See MAHOMMEDAN LAW; also Juynboll, _De Mohammedaansche Wet_ (Leiden, 1903),

pp. 287 ff.; Sachau, _Muhammedanisches Recht_ (Berlin, 1897), pp. 687 ff.

(D. B. MA.)

CADILLAC, a city and the county seat of Wexford county, Michigan, U.S.A.,

on Lake Cadillac, about 95 m. N. by E. of Grand Rapids and about 85 m. N.W.

of Bay City. Pop. (1890) 4461; (1900) 5997, of whom 1676 were foreign-born;

(1904) 6893; (1910) 8375. It is served by the Ann Arbor and the Grand

Rapids & Indiana railways. Cadillac overlooks picturesque lake scenery, and

the good fishing for pike, pickerel and perch in the lake, and for brook

trout in streams near by, attracts many visitors. Among the city's chief

manufactures are hardwood lumber, iron, tables, crates and woodenware,

veneer, flooring and flour. Cadillac was settled in 1871, was incorporated

as a village under the name of Clam Lake in 1875, was chartered as a city

under its present name (from Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac) in 1877, and was

rechartered in 1895.

CADIZ, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, island of Negros,

Philippine Islands, on the N. coast, about 53 m. N.N.E. of Bacólod, the

capital. Pop. (1903) 16,429. Lumber products are manufactured in the town,

and a saw-mill here is said to be the largest in the Philippines.

CADIZ (_Cádiz_), a maritime province in the extreme south of Spain, formed

in 1833 of districts taken from the province of Seville; and bounded on the

N. by Seville, E. by Málaga, S.E. by the Mediterranean sea, S. by the

Straits of Gibraltar, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 452,659;

area 2834 sq. m.; inclusive, in each case, of the town and territory of

Ceuta, on the Moroccan coast, which belong, for administrative purposes, to

Cadiz. The sea-board of Cadiz possesses several features of exceptional

interest. On the Atlantic littoral, the broad Guadalquivir estuary marks

the frontier of Seville; farther south, the river Guadalete, which waters

the northern districts, falls into the magnificent double bay of Cadiz;

farther south again, is Cape Trafalgar, famous for the British naval

victory of 1805. Near Trafalgar, the river Barbate issues into the straits

of Gibraltar, after receiving several small tributaries, which combine with

it to form, near its mouth, the broad and marshy Laguna de la Janda. Punta

Marroqui, on the straits, is the southernmost promontory of the European

mainland. The [v.04 p.0929] most conspicuous feature of the east coast is

Algeciras Bay, overlooked by the rock and fortress of Gibraltar. The river

Guadiaro, which drains the eastern highlands, enters the Mediterranean

close to the frontier of Málaga. In the interior there is a striking

contrast between the comparatively level western half of Cadiz and the very

picturesque mountain ranges of the eastern half, which are well wooded and

abound in game. The whole region known as the Campo de Gibraltar is of this

character; but it is in the north-east that the summits are most closely

massed together, and attain their greatest altitudes in the Cerro de San

Cristobal (5630 ft.) and the Sierra del Pinar (5413 ft.).

The climate is generally mild and temperate, some parts of the coast only

being unhealthy owing to a marshy soil. Severe drought is not unusual, and

it was largely this cause, together with want of capital, and the

dependence of the peasantry on farming and fishing, that brought about the

distress so prevalent early in the 20th century. The manufactures are

insignificant compared with the importance of the natural products of the

soil, especially wines and olives. Jerez de la Frontera (Xeres) is famous

for the manufacture and export of sherry. The fisheries furnish about 2500

tons of fish per annum, one-fifth part of which is salted for export and

the rest consumed in Spain. There are no important mines, but a

considerable amount of salt is obtained by evaporation of sea-water in pans

near Cadiz, San Fernando, Puerto Real and Santa Maria. The railway from

Seville passes through Jerez de la Frontera to Cadiz and San Fernando, and

another line, from Granada, terminates at Algeciras; but at the beginning

of the 20th century, although it was proposed to construct railways from

Jerez inland to Grazalema and coastwise from San Fernando to Tarifa,

travellers who wished to visit these places were compelled to use the

old-fashioned diligence, over indifferent roads, or to go by sea. The

principal seaports are, after Cadiz the capital (pop. 1900, 69,382),

Algeciras (13,302), La Línea (31,862), Puerto de Santa Maria (20,120),

Puerto Real (10,535), the naval station of San Fernando (29,635), San Lucar

(23,883) and Tarifa (11,723); the principal inland towns are Arcos de la

Frontera (13,926), Chiclana (10,868), Jerez de la Frontera (63,473), Medina

Sidonia (11,040), and Véjer de la Frontera (11,298). These are all

described in separate articles. Grazalema (5587), Jimena de la Frontera

(7549), and San Roque (8569) are less important towns with some trade in

leather, cork, wine and farm produce. They all contain many Moorish

antiquities, and Grazalema probably represents the Roman _Lacidulermium_.

(See also ANDALUSIA.)

CADIZ (in Lat. _Gades_, and formerly called _Cales_ by the English), the

capital and principal seaport of the Spanish province of Cadiz; on the Bay

of Cadiz, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, in 36° 27' N. and 6° 12' W., 94

m. by rail S. of Seville. Pop. (1900) 69,382. Cadiz is built on the

extremity of a tongue of land, projecting about 5 m. into the sea, in a

north-westerly direction from the Isla de Leon. Its noble bay, more than 30

m. in circuit, and almost entirely land-locked by the isthmus and the

headlands which lie to the north-east, has principally contributed to its

commercial importance. The outer bay stretches from the promontory and town

of Rota to the mouth of the river Guadalete; the inner bay, protected by

the forts of Matagorda and Puntales, affords generally good anchorage, and

contains a harbour formed by a projecting mole, where vessels of small

burden may discharge. The entrance to the bays is rendered somewhat

dangerous by the low shelving rocks (Cochinos and Las Puercas) which

encumber the passage, and by the shifting banks of mud deposited by the

Guadalete and the Rio Santi Petri, a broad channel separating the Isla de

Leon from the mainland. At the mouth of this channel is the village of

Caracca; close beside it is the important naval arsenal of San Fernando

(_q.v._); and on the isthmus are the defensive works known as the

Cortadura, or Fort San Fernando, and the well-frequented sea-bathing

establishments.

From its almost insular position Cadiz enjoys a mild and serene climate.

The _Medina_, or land-wind, so-called because it blows from the direction

of Medina Sidonia, prevails during the winter; the moisture-laden

_Virazón_, a westerly sea-breeze, sets in with the spring. The mean annual

temperature is about 64° F., while the mean summer and winter temperatures

vary only about 10° above and below this point; but the damp atmosphere is

very oppressive in summer, and its unhealthiness is enhanced by the

inadequate drainage and the masses of rotting seaweed piled along the

shore. The high death-rate, nearly 45 per thousand, is also due to the bad

water-supply, the water being either collected in cisterns from the tops of

the houses, or brought at great expense from Santa Maria on the opposite

coast by an aqueduct nearly 30 m. long. An English company started a

waterworks in Cadiz about 1875, but came to grief through the incapacity of

the population to appreciate its necessity.

The city, which is 6 or 7 m. in circumference, is surrounded by a wall with

five gates, one of which communicates with the isthmus. Seen from a

distance off the coast, it presents a magnificent display of snow-white

turrets rising majestically from the sea; and for the uniformity and

elegance of its buildings, it must certainly be ranked as one of the finest

cities of Spain, although, being hemmed in on all sides, its streets and

squares are necessarily contracted. Every house annually receives a coating

of whitewash, which, when it is new, produces a disagreeable glare. The

city is distinguished by its somewhat deceptive air of cleanliness, its

quiet streets, where no wheeled traffic passes, and its lavish use of white

Italian marble. But the most characteristic feature of Cadiz is the marine

promenades, fringing the city all round between the ramparts and the sea,

especially that called the _Alameda_, on the eastern side, commanding a

view of the shipping in the bay and the ports on the opposite shore. The

houses are generally lofty and surmounted by turrets and flat roofs in the

Moorish style.

Cadiz is the see of a bishop, who is suffragan to the archbishop of

Seville, but its chief conventual and monastic institutions have been

suppressed. Of its two cathedrals, one was originally erected by Alphonso

X. of Castile (1252-1284), and rebuilt after 1596; the other, begun in

1722, was completed between 1832 and 1838. Under the high altar of the old

cathedral rises the only freshwater spring in Cadiz. The chief secular

buildings include the Hospicio, or Casa de Misericordia, adorned with a

marble portico, and having an interior court with Doric colonnades; the

bull-ring, with room for 12,000 spectators; the two theatres, the prison,

the custom-house, and the lighthouse of San Sebastian on the western side

rising 172 ft. from the rock on which it stands. Besides the Hospicio

already mentioned, which sometimes contains 1000 inmates, there are

numerous other charitable institutions, such as the women's hospital, the

foundling institution, the admirable Hospicio de San Juan de Dios for men,

and the lunatic asylum. Gratuitous instruction is given to a large number

of children, and there are several mathematical and commercial academies,

maintained by different commercial corporations, a nautical school, a

school of design, a theological seminary and a flourishing medical school.

The museum is filled for the most part with Roman and Carthaginian coins

and other antiquities; the academy contains a valuable collection of

pictures. In the church of Santa Catalina, which formerly belonged to the

Capuchin convent, now secularized, there is an unfinished picture of the

marriage of St Catherine, by Murillo, who met his death by falling from the

scaffold on which he was painting it (3rd of April 1682).

