of Mary, to follow the footsteps of the prophets, confirming the law
(Taurát) which was sent before him, and we gave him the Injíl with its
guidance and light, confirmatory of the preceding law; a guidance and a
warning to those that fear God." (Súra v. 50). "We believe in God, and that
which hath been sent down to us, and that which hath been sent down to
Abraham and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which hath been given
to Moses and to Jesus, and that which was given to the prophets from their
Lord. No difference do we make between any of them: and to God are we
resigned." (Súra ii. 130). "In truth hath He sent down to thee the Book,
which confirmeth those that precede it, for He had sent down the {149} Law
and the Injíl aforetime, as man's guidance; and now hath He sent down the
Furqán." (Súra iii. 2).[137]
Practically, Musalmáns reject the Old and New Testaments. To do so is
manifestly against the letter of the Qurán, and, as some reason for this
neglect of previous Scriptures must be given, Muslim divines say that the
Jewish and Christian Scriptures have been corrupted. The technical
expression is "tahríf," a word signifying, to change, to turn aside
anything from the truth. Then tahríf may be of two kinds, tahríf-i-m'anaví,
a change in the meaning of words; tahríf-i-lafzí, an actual change of the
written words. Most Musalmáns maintain that the latter kind of corruption
has taken place, and so they do not feel bound to read or study the
previous revelations so frequently referred to in the Qurán. The charge
brought against the Jews of corrupting their Scriptures is based on the
following verse of the Qurán: "Some truly are there among you who torture
the Scriptures with their tongues, in order that ye may suppose it to be
from the Scripture, yet it is not from the Scripture. And they say: 'this
is from God,' yet it is not from God; and they utter a lie against God, and
they know they do so." (Súra iii. 72.) All the ancient commentators assert
that this only proved tahríf-i-m'anaví; that is, that the Jews referred to
either misinterpreted what they read, or, whilst professing to read from
the Scripture, used expressions not found therein. It does not mean that
they altered the text of their Scriptures. This, however, does not excuse
Musalmáns for their neglect of the previous Scriptures, and so the orthodox
divines of modern times maintain that the greater corruption--the
tahríf-i-lafzí, has taken place. The question is fully discussed, and the
opinion of the earlier commentators endorsed by Syed Ahmad in his
Commentary on the Bible.[138]
{150}
4. PROPHETS.--Muhammad Al Berkevi says:--
"It is necessary to confess that God has sent prophets; that Adam is
the first of the prophets and the father of all men; that Muhammad is
the last of the prophets; that between Adam and Muhammad there were a
great number of prophets; that Muhammad is the most excellent of all
and that his people are the best of all peoples; that each of the
preceding prophets was sent to a special people, some with books, some
without, but that Muhammad was sent to all men and also to the genii;
that his law will remain until the end of the world, that his miracles
are many in number, that by his blessed finger he made waters flow,
that he divided the moon into two parts, that animals, trees, and
stones said to him: 'Thou art a true prophet.'
We must also believe that one night he was transported from Mecca to
Jerusalem, and from thence to heaven, where he saw both paradise and
hell, conversed with the Most High and returned to Mecca before
morning. After him no other prophet will come, for he is the seal of
the prophets."
The number of prophets sent by God to make known His will varies according
to the Tradition which records it. About two hundred thousand is the usual
number stated. Twenty-five are mentioned by name in the Qurán, of whom six
are distinguished by special titles. Adam, Sufi Ulláh, the chosen of God;
Noah, Nabí Ulláh, the prophet of God; Abraham, Khalíl Ulláh, the friend of
God; Moses, Kalím Ulláh, the speaker with God; Jesus, Rúh Ulláh, the spirit
of God; Muhammad, Rasúl Ulláh, the messenger of God. These are called the
Anbiya-ulul-'Azm (possessors of purpose) because they were the heads of
their respective dispensations, and because they will be permitted by God
to intercede in the day of judgment for their followers. They are the
greatest and most exalted of the prophets.[139]
There are degrees of rank amongst the prophets, for "Some of the Apostles
have We endowed more highly than others. Those to whom God hath spoken, He
hath raised to the loftiest grade, and to Jesus, the Son of Mary We gave
{151} manifest signs, and We strengthened him with the Holy Spirit." (Súra
ii. 254). The Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are ranked in the following order: Noah,
Jesus, Moses, Abraham and as the chief of all, Muhammad, of whom it is
said: "He is the Apostle of God and the seal of the prophets." (Súra
xxxiii. 40).
A Tradition, as usual, supports his position. "I am the chief of the sons
of men." "Adam and all beside him will be ranged under my flag in the
judgment day."[140] It is said that the law given by Moses was harsh and
severe; that by Christ was mild and gracious; but that the law given by
Muhammad is perfect, for it combines both the quality of strictness and
that of graciousness; according to the Tradition: "I always laugh and by
laughing kill."[141] Each prophet is said to have been sent to his own
tribe, but Muhammad was sent for all men. A Tradition is adduced to support
this statement: "I was raised up for all men whether white or black, other
prophets were not except for their own tribe." The Qurán also states: "We
have sent thee (Muhammad) for all men."