Cadiz no longer ranks among the first marine cities of the world. Its

harbour works are insufficient and antiquated, though a scheme for their

improvement was adopted in 1903; its communications with the mainland

consist of a road and a single line of railway; its inhabitants, apart from

foreign residents and a few of the more enterprising merchants, rest

contented with such prosperity as a fine natural harbour and an unsurpassed

geographical situation cannot fail to confer. Several great shipping lines

call here; shipbuilding yards and various factories exist on the mainland;

and there is a considerable trade in the exportation of wine, principally

sherry from Jerez, salt, olives, figs, canary-seed and ready-made corks;

and in the importation of fuel, iron and machinery, building materials,

American oak staves for casks, &c. In 1904, 2753 ships of 1,745,588 tons

[v.04 p.0930] entered the port. But local trade, though still considerable,

remains stationary if it does not actually recede. Its decline, originally

due to the Napoleonic wars and the acquisition of independence by many

Spanish colonies early in the 19th century, was already recognised, and an

attempt made to check it in 1828, when the Spanish government declared

Cadiz a free warehousing port; but this valuable privilege was withdrawn in

1832. Among the more modern causes of depression have been the rivalry of

Gibraltar and Seville; the decreasing demand for sherry; and the disasters

of the Spanish-American war of 1898, which almost ruined local commerce

with Cuba and Porto Rico.

_History._--Cadiz represents the Sem. _Agadir_, _Gadir_, or _Gaddir_

("stronghold") of the Carthaginians, the Gr. _Gadeira_, and the Lat.

_Gades_. Tradition ascribes its foundation to Phoenician merchants from

Tyre, as early as 1100 B.C.; and in the 7th century it had already become

the great mart of the west for amber and tin from the Cassiterides

(_q.v._). About 501 B.C. it was occupied by the Carthaginians, who made it

their base for the conquest of southern Iberia, and in the 3rd century for

the equipment of the armaments with which Hannibal undertook to destroy the

power of Rome. But the loyalty of Gades, already weakened by trade rivalry

with Carthage, gave way after the second Punic War. Its citizens welcomed

the victorious Romans, and assisted them in turn to fit out an expedition

against Carthage. Thenceforward, its rapidly-growing trade in dried fish

and meat, and in all the produce of the fertile Baetis (Guadalquivir)

valley, attracted many Greek settlers; while men of learning, such as

Pytheas in the 4th century B.C., Polybius and Artemidorus of Ephesus in the

2nd, and Posidonius in the 1st, came to study the ebb and flow of its

tides, unparalleled in the Mediterranean. C. Julius Caesar conferred the

_civitas_ of Rome on all its citizens in 49 B.C.; and, not long after L.

Cornelius Balbus Minor built what was called the "New City," constructed

the harbour which is now known as Puerto Real, and spanned the strait of

Santi Petri with the bridge which unites the Isla de Leon with the

mainland, and is now known as the Puente de Zuazo, after Juan Sanchez de

Zuazo, who restored it in the 15th century. Under Augustus, when it was the

residence of no fewer than 500 _equites_, a total only surpassed in Rome

and Padua, Gades was made a _municipium_ with the name of _Augusta Urbs

Gaditana_, and its citizens ranked next to those of Rome. In the 1st

century A.D. it was the birthplace or home of several famous authors,

including Lucius Columella, poet and writer on husbandry; but it was more

renowned for gaiety and luxury than for learning. Juvenal and Martial write

of _Jocosae Gades_, "Cadiz the Joyous," as naturally as the modern

Andalusian speaks of _Cadiz la Joyosa_; and throughout the Roman world its

cookery and its dancing-girls were famous. In the 5th century, however, the

overthrow of Roman dominion in Spain by the Visigoths involved Cadiz in

destruction. A few fragments of masonry, submerged under the sea, are

almost all that remains of the original city. Moorish rule over the port,

which was renamed _Jezirat-Kadis_, lasted from 711 until 1262, when Cadiz

was captured, rebuilt and repeopled by Alphonso X. of Castile. Its renewed

prosperity dates from the discovery of America in 1492. As the headquarters

of the Spanish treasure fleets, it soon recovered its position as the

wealthiest port of western Europe, and consequently it was a favourite

point of attack for the enemies of Spain. During the 16th century it

repelled a series of raids by the Barbary corsairs; in 1587 all the

shipping in its harbour was burned by the English squadron under Sir

Francis Drake; in 1596 the fleet of the earl of Essex and Lord Charles

Howard sacked the city, and destroyed forty merchant vessels and thirteen

warships. This disaster necessitated the rebuilding of Cadiz on a new plan.

Its recovered wealth tempted the duke of Buckingham to promote the

fruitless expedition to Cadiz of 1626; thirty years later Admiral Blake

blockaded the harbour in an endeavour to intercept the treasure fleet; and

in 1702 another attack was made by the British under Sir George Rooke and

the duke of Ormonde. During the 18th century the wealth of Cadiz became

greater than ever; from 1720 to 1765, when it enjoyed a monopoly of the

trade with Spanish America, the city annually imported gold and silver to

the value of about £5,000,000. With the closing years of the century,

however, it entered upon a period of misfortune. From February 1797 to

April 1798 it was blockaded by the British fleet, after the battle of Cape

St Vincent; and in 1800 it was bombarded by Nelson. In 1808 the citizens

captured a French squadron which was imprisoned by the British fleet in the

inner bay. From February 1810 until the duke of Wellington raised the siege

in August 1812, Cadiz resisted the French forces sent to capture it; and

during these two years it served as the capital of all Spain which could

escape annexation by Napoleon. Here, too, the Cortes met and promulgated

the famous Liberal constitution of March 1812. To secure a renewal of this

constitution, the citizens revolted in 1820; the revolution spread

throughout Spain; the king, Ferdinand VII., was imprisoned at Cadiz, which

again became the seat of the Cortes; and foreign intervention alone checked

the movement towards reform. A French army, under the duc d'Angoulême,

seized Cadiz in 1823, secured the release of Ferdinand and suppressed

Liberalism. In 1868 the city was the centre of the revolution which

effected the dethronement of Queen Isabella.

See _Sevilla y Cadiz, sus monumentos y artes, su naturaleza é historia_, an

illustrated volume in the series "España," by P. de Madrazo (Barcelona,

1884); _Recuerdos Gaditanos_, a very full history of local affairs, by J.M.

León y Dominguez (Cadiz, 1897); _Historia de Cadiz y de su provincia desde

los remotos tiempos hasta_ 1824, by A. de Castro (Cadiz, 1858); and

_Descripcion historico-artistica de la catedral de Cadiz_, by J. de Urrutia

(Cadiz, 1843).

CADMIUM (symbol Cd, atomic weight 112.4 (O=16)), a metallic element,

showing a close relationship to zinc, with which it is very frequently

associated. It was discovered in 1817 by F. Stromeyer in a sample of zinc

carbonate from which a specimen of zinc oxide was obtained, having a yellow

colour, although quite free from iron; Stromeyer showing that this

coloration was due to the presence of the oxide of a new metal.

Simultaneously Hermann, a German chemical manufacturer, discovered the new

metal in a specimen of zinc oxide which had been thought to contain

arsenic, since it gave a yellow precipitate, in acid solution, on the

addition of sulphuretted hydrogen. This supposition was shown to be

incorrect, and the nature of the new element was ascertained.

Cadmium does not occur naturally in the uncombined condition, and only one

mineral is known which contains it in any appreciable quantity, namely,

greenockite, or cadmium sulphide, found at Greenock and at Bishopton in

Scotland, and in Bohemia and Pennsylvania. It is, however, nearly always

found associated with zinc blende, and with calamine, although only in

small quantities.

The metal is usually obtained from the flue-dust (produced during the first

three or four hours working of a zinc distillation) which is collected in

the sheet iron cones or adapters of the zinc retorts. This is mixed with

small coal, and when redistilled gives an enriched dust, and by repeating

the process and distilling from cast iron retorts the metal is obtained. It

can be purified by solution in hydrochloric acid and subsequent

precipitation by metallic zinc.

Cadmium is a white metal, possessing a bluish tinge, and is capable of

taking a high polish; on breaking, it shows a distinct fibrous fracture. By

sublimation in a current of hydrogen it can be crystallized in the form of

regular octahedra; it is slightly harder than tin, but is softer than zinc,

and like tin, emits a crackling sound when bent. It is malleable and can be

rolled out into sheets. The specific gravity of the metal is 8.564, this

value being slightly increased after hammering; its specific heat is 0.0548

(R. Bunsen), it melts at 310-320° C. and boils between 763-772° C. (T.

Carnelley), forming a deep yellow vapour. The cadmium molecule, as shown by

determinations of the density of its vapour, is monatomic. The metal unites

with the majority of the heavy metals to form alloys; some of these, the

so-called fusible alloys, find a useful application from the fact that they

possess a low melting-point. It also forms amalgams with mercury, and on

this account has been employed in dentistry for the purpose of stopping (or

filling) [v.04 p.0931] teeth. The metal is quite permanent in dry air, but

in moist air it becomes coated with a superficial layer of the oxide; it

burns on heating to redness, forming a brown coloured oxide; and is readily

soluble in mineral acids with formation of the corresponding salts. Cadmium

vapour decomposes water at a red heat, with liberation of hydrogen, and

formation of the oxide of the metal.

Cadmium oxide, CdO, is a brown powder of specific gravity 6.5, which can be

prepared by heating the metal in air or in oxygen; or by ignition of the

nitrate or carbonate; by heating the metal to a white heat in a current of

oxygen it is obtained as a dark red crystalline sublimate. It does not melt

at a white heat, and is easily reduced to the metal by heating in a current

of hydrogen or with carbon. It is a basic oxide, dissolving readily in

acids, with the formation of salts, somewhat analogous to those of zinc.

Cadmium hydroxide, Cd(OH)_2, is obtained as a white precipitate by adding

potassium hydroxide to a solution of any soluble cadmium salt. It is

decomposed by heat into the oxide and water, and is soluble in ammonia but

not in excess of dilute potassium hydroxide; this latter property serves to

distinguish it from zinc hydroxide.

The chloride, CdCl_2, bromide, CdBr_2, and iodide, CdI_2, are also known,

cadmium iodide being sometimes used in photography, as it is one of the few

iodides which are soluble in alcohol. Cadmium chloride and iodide have been

shown to behave in an anomalous way in aqueous solution (W. Hittorf, _Pogg.

Ann._, 1859, 106, 513), probably owing to the formation of complex ions;

the abnormal behaviour apparently diminishing as the solution becomes more

and more dilute, until, at very high dilutions the salts are ionized in the

normal manner.

Cadmium sulphate, CdSO_4, is known in several hydrated forms; being

deposited, on spontaneous evaporation of a concentrated aqueous solution,

in the form of large monosymmetric crystals of composition 3CdSO_4·8H_2O,

whilst a boiling saturated solution, to which concentrated sulphuric acid

has been added, deposits crystals of composition CdSO_4·H_2O. It is largely

used for the purpose of making standard electric cells, such for example as

the Weston cell.

Cadmium sulphide, CdS, occurs naturally as greenockite (_q.v._), and can be

artificially prepared by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through acid

solutions of soluble cadmium salts, when it is precipitated as a pale

yellow amorphous solid. It is used as a pigment (cadmium yellow), for it

retains its colour in an atmosphere containing sulphuretted hydrogen; it

melts at a white heat, and on cooling solidifies to a lemon-yellow

micaceous mass.

Normal cadmium carbonates are unknown, a white precipitate of variable

composition being obtained on the addition of solutions of the alkaline

carbonates to soluble cadmium salts.

Cadmium nitrate, Cd(NO_3)_2·4H_2O, is a deliquescent salt, which may be

obtained by dissolving either the metal, or its oxide or carbonate in

dilute nitric acid. It crystallizes in needles and is soluble in alcohol.

Cadmium salts can be recognized by the brown incrustation which is formed

when they are heated on charcoal in the oxidizing flame of the blowpipe;

and also by the yellow precipitate formed when sulphuretted hydrogen is

passed though their acidified solutions. This precipitate is insoluble in

cold dilute acids, in ammonium sulphide, and in solutions of the caustic

alkalis, a behaviour which distinguishes it from the yellow sulphides of

arsenic and tin. Cadmium is estimated quantitatively by conversion into the

oxide, being precipitated from boiling solutions by the addition of sodium

carbonate, the carbonate thus formed passing into the oxide on ignition. It

can also be determined as sulphide, by precipitation with sulphuretted

hydrogen, the precipitated sulphide being dried at 100° C. and weighed.

The atomic weight of cadmium was found by O.W. Huntington (_Berichte_,

1882, 15, p. 80), from an analysis of the pure bromide, to be 111.9. H.N.

Morse and H.C. Jones (_Amer. Chem. Journ._, 1892, 14, p. 261) by conversion

of cadmium into the oxalate and then into oxide, obtained values ranging

from 111.981 to 112.05, whilst W.S. Lorimer and E.F. Smith (_Zeit. für

anorg. Chem._, 1891, 1, p. 364), by the electrolytic reduction of cadmium

oxide in potassium cyanide solution, obtained as a mean value 112.055. The

atomic weight of cadmium has been revised by G.P. Baxter and M.A. Hines

(_Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1905, 27, p. 222), by determinations of the

ratio of cadmium chloride to silver chloride, and of the amount of silver

required to precipitate cadmium chloride. The mean value obtained was

112.469 (Ag=107.93). The mean value 112.467 was obtained by Baxter, Hines

and Frevert (ibid., 1906, 28, p. 770) by analysing cadmium bromide.

CADMUS, in Greek legend, son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia and brother of

Europa. After his sister had been carried off by Zeus, he was sent out to

find her. Unsuccessful in his search, he came in the course of his

wanderings to Delphi, where he consulted the oracle. He was ordered to give

up his quest and follow a cow which would meet him, and to build a town on

the spot where she should lie down exhausted. The cow met him in Phocis,

and guided him to Boeotia, where he founded the city of Thebes. Intending

to sacrifice the cow, he sent some of his companions to a neighbouring

spring for water. They were slain by a dragon, which was in turn destroyed

by Cadmus; and by the instructions of Athena he sowed its teeth in the

ground, from which there sprang a race of fierce armed men, called Sparti

(sown). By throwing a stone among them Cadmus caused them to fall upon each

other till only five survived, who assisted him to build the Cadmeia or

citadel of Thebes and became the founders of the noblest families of that

city (Ovid, _Metam._ iii. 1 ff.; Apollodorus iii. 4, 5). Cadmus, however,

because of this bloodshed, had to do penance for eight years. At the

expiration of this period the gods gave him to wife Harmonia (_q.v._),

daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, by whom he had a son Polydorus, and four

daughters, Ino, Autonoë, Agave and Semele--a family which was overtaken by

grievous misfortunes. At the marriage all the gods were present; Harmonia

received as bridal gifts a peplos worked by Athena and a necklace made by

Hephaestus. Cadmus is said to have finally retired with Harmonia to

Illyria, where he became king. After death, he and his wife were changed

into snakes, which watched the tomb while their souls were translated to

the Elysian fields.

There is little doubt that Cadmus was originally a Boeotian, that is, a

Greek hero. In later times the story of a Phoenician immigrant of that name

became current, to whom was ascribed the introduction of the alphabet, the

invention of agriculture and working in bronze and of civilization

generally. But the name itself is Greek rather than Phoenician; and the

fact that Hermes was worshipped in Samothrace under the name of Cadmus or

Cadmilus seems to show that the Theban Cadmus was originally an ancestral

Theban hero corresponding to the Samothracian. The name may mean "order,"

and be used to characterize one who introduces order and civilization.

The exhaustive article by O. Crusius in W.H. Roscher's _Lexikon der

Mythologie_ contains a list of modern authorities on the subject of Cadmus;

see also O. Gruppe, _De Cadmi Fabula_ (1891).

CADMUS OF MILETUS, according to some ancient authorities the oldest of the

logographi (_q.v._). Modern scholars, who accept this view, assign him to

about 550 B.C.; others regard him as purely mythical. A confused notice in

Suidas mentions three persons of the name: the first, the inventor of the

alphabet; the second, the son of Pandion, "according to some" the first

prose writer, a little later than Orpheus, author of a history of the

_Foundation of Miletus_ and of Ionia generally, in four books; the third,

the son of Archelaus, of later date, author of a history of Attica in

fourteen books, and of some poems of an erotic character. As Dionysius of

Halicarnassus (_Judicium de Thucydide_, c. 23) distinctly states that the

work current in his time under the name of Cadmus was a forgery, it is most

probable that the two first are identical with the Phoenician Cadmus, who,

as the reputed inventor of letters, was subsequently transformed into the

Milesian and the author of an historical work. In this connexion it should

be observed that the old Milesian nobles traced their descent back to the

Phoenician or one of his companions. The text of the notice of the third

Cadmus of Miletus in Suidas is unsatisfactory; and it is uncertain whether

he is to be explained in the same way, or whether he was an historical

personage, of whom all further record is lost.

See C.W. Müller, _Frag. Hist. Graec_, ii. 2-4; and O. Crusius in Roscher's

_Lexikon der Mythologie_ (article "Kadmos," 90, 91).

CADOGAN, WILLIAM CADOGAN, 1ST EARL (1675-1726), British soldier, was the

son of Henry Cadogan, a Dublin barrister, and grandson of Major William

Cadogan (1601-1661), governor of Trim. The family has been credited with a

descent from Cadwgan, the old Welsh prince. Cadogan began his military

career as a cornet of horse under William III. at the Boyne, and, with the

regiment now known as the 5th (Royal Irish) Lancers, made the campaigns in

the Low Countries. In the course of these years he attracted the notice of

Marlborough. In 1701 Cadogan was employed by him as a staff officer in the

complicated task of concentrating the grand army formed by contingents from

[v.04 p.0932] multitudinous states, and Marlborough soon made the young

officer his confidential staff officer and right-hand man. His services in

the campaign of 1701 were rewarded with the colonelcy of the famous

"Cadogan's Horse" (now the 5th Dragoon Guards). As quartermaster-general,

it fell to his lot to organize the celebrated march of the allies to the

Danube, which, as well as the return march with its heavy convoys, he

managed with consummate skill. At the Schellenberg he was wounded and his

horse shot under him, and at Blenheim he acted as Marlborough's chief of

staff. Soon afterwards he was promoted brigadier-general, and in 1705 he

led "Cadogan's Horse" at the forcing of the Brabant lines between Wange and

Elissem, capturing four standards. He was present at Ramillies, and

immediately afterwards was sent to take Antwerp, which he did without

difficulty. Becoming major-general in 1706, he continued to perform the

numerous duties of chief staff officer, quartermaster-general and colonel

of cavalry, besides which he was throughout constantly employed in delicate

diplomatic missions. In the course of the campaign of 1707, when leading a

foraging expedition, he fell into the hands of the enemy but was soon

exchanged. In 1708 he commanded the advanced guard of the army in the

operations which culminated in the victory of Oudenarde, and in the same

year he was with Webb at the action of Wynendael. On the 1st of January

1709 he was made lieutenant-general. At the siege of Menin in this year

occurred an incident which well illustrates his qualifications as a staff

officer and diplomatist. Marlborough, riding with his staff close to the

French, suddenly dropped his glove and told Cadogan to pick it up. This

seemingly insolent command was carried out at once, and when Marlborough on

the return to camp explained that he wished a battery to be erected on the

spot, Cadogan informed him that he had already given orders to that effect.

He was present at Malplaquet, and after the battle was sent off to form the

siege of Mons, at which he was dangerously wounded. At the end of the year

he received the appointment of lieutenant of the Tower, but he continued

with the army in Flanders to the end of the war. His loyalty to the fallen

Marlborough cost him, in 1712, his rank, positions and emoluments under the

crown. George I. on his accession, however, reinstated Cadogan, and,

amongst other appointments, made him lieutenant of the ordnance. In 1715,

as British plenipotentiary, he signed the third Barrier Treaty between

Great Britain, Holland and the emperor. His last campaign was the Jacobite

insurrection of 1715-1716. At first as Argyle's subordinate (see Coxe,

_Memoirs of Marlborough_, cap. cxiv.), and later as commander-in-chief,

General Cadogan by his firm, energetic and skilful handling of his task

restored quiet and order in Scotland. Up to the death of Marlborough he was

continually employed in diplomatic posts of special trust, and in 1718 he

was made Earl Cadogan, Viscount Caversham and Baron Cadogan of Oakley. In

1722 he succeeded his old chief as head of the army and master-general of

the ordnance, becoming at the same time colonel of the 1st or Grenadier

Guards. He sat in five successive parliaments as member for Woodstock. He

died at Kensington in 1726, leaving two daughters, one of whom married the

second duke of Richmond and the other the second son of William earl of

Portland.

Readers of _Esmond_ will have formed a very unfavourable estimate of

Cadogan, and it should be remembered that Thackeray's hero was the friend

and supporter of the opposition and General Webb. As a soldier, Cadogan was

one of the best staff officers in the annals of the British army, and in

command of detachments, and also as a commander-in-chief, he showed himself

to be an able, careful and withal dashing leader.

He was succeeded, by special remainder, in the barony by his brother,

General Charles Cadogan (1691-1776), who married the daughter of Sir Hans

Sloane, thus beginning the association of the family with Chelsea, and died

in 1776, being succeeded in turn by his son Charles Sloane (1728-1807), who

in the year 1800 was created Viscount Chelsea and Earl Cadogan. His

descendant George Henry, 5th Earl Cadogan (b. 1840), was lord privy seal

from 1886 to 1892, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1895 to 1902.

CADOUDAL, GEORGES (1771-1804), leader of the _Chouans_ during the French

Revolution, was born in 1771 near Auray. He had received a fair education,

and when the Revolution broke out he remained true to his royalist and

Catholic teaching. From 1793 he organized a rebellion in the Morbihan

against the revolutionary government. It was quickly suppressed and he

thereupon joined the army of the revolted Vendeans, taking part in the

battles of Le Mans and of Savenay in December 1793. Returning to Morbihan,

he was arrested, and imprisoned at Brest. He succeeded, however, in

escaping, and began again the struggle against the Revolution. In spite of

the defeat of his party, and of the fact that he was forced several times

to take refuge in England, Cadoudal did not cease both to wage war and to

conspire in favour of the royalist pretenders. He refused to come to any

understanding with the government, although offers were made to him by

Bonaparte, who admired his skill and his obstinate energy. From 1800 it was

impossible for Cadoudal to continue to wage open war, so he took altogether

to plotting. He was indirectly concerned in the attempt made by Saint

Régent in the rue Sainte Nicaise on the life of the First Consul, in

December 1800, and fled to England again. In 1803 he returned to France to

undertake a new attempt against Bonaparte. Though watched for by the

police, he succeeded in eluding them for six months, but was at length

arrested. Found guilty and condemned to death, he refused to ask for pardon

and was executed in Paris on the 10th of June 1804, along with eleven of

his companions. He is often called simply Georges.

See _Procès de Georges, Moreau et Pichegru_ (Paris, 1804, 8 vols. 8vo); the

_Mémoires_ of Bourrienne, of Hyde de Neuville and of Rohu; Lenotre,

_Tournebut_ (on the arrest); Lejean, _Biographie bretonne_; and the

bibliography to the article VENDÉE.

CADRE (Fr. for a frame, from the Lat. _quadrum_, a square), a framework or

skeleton, particularly the permanent establishment of a military corps,

regiment, &c. which can be expanded on emergency.

CADUCEUS (the Lat. adaptation of the Doric Gr. [Greek: karukeion], Attic

[Greek: kêrukeion], a herald's wand), the staff used by the messengers of

the gods, and especially by Hermes as conductor of the souls of the dead to

the world below. The caduceus of Hermes, which was given him by Apollo in

exchange for the lyre, was a magic wand which exercised influence over the

living and the dead, bestowed wealth and prosperity and turned everything

it touched into gold. In its oldest form it was a rod ending in two prongs

twined into a knot (probably an olive branch with two shoots, adorned with

ribbons or garlands), for which, later, two serpents, with heads meeting at

the top, were substituted. The mythologists explained this by the story of

Hermes finding two serpents thus knotted together while fighting; he

separated them with his wand, which, crowned by the serpents, became the

symbol of the settlement of quarrels (Thucydides i. 53; Macrobius, _Sat._

i. 19; Hyginus, _Poet. Astron._ ii. 7). A pair of wings was sometimes

attached to the top of the staff, in token of the speed of Hermes as a

messenger. In historical times the caduceus was the attribute of Hermes as

the god of commerce and peace, and among the Greeks it was the distinctive

mark of heralds and ambassadors, whose persons it rendered inviolable. The

caduceus itself was not used by the Romans, but the derivative _caduceator_

occurs in the sense of a peace commissioner.

See L. Preller, "Der Hermesstab" in _Philologus_, i. (1846); O.A. Hoffmann,

_Hermes und Kerykeion_ (1890), who argues that Hermes is a male lunar

divinity and his staff the special attribute of Aphrodite-Astarte.

CADUCOUS (Lat. _caducus_), a botanical term for "falling early," as the

sepals of a poppy, before the petals expand.

CAECILIA. This name was given by Linnaeus to the blind, or nearly blind,

worm-like Batrachians which were formerly associated with the snakes and

are now classed as an order under the names of _Apoda, Peromela_ or

_Gymnophiona_. The type of the genus _Caecilia_ is _Caecilia tentaculata_,

a moderately slender species, not unlike a huge earth-worm, growing to 2

ft. in length with a diameter of three-quarters of an inch. It is one of

the largest species of the order. Other species of the same genus are very

slender in form, as for instance _Caecilia gracilis_, [v.04 p.0933] which

with a length of 2¼ ft. has a diameter of only a quarter of an inch. One of

the most remarkable characters of the genus _Caecilia_, which it shares

with about two-thirds of the known genera of the order, is the presence of

thin, cycloid, imbricate scales imbedded in the skin, a character only to

be detected by raising the epidermis near the dermal folds, which more or

less completely encircle the body. This feature, unique among living

Batrachians, is probably directly inherited from the scaly _Stegocephalia_,

a view which is further strengthened by the similarity of structure of

these scales in both groups, which the histological investigations of H.

Credner have revealed. The skull is well ossified and contains a greater

number of bones than occur in any other living Batrachian. There is

therefore strong reason for tracing the Caecilians directly from the

Stegocephalia, as was the view of T.H. Huxley and of R. Wiedersheim, since

supported by H. Gadow and by J.S. Kingsley. E.D. Cope had advocated the

abolition of the order Apoda and the incorporation of the Caecilians among

the Urodela or Caudata in the vicinity of the Amphiumidae, of which he

regarded them as further degraded descendants; and this opinion, which was

supported by very feeble and partly erroneous arguments, has unfortunately

received the support of the two great authorities, P. and F. Sarasin, to

whom we are indebted for our first information on the breeding habits and

development of these Batrachians.

The knowledge of species of Caecilians has made rapid progress, and we are

now acquainted with about fifty, which are referred to twenty-one genera.

The principal characters on which these genera are founded reside in the

presence or absence of scales, the presence or absence of eyes, the

presence of one or of two series of teeth in the lower jaw, the structure

of the tentacle (representing the so-called "balancers" of Urodele larvae)

on the side of the snout, and the presence or absence of a vacuity between

the parietal and squamosal bones of the skull. Of these twenty-one genera

six are peculiar to tropical Africa, one to the Seychelles, four to

south-eastern Asia, eight to Central and South America, one occurs in both

continental Africa and the Seychelles, and one is common to Africa and

South America.

These Batrachians are found in damp situations, usually in soft mud. The

complete development of _Ichthyophis glutinosus_ has been observed in

Ceylon by P. and F. Sarasin. The eggs, forming a rosary-like string, are

very large, and deposited in a burrow near the water. The female protects

them by coiling herself round the egg-mass, which the young do not leave

till after the loss of the very large external gills (one on each side);

they then lead an aquatic life, and are provided with an opening, or

spiraculum, on each side of the neck. In these larvae the head is

fish-like, provided with much-developed labial lobes, with the eyes much

more distinct than in the perfect animal; the tail, which is quite

rudimentary in all Caecilians, is very distinct, strongly compressed, and

bordered above and beneath by a dermal fold.

In _Hypogeophis_, a Caecilian from the Seychelles studied by A. Brauer, the

development resembles that of _Ichthyophis_, but there is no aquatic larval

stage. The young leaves the egg in the perfect condition, and at once leads

a terrestrial life like its parents. In accordance with this abbreviated

development, the caudal membranous crest does not exist, and the branchial

aperture closes as soon as the external gills disappear.

In the South American _Typhlonectes_, and in the _Dermophis_ from the

Island of St Thomé, West Africa, the young are brought forth alive, in the

former as larvae with external gills, and in the latter in the perfect

air-breathing condition.

REFERENCES.--R. Wiedersheim, _Anatomie der Gymnophionen_ (Jena, 1879), 4to;

G.A. Boulenger, "Synopsis of the Genera and Species," _P.Z.S._, 1895, p.

401; R. Greeff, "Über Siphonops thomensis," _Sizb. Ges. Naturw._ (Marburg,

1884), p. 15; P. and F. Sarasin, _Naturwissenschaftliche Forschungen auf

Ceylon_, ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-1890), 4to; A. Brauer, "Beiträge zur Kenntnis

der Entwicklungsgeschichte und der Anatomie der Gymnophionen," _Zool.

Jahrb. Ana._ x., 1897, p. 389, xii., 1898, p. 477, and xvii., 1904, Suppl.

p. 381; E.A. Göldi, "Entwicklung von Siphonops annulatus," _Zool. Jahrb.

Syst._ xii., 1899, p. 170; J.S. Kingsley, "The systematic Position of the

Caecilians," _Tufts Coll. Stud._ vii., 1902, p. 323.

(G. A. B.)

CAECILIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, which diverged from the Via

Salaria at the 35th m. from Rome, and ran by Amiternum to the Adriatic

coast, passing probably by Hadria. A branch ran to Interamna Praetuttiorum

(Teramo) and thence probably to the sea at Castrum Novum (Giulianova), a

distance of about 151 m. from Rome. It was probably constructed by L.

Caecilius Metellus Diadematus (consul in 117 B.C.).

See C. Hülsen in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1896), 87 seq. N. Persichetti in

_Römische Mitteilungen_ (1898), 193 seq.; (1902), 277 seq.

CAECILIUS, of Calacte ([Greek: Kalê Aktê]) in Sicily, Greek rhetorician,

flourished at Rome during the reign of Augustus. Originally called

Archagathus, he took the name of Caecilius from his patron, one of the

Metelli. According to Suidas, he was by birth a Jew. Next to Dionysius of

Halicarnassus, he was the most important critic and rhetorician of the

Augustan age. Only fragments are extant of his numerous and important

works, among which may be mentioned: _On the Style of the Ten Orators_

(including their lives and a critical examination of their works), the

basis of the pseudo-Plutarchian treatise of the same name, in which

Caecilius is frequently referred to; _On the Sublime_, attacked by (?)

Longinus in his essay on the same subject (see L. Martens, _De Libello_

[Greek: Peri hupsous], 1877); _History of the Servile Wars_, or slave

risings in Sicily, the local interest of which would naturally appeal to

the author; _On Rhetoric_ and _Rhetorical Figures_; an _Alphabetical

Selection of Phrases_, intended to serve as a guide to the acquirement of a

pure Attic style--the first example of an Atticist lexicon, mentioned by

Suidas in the preface to his lexicon as one of his authorities; _Against

the Phrygians_, probably an attack on the florid style of the Asiatic

school of rhetoric.

The fragments have been collected and edited by T. Burckhardt (1863), and

E. Ofenloch (1907); some in C.W. Müller, _Fragmenta Historicorum

Graecorum_, iii.; C. Bursian's _Jahresbericht ... der classischen

Altertumswissenschaft_, xxiii. (1896), contains full notices of recent

works on Caecilius, by C. Hammer; F. Blass, _Griechische Beredsamkeit von

Alexander bis auf Augustus_ (1865), treats of Dionysius of Halicarnassus

and Caecilius together; see also J. Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa,

_Realencyclopädie_ (1897).

CAECILIUS STATIUS, or STATIUS CAECILIUS, Roman comic poet, contemporary and

intimate friend of Ennius, died in 168 (or 166) B.C. He was born in the

territory of the Insubrian Gauls, and was probably taken as a prisoner to

Rome (c. 200), during the great Gallic war. Originally a slave, he assumed

the name of Caecilius from his patron, probably one of the Metelli. He

supported himself by adapting Greek plays for the Roman stage from the new

comedy writers, especially Menander. If the statement in the life of

Terence by Suetonius is correct and the reading sound, Caecilius's judgment

was so esteemed that he was ordered to hear Terence's _Andria_ (exhibited

166 B.C.) read and to pronounce an opinion upon it. After several failures

Caecilius gained a high reputation. Volcacius Sedigitus, the dramatic

critic, places him first amongst the comic poets; Varro credits him with

pathos and skill in the construction of his plots; Horace (_Epistles_, ii.

1. 59) contrasts his dignity with the art of Terence. Quintilian (_Inst.

Orat._, x. 1. 99) speaks somewhat disparagingly of him, and Cicero,

although he admits with some hesitation that Caecilius may have been the

chief of the comic poets (_De Optimo Genere Oratorum_, 1), considers him

inferior to Terence in style and Latinity (_Ad Att._ vii. 3), as was only

natural, considering his foreign extraction. The fact that his plays could

be referred to by name alone without any indication of the author (Cicero,

_De Finibus_, ii. 7) is sufficient proof of their widespread popularity.

Caecilius holds a place between Plautus and Terence in his treatment of the

Greek originals; he did not, like Plautus, confound things Greek and Roman,

nor, like Terence, eliminate everything that could not be romanized.

The fragments of his plays are chiefly preserved in Aulus Gellius, who

cites several passages from the _Plocium_ (necklace) together with the

original Greek of Menander. The translation which is diffuse and by no

means close, fails to reproduce the spirit of the original. Fragments in

Ribbeck, _Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta_ (1898); see also W.S.

Teuffel, _Caecilius Statius_, &c. (1858); Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng.

tr.), bk. iii. ch. 14; F. Skutsch in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_

(1897).

[v.04 p.0934]

CAEC[=I]NA, the name of a distinguished Etruscan family of Volaterrae.

Graves have been discovered belonging to the family, whose name is still

preserved in the river and hamlet of Cecina.

AULUS CAECINA, son of Aulus Caecina who was defended by Cicero (69 B.C.) in

a speech still extant, took the side of Pompey in the civil wars, and

published a violent tirade against Caesar, for which he was banished. He

recanted in a work called _Querelae_, and by the intercession of his

friends, above all, of Cicero, obtained pardon from Caesar. Caecina was

regarded as an important authority on the Etruscan system of divination

(_Etrusca Disciplina_), which he endeavoured to place on a scientific

footing by harmonizing its theories with the doctrines of the Stoics.

Considerable fragments of his work (dealing with lightning) are to be found

in Seneca (_Naturales Quaestiones_, ii. 31-49). Caecina was on intimate

terms with Cicero, who speaks of him as a gifted and eloquent man and was

no doubt considerably indebted to him in his own treatise _De Divinatione_.

Some of their correspondence is preserved in Cicero's letters (_Ad Fam._

vi. 5-8; see also ix. and xiii. 66).

AULUS CAECINA ALIENUS, Roman general, was quaestor of Baetica in Spain

(A.D. 68). On the death of Nero, he attached himself to Galba, who

appointed him to the command of a legion in upper Germany. Having been

prosecuted for embezzling public money, Caecina went over to Vitellius, who

sent him with a large army into Italy. Caecina crossed the Alps, but was

defeated near Cremona by Suetonius Paulinus, the chief general of Otho.

Subsequently, in conjunction with Fabius Valens, Caecina defeated Otho at

the decisive battle of Bedriacum (Betriacum). The incapacity of Vitellius

tempted Vespasian to take up arms against him. Caecina, who had been

entrusted with the repression of the revolt, turned traitor, and tried to

persuade his army to go over to Vespasian, but was thrown into chains by

the soldiers. After the overthrow of Vitellius, he was released, and taken

into favour by the new emperor. But he could not remain loyal to any one.

In 79 he was implicated in a conspiracy against Vespasian, and was put to

death by order of Titus. Caecina is described by Tacitus as a man of

handsome presence and boundless ambition, a gifted orator and a great

favourite with the soldiers.

Tacitus, _Histories_, i. 53, 61, 67-70, ii. 20-25, 41-44, iii. 13; Dio

Cassius lxv. 10-14, lxvi. 16; Plutarch, _Otho_, 7; Suetonius, _Titus_, 6;

Zonaras xi. 17.

CÆDMON, the earliest English Christian poet. His story, and even his very

name, are known to us only from Bæda (_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 24). He was,

according to Bæda (see BEDE), a herdsman, who received a divine call to

poetry by means of a dream. One night, having quitted a festive company

because, from want of skill, he could not comply with the demand made of

each guest in turn to sing to the harp, he sought his bed and fell asleep.

He dreamed that there appeared to him a stranger, who addressed him by his

name, and commanded him to sing of "the beginning of created things." He

pleaded inability, but the stranger insisted, and he was compelled to obey.

He found himself uttering "verses which he had never heard." Of Cædmon's

song Bæda gives a prose paraphrase, which may be literally rendered as

follows:--"Now must we praise the author of the heavenly kingdom, the

Creator's power and counsel, the deeds of the Father of glory: how He, the

eternal God, was the author of all marvels--He, who first gave to the sons

of men the heaven for a roof, and then, Almighty Guardian of mankind,

created the earth." Bæda explains that his version represents the sense

only, not the arrangement of the words, because no poetry, however

excellent, can be rendered into another language, without the loss of its

beauty of expression. When Cædmon awoke he remembered the verses that he

had sung and added to them others. He related his dream to the farm bailiff

under whom he worked, and was conducted by him to the neighbouring

monastery at Streanæshalch (now called Whitby). The abbess Hild and her

monks recognized that the illiterate herdsman had received a gift from

heaven, and, in order to test his powers, proposed to him that he should

try to render into verse a portion of sacred history which they explained

to him. On the following morning he returned having fulfilled his task. At

the request of the abbess he became an inmate of the monastery. Throughout

the remainder of his life his more learned brethren from time to time

expounded to him the events of Scripture history and the doctrines of the

faith, and all that he heard from them he reproduced in beautiful poetry.

"He sang of the creation of the world, of the origin of mankind and of all

the history of Genesis, of the exodus of Israel from Egypt and their

entrance into the Promised Land, of many other incidents of Scripture

history, of the Lord's incarnation, passion, resurrection and ascension, of

the coming of the Holy Ghost and the teaching of the apostles. He also made

many songs of the terrors of the coming judgment, of the horrors of hell

and the sweetness of heaven; and of the mercies and the judgments of God."

All his poetry was on sacred themes, and its unvarying aim was to turn men

from sin to righteousness and the love of God. Although many amongst the

Angles had, following his example, essayed to compose religious poetry,

none of them, in Bæda's opinion, had approached the excellence of Cædmon's

songs.

Bæda's account of Cædmon's deathbed has often been quoted, and is of

singular beauty. It is commonly stated that he died in 680, in the same

year as the abbess Hild, but for this there is no authority. All that we

know of his date is that his dream took place during the period (658-680)

in which Hild was abbess of Streanæshalch, and that he must have died some

considerable time before Bæda finished his history in 731.

The hymn said to have been composed by Cædmon in his dream is extant in its

original language. A copy of it, in the poet's own Northumbrian dialect,

and in a handwriting of the 8th century, appears on a blank page of the

Moore MS. of Bæda's History; and five other Latin MSS. of Bæda have the

poem (but transliterated into a more southern dialect) as a marginal note.

In the old English version of Bæda, ascribed to King Alfred, and certainly

made by his command if not by himself, it is given in the text. Probably

the Latin MS. used by the translator was one that contained this addition.

It was formerly maintained by some scholars that the extant Old English

verses are not Bæda's original, but a mere retranslation from his Latin

prose version. The argument was that they correspond too closely with the

Latin; Bæda's words, "hic est sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum," being

taken to mean that he had given, not a literal translation, but only a free

paraphrase. But the form of the sentences in Bæda's prose shows a close

adherence to the parallelistic structure of Old English verse, and the

alliterating words in the poem are in nearly every case the most obvious

and almost the inevitable equivalents of those used by Bæda. The sentence

quoted above[1] can therefore have been meant only as an apology for the

absence of those poetic graces that necessarily disappear in translations

into another tongue. Even on the assumption that the existing verses are a

retranslation, it would still be certain that they differ very slightly

from what the original must have been. It is of course possible to hold

that the story of the dream is pure fiction, and that the lines which Bæda

translated were not Cædmon's at all. But there is really nothing to justify

this extreme of scepticism. As the hymn is said to have been Cædmon's first

essay in verse, its lack of poetic merit is rather an argument for its

genuineness than against it. Whether Bæda's narrative be historical or

not--and it involves nothing either miraculous or essentially

improbable--there is no reason to doubt that the nine lines of the Moore

MS. are Cædmon's composition.

This poor fragment is all that can with confidence be affirmed to remain of

the voluminous works of the man whom Bæda regarded as the greatest of

vernacular religious poets. It is true that for two centuries and a half a

considerable body of verse has been currently known by his name; but among

modern scholars the use of the customary designation is merely a matter of

convenience, and does not imply any belief in the correctness of the

attribution. The so-called Cædmon poems are contained [v.04 p.0935] in a

MS. written about A.D. 1000, which was given in 1651 by Archbishop Ussher

to the famous scholar Francis Junius, and is now in the Bodleian library.

They consist of paraphrases of parts of Genesis, Exodus and Daniel, and

three separate poems the first on the lamentations of the fallen angels,

the second on the "Harrowing of Hell," the resurrection, ascension and

second coming of Christ, and the third (a mere fragment) on the temptation.

The subjects correspond so well with those of Cædmon's poetry as described

by Bæda that it is not surprising that Junius, in his edition, published in

1655, unhesitatingly attributed the poems to him. The ascription was

rejected in 1684 by G. Hickes, whose chief argument, based on the character

of the language, is now known to be fallacious, as most of the poetry that

has come down to us in the West Saxon dialect is certainly of Northumbrian

origin. Since, however, we learn from Bæda that already in his time Cædmon

had had many imitators, the abstract probability is rather unfavourable

than otherwise to the assumption that a collection of poems contained in a

late 10th century MS. contains any of his work. Modern criticism has shown

conclusively that the poetry of the "Cædmon MS." cannot be all by one

author. Some portions of it are plainly the work of a scholar who wrote

with his Latin Bible before him. It is possible that some of the rest may

be the composition of the Northumbrian herdsman; but in the absence of any

authenticated example of the poet's work to serve as a basis of comparison,

the internal evidence can afford no ground for an affirmative conclusion.

On the other hand, the mere unlikeness of any particular passage to the

nine lines of the _Hymn_ is obviously no reason for denying that it may

have been by the same author.

The _Genesis_ contains a long passage (ii. 235-851) on the fall of the

angels and the temptation of our first parents, which differs markedly in

style and metre from the rest. This passage, which begins in the middle of

a sentence (two leaves of the MS. having been lost) is one of the finest in

all Old English poetry. In 1877 Professor E. Sievers argued, on linguistic

grounds, that it was a translation, with some original insertions, from a

lost poem in Old Saxon, probably by the author of the _Heliand_. Sievers's

conclusions were brilliantly confirmed in 1894 by the discovery in the

Vatican library of a MS. containing 62 lines of the _Heliand_ and three

fragments of an old Saxon poem on the story of Genesis. The first of these

fragments includes the original of 28 lines of the interpolated passage of

the Old English _Genesis_. The Old Saxon Biblical poetry belongs to the

middle of the 9th century; the Old English translation of a portion of it

is consequently later than this.

As the _Genesis_ begins with a line identical in meaning, though not in

wording, with the opening of Cædmon's _Hymn_, we may perhaps infer that the

writer knew and used Cædmon's genuine poems. Some of the more poetical

passages may possibly echo Cædmon's expressions; but when, after treating

of the creation of the angels and the revolt of Lucifer, the paraphrast

comes to the Biblical part of the story, he follows the sacred text with

servile fidelity, omitting no detail, however prosaic. The ages of the

antediluvian patriarchs, for instance, are accurately rendered into verse.

In all probability the _Genesis_ is of Northumbrian origin. The names

assigned to the wives of Noah and his three sons (Phercoba, Olla, Olliua,

Olliuani[2]) have been traced to an Irish source, and this fact seems to

point to the influence of the Irish missionaries in Northumbria.

The _Exodus_ is a fine poem, strangely unlike anything else in Old English

literature. It is full of martial spirit, yet makes no use of the phrases

of the heathen epic, which Cynewulf and other Christian poets were

accustomed to borrow freely, often with little appropriateness. The

condensation of the style and the peculiar vocabulary make the _Exodus_

somewhat obscure in many places. It is probably of southern origin, and can

hardly be supposed to be even an imitation of Cædmon.

The _Daniel_ is often unjustly depreciated. It is not a great poem but the

narration is lucid and interesting. The author has borrowed some 70 lines

from the beginning of a poetical rendering of the Prayer of Azarias and the

Song of the Three Children, of which there is a copy in the Exeter Book.

The borrowed portion ends with verse 3 of the canticle, the remainder of

which follows in a version for the most part independent, though containing

here and there a line from _Azarias_. Except in inserting the prayer and

the _Benedicite_, the paraphrast draws only from the canonical part of the

book of Daniel. The poem is obviously the work of a scholar, though the

Bible is the only source used.

The three other poems, designated as "Book II" in the Junius MS., are

characterized by considerable imaginative power and vigour of expression,

but they show an absence of literary culture and are somewhat rambling,

full of repetitions and generally lacking in finish. They abound in

passages of fervid religious exhortation. On the whole, both their merits

and their defects are such as we should expect to find in the work of the

poet celebrated by Bæda, and it seems possible, though hardly more than

possible, that we have in these pieces a comparatively little altered

specimen of Cædmon's compositions.

Of poems not included in the Junius MS., the _Dream of the Rood_ (see

CYNEWULF) is the only one that has with any plausibility been ascribed to

Cædmon. It was affirmed by Professor G. Stephens that the Ruthwell Cross,

on which a portion of the poem is inscribed in runes, bore on its top-stone

the name "Cadmon";[3] but, according to Professor W. Vietor, the traces of

runes that are still visible exclude all possibility of this reading. The

poem is certainly Northumbrian and earlier than the date of Cynewulf. It

would be impossible to prove that Cædmon was not the author, though the

production of such a work by the herdsman of Streanæshalch would certainly

deserve to rank among the miracles of genius.

Certain similarities between passages in _Paradise Lost_ and parts of the

translation from Old Saxon interpolated in the Old English _Genesis_ have

given occasion to the suggestion that some scholar may have talked to

Milton about the poetry published by Junius in 1655, and that the poet may

thus have gained some hints which he used in his great work. The parallels,

however, though very interesting, are only such as might be expected to

occur between two poets of kindred genius working on what was essentially

the same body of traditional material.

The name Cædmon (in the MSS. of the Old English version of Bæda written

_Cedmon, Ceadmann_) is not explicable by means of Old English; the

statement that it means "boatman" is founded on the corrupt gloss

_liburnam, ced_, where _ced_ is an editorial misreading for _ceol_. It is

most probably the British _Cadman_, intermediate between the Old Celtic

_Catumanus_ and the modern Welsh _Cadfan_. Possibly the poet may have been

of British descent, though the inference is not certain, as British names

may sometimes have been given to English children. The name Caedwalla or

Ceadwalla was borne by a British king mentioned by Bæda and by a king of

the West Saxons. The initial element _Caed_--or _Cead_ (probably adopted

from British names in which it represents _catu_, war) appears combined

with an Old English terminal element in the name _Caedbaed_ (cp., however,

the Irish name Cathbad), and hypocoristic forms of names containing it were

borne by the English saints Ceadda (commonly known as St Chad) and his

brother Cedd, called Ceadwealla in one MS. of the _Old English

Martyrology_. A Cadmon witnesses a Buckinghamshire charter of about A.D.

948.

The older editions of the so-called "Cædmon's Paraphrase" by F. Junius

(1655); B. Thorpe (1832), with an English translation; K.W. Bouterwek

(1851-1854); C.W.M. Grein in his _Bibliothek der angelsächsischen Poesie_

(1857) are superseded, so far as the text is concerned, by R. Wülker's

re-edition of Grein's _Bibliothek_, Bd. ii. (1895). This work contains also

the texts of the _Hymn_ and the _Dream of the Rood_. The pictorial

illustrations of the Junius MS. were published in 1833 by Sir H. Ellis.

(H. BR.)

[1] It is a significant fact that the Alfredian version, instead of

translating this sentence, introduces the verses with the words, "This is

the order of the words."

[2] The invention of these names was perhaps suggested by _Pericope Oollae

et Oolibae_, which may have been a current title for the 23rd chapter of

Ezekiel.

[3] Stephens read the inscription on the top-stone as _Cadmon mae fauaepo_,

which he rendered "Cadmon made me." But these words are mere jargon, not

belonging to any known or possible Old English dialect.

[v.04 p.0936] CAELIA, the name of two ancient cities in Italy, (1) In

Apulia (mod. _Ceglie di Bari_) on the Via Traiana, 5 m. S. of Barium. Coins

found here bearing the inscription [Greek: Kailinôn] prove that it was once

an independent town. Discoveries of ruins and tombs have also been made.

(2) In Calabria (mod. _Ceglie Messapica_) 25 m. W. of Brundusium, and 991

ft. above sea-level. It was in early times a place of some importance, as

is indicated by the remains of a prehistoric _enceinte_ and by the

discovery of several Messapian inscriptions.

See Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 1252.

CAEN, a city of north-western France, capital of the department of

Calvados, 7½ m. from the English Channel and 149 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the

Western railway to Cherbourg. Pop. (1906) 36,247. It is situated in the

valley and on the left bank of the Orne, the right bank of which is

occupied by the suburb of Vaucelles with the station of the Western

railway. To the south-west of Caen, the Orne is joined by the Odon, arms of

which water the "Prairie," a fine plain on which a well-known race-course

is laid out. Its wide streets, of which the most important is the rue St

Jean, shady boulevards, and public gardens enhance the attraction which the

town derives from an abundance of fine churches and old houses. Hardly any

remains of its once extensive ramparts and towers are now to be seen; but

the castle, founded by William the Conqueror and completed by Henry I., is

still employed as barracks, though in a greatly altered condition. St

Pierre, the most beautiful church in Caen, stands at the northern extremity

of the rue St Jean, in the centre of the town. In the main, its

architecture is Gothic, but the choir and the apsidal chapels, with their

elaborate interior and exterior decoration, are of Renaissance workmanship.

The graceful tower, which rises beside the southern portal to a height of

255 ft., belongs to the early 14th century. The church of St Étienne, or

l'Abbaye-aux-Hommes, in the west of the town, is an important specimen of

Romanesque architecture, dating from about 1070, when it was founded by

William the Conqueror. It is unfortunately hemmed in by other buildings, so

that a comprehensive view of it is not to be obtained. The whole building,

and especially the west façade, which is flanked by two towers with lofty

spires, is characterized by its simplicity. The choir, which is one of the

earliest examples of the Norman Gothic style, dates from the early 13th

century. In 1562 the Protestants did great damage to the building, which

was skilfully restored in the early 17th century. A marble slab marks the

former resting-place of William the Conqueror. The abbey-buildings were

rebuilt in the 17th and 18th centuries, and now shelter the lycée. Matilda,

wife of the Conqueror, was the foundress of the church of La Trinité or

l'Abbaye-aux-Dames, which is of the same date as St Étienne. Two square

unfinished towers flank the western entrance, and another rises above the

transept. Queen Matilda is interred in the choir, and a fine crypt beneath

it contains the remains of former abbesses. The buildings of the nunnery,

reconstructed in the early 18th century, now serve as a hospital. Other

interesting old churches are those of St Sauveur, St Michel de Vaucelles,

St Jean, St Gilles, Notre-Dame de la Gloriette, St Étienne le Vieux and St

Nicolas, the last two now secularized. Caen possesses many old timber

houses and stone mansions, in one of which, the hôtel d'Ecoville (c. 1530),

the exchange and the tribunal of commerce are established. The hôtel de

Than, also of the 16th century, is remarkable for its graceful

dormer-windows. The Maison des Gens d'Armes (15th century), in the eastern

outskirts of the town, has a massive tower adorned with medallions and

surmounted by two figures of armed men. The monuments at Caen include one

to the natives of Calvados killed in 1870 and 1871 and one to the lawyer

J.C.F. Demolombe, together with statues of Louis XIV, Élie de Beaumont,

Pierre Simon, marquis de Laplace, D.F.E. Auber and François de Malherbe,

the two last natives of the town. Caen is the seat of a court of appeal, of

a court of assizes and of a prefect. It is the centre of an academy and has

a university with faculties of law, science and letters and a preparatory

school of medicine and pharmacy; there are also a lycée, training colleges,

schools of art and music, and two large hospitals. The other chief public

institutions are tribunals of first instance and commerce, an exchange, a

chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The hôtel-de-ville

contains the library, with more than 100,000 volumes and the art museum

with a fine collection of paintings. The town is the seat of several

learned societies including the Société des Antiquaires, which has a rich

museum of antiquities. Caen, despite a diversity of manufactures, is

commercial rather than industrial. Its trade is due to its position in the

agricultural and horse-breeding district known as the "Campagne de Caen"

and to its proximity to the iron mines of the Orne valley, and to

manufacturing towns such as Falaise, Le Mans, &c. In the south-east of the

town there is a floating basin lined with quays and connected with the Orne

and with the canal which debouches into the sea at Ouistreham 9 m. to the

N.N.E. The port, which also includes a portion of the river-bed,

communicates with Havre and Newhaven by a regular line of steamers; it has

a considerable fishing population. In 1905 the number of vessels entered

was 563 with a tonnage of 190,190. English coal is foremost among the

imports, which also include timber and grain, while iron ore, Caen

stone[1], butter and eggs and fruit are among the exports. Important horse

and cattle fairs are held in the town. The industries of Caen include

timber-sawing, metal-founding and machine-construction, cloth-weaving,

lace-making, the manufacture of leather and gloves, and of oil from the

colza grown in the district, furniture and other wooden goods and chemical

products.

Though Caen is not a town of great antiquity, the date of its foundation is

unknown. It existed as early as the 9th century, and when, in 912, Neustria

was ceded to the Normans by Charles the Simple, it was a large and

important place. Under the dukes of Normandy, and particularly under

William the Conqueror, it rapidly increased. It became the capital of lower

Normandy, and in 1346 was besieged and taken by Edward III. of England. It

was again taken by the English in 1417, and was retained by them till 1450,

when it capitulated to the French. The university was founded in 1436 by

Henry VI. of England. During the Wars of Religion, Caen embraced the

reform; in the succeeding century its prosperity was shattered by the

revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685). In 1793 the city was the focus of

the Girondist movement against the Convention.

See G. Mancel et C. Woinez, _Hist. de la ville de Caen et de ses progrès_

(Caen, 1836); B. Pent, _Hist. de la ville de Caen, ses origines_ (Caen,

1866); E. de R. de Beaurepaire, _Caen illustré: son histoire, ses

monuments_ (Caen, 1896).

[1] A limestone well adapted for building. It was well known in the 15th

and 16th centuries, at which period many English churches were built of it.

CAEPIO, QUINTUS SERVILIUS, Roman general, consul 106 B.C. During his year

of office, he brought forward a law by which the jurymen were again to be

chosen from the senators instead of the equites (Tacitus, _Ann._ xii. 60).

As governor of Gallia Narbonensis, he plundered the temple of the Celtic

Apollo at Tolosa (Toulouse), which had joined the Cimbri. In 105, Caepio

suffered a crushing defeat from the Cimbri at Arausio (Orange) on the

Rhone, which was looked upon as a punishment for his sacrilege; hence the

proverb _Aurum Tolosanum habet_, of an act involving disastrous

consequences. In the same year he was deprived of his proconsulship and his

property confiscated; subsequently (the chronology is obscure, see Mommsen,

_History of Rome_, bk. iv. ch. 5) he was expelled from the senate, accused

by the tribune Norbanus of embezzlement and misconduct during the war,

condemned and imprisoned. He either died during his confinement or escaped

to Smyrna.

Livy, _Epit._ 67; Valerius Maximus iv. 7. 3; Justin xxxii. 3; Aulus Gellius

iii. 9.

CAERE (mod. _Cerveteri_, _i.e._ _Caere vetus_, see below), an ancient city

of Etruria about 5 m. from the sea coast and about 20 m. N.W. of Rome,

direct from which it was reached by branch roads from the Via Aurelia and

Via Clodia. Ancient writers tell us that its original Pelasgian name was

Agylla, and that the Etruscans took it and called it Caere (when this

occurred is not known), [v.04 p.0937] but the former name lasted on into

later times as well as Caere. It was one of the twelve cities of Etruria,

and its trade, through its port Pyrgos (_q.v._), was of considerable

importance. It fought with Rome in the time of Tarquinus Priscus and

Servius Tullius, and subsequently became the refuge of the expelled

Tarquins. After the invasion of the Gauls in 390 B.C., the vestal virgins

and the sacred objects in their custody were conveyed to Caere for safety,

and from this fact some ancient authorities derive the word _caerimonia_,

ceremony. A treaty was made between Rome and Caere in the same year. In

353, however, Caere took up arms against Rome out of friendship for

Tarquinii, but was defeated, and it is probably at this time that it became

partially incorporated with the Roman state, as a community whose members

enjoyed only a restricted form of Roman citizenship, without the right to a

vote, and which was, further, without internal autonomy. The status is

known as the _ius Caeritum_, and Caere was the first of a class of such

municipalities (Th. Mommsen, _Römische Staatsrecht_, iii. 583). In the

First Punic War, Caere furnished Rome with corn and provisions, but

otherwise, up till the end of the Republic, we only hear of prodigies being

observed at Caere and reported at Rome, the Etruscans being especially

expert in augural lore. By the time of Augustus its population had actually

fallen behind that of the Aquae Caeretanae (the sulphur springs now known

as the Bagni del Sasso, about 5 m. W.), but under either Augustus or

Tiberius its prosperity was to a certain extent restored, and inscriptions

speak of its municipal officials (the chief of them called _dictator_) and

its town council, which had the title of _senatus_. In the middle ages,

however, it sank in importance, and early in the 13th century, a part of

the inhabitants founded Caere novum (mod. _Ceri_) 3 m. to the east.

The town lay on a hill of tufa, running from N.E. to S.W., isolated except

on the N.E., and about 300 ft. above sea-level. The modern town, at the

western extremity, probably occupies the site of the acropolis. The line of

the city walls, of rectangular blocks of tufa, can be traced, and there

seem to have been eight gates in the circuit, which was about 4 m. in

length. There are no remains of buildings of importance, except the

theatre, in which many inscriptions and statues of emperors were found. The

necropolis in the hill to the north-west, known as the Banditaccia, is

important. The tomb chambers are either hewn in the rock or covered by

mounds. One of the former class was the family tomb of the

Tarchna-Tarquinii, perhaps descended from the Roman kings; others are

interesting from their architectural and decorative details. One

especially, the Grotta dei Bassirilievi, has interesting reliefs cut in the

rock and painted, while the walls of another were decorated with painted

tiles of terracotta. The most important tomb of all, the Regolini-Galassi

tomb (taking its name from its discoverers), which lies S.W. of the ancient

city, is a narrow rock-hewn chamber about 60 ft. long, lined with masonry,

the sides converging to form the roof. The objects found in it (a chariot,

a bed, silver goblets with reliefs, rich gold ornaments, &c.) are now in

the Etruscan Museum at the Vatican: they are attributed to about the middle

of the 7th century B.C. At a short distance from the modern town on the

west, thousands of votive terracottas were found in 1886, some representing

divinities, others parts of the human body (_Notizie degli Scavi_, 1886,

38). They must have belonged to some temple.

See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_, i. 226 seq.; C. Hülsen

in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, iii. 1281.

(T. AS.)

CAERLEON, an ancient village in the southern parliamentary division of

Monmouthshire, England, on the right (west) bank of the Usk, 3 m. N.E. of

Newport. Pop. (1901) 1411. Its claim to notice rests on its Roman and

British associations. As _Isca Silurum_, it was one of the three great

legionary fortresses of Roman Britain, established either about A.D. 50

(Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 32), or perhaps, as coin-finds suggest, about A.D.

74-78 in the governorship of Julius Frontinus, and in either case intended

to coerce the wild Silures. It was garrisoned by the Legio II. Augusta from

its foundation till near the end of the Roman rule in Britain. Though never

seriously excavated, it contains plentiful visible traces of its Roman

period--part of the ramparts, the site of an amphitheatre, and many

inscriptions, sculptured stones, &c., in the local museum. No civil life or

municipality seems, however, to have grown up outside its walls, as at York

(_Ebur[=a]cum_). Like Chester (see DEVA), it remained purely military, and

the common notion that it was the seat of a Christian bishopric in the 4th

century is unproved and improbable. Its later history is obscure. We do not

know when the legion was finally withdrawn, nor what succeeded. But Welsh

legend has made the site very famous with tales of Arthur (revived by

Tennyson in his _Idylls_), of Christian martyrs, Aaron and Julius, and of

an archbishopric held by St Dubric and shifted to St David's in the 6th

century. Most of these traditions date from Geoffrey of Monmouth (about

1130-1140), and must not be taken for history. The ruins of Caerleon

attracted notice in the 12th and following centuries, and gave plain cause

for legend-making. There is better, but still slender, reason for the

belief that it was here, and not at Chester, that five kings of the Cymry

rowed Edgar in a barge as a sign of his sovereignty (A.D. 973). The name

Caerleon seems to be derived from the Latin _Castra legionum_, but it is

not peculiar to Caerleon-on-Usk, being often used of Chester and

occasionally of Leicester and one or two other places.

(F. J. H.)

CAERPHILLY, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales, 152¼ m. from London by

rail _via_ Cardiff, 7 m. from Cardiff, 12 m. from Newport and 6 m. from

Pontypridd. The origin of the name is unknown. It was formerly in the

ancient parish of Eglwysilan, but from that and Bedwas (Mon.) an

ecclesiastical parish was formed in 1850, while the whole of the parishes

of Eglwysilan and Llanfabon, with a total acreage of 14,426, were in 1893

constituted into an urban district; its population in 1901 was 15,385, of

which 4343 were in the "town" ward. In 1858 was opened the Rhymney railway

from Rhymney to Caerphilly and on to Taff's Well, whence it had running

powers over the Taff Vale railway to Cardiff, but in 1871, by means of a

tunnel about 2000 yds. long, under Cefn Onn, a direct line was provided

from Caerphilly to Cardiff. A branch line, 4 m. long, was opened in 1894 to

Senghenydd. The Pontypridd and Newport railway was constructed in 1887, and

there is a joint station at Caerphilly for both railways. Some 2 m.

eastwards there is a station on the Brecon and Merthyr railway at Bedwas.

The ancient commote of Senghenydd (corresponding to the modern hundred of

Caerphilly) comprised the mountainous district extending from the ridge of

Cefn Onn on the south to Breconshire on the north, being bounded by the

rivers Taff and Rumney on the west and east. Its inhabitants, though

nominally subject to the lords of Glamorgan since Fitzhamon's conquest,

enjoyed a large measure of independence and often raided the lowlands. To

keep these in check, Gilbert de Clare, during the closing years of the

reign of Henry III., built the castle of Caerphilly on the southern edge of

this district, in a wide plain between the two rivers. It had probably not

been completed, though it was already defensible, when Prince Llewelyn ab

Griffith, incensed by its construction and claiming its site as his own,

laid siege to it in 1271 and refused to retire except on conditions.

Subsequently completed and strengthened it became and still remains (in the

words of G.T. Clark) "both the earliest and the most complete example in

Britain of a concentric castle of the type known as 'Edwardian', the circle

of walls and towers of the outer, inner and middle wards exhibiting the

most complete illustration of the most scientific military architecture".

The knoll on which it stood was converted almost into an island by the

damming up of an adjacent brook, and the whole enclosed area amounted to 30

acres. The great hall (which is 73 ft. by 35 ft. and about 30 ft. high) is

a fine example of Decorated architecture. This and other additions are

attributed to Hugh le Despenser (1318-1326). Edward II. visited the castle

shortly before his capture in 1326. The defence of the castle was committed

by Henry IV. to Constance, Lady Despenser, in September 1403, but it was

shortly afterwards taken by Owen Glyndwr, to whose mining operations

tradition ascribes the leaning position of a large [v.04 p.0938] circular

tower, about 50 ft. high, the summit of which overhangs its base about 9

ft. Before the middle of the 15th century it had ceased to be a fortified

residence and was used as a prison, which was also the case in the time of

Leland (1535), who describes it as in a ruinous state. It is still,

however, one of the most extensive and imposing ruins of the kind in the

kingdom.

The town grew up around the castle but never received a charter or had a

governing body. In 1661 the corporation of Cardiff complained of Cardiff's

impoverishment by reason of a fair held every three weeks for the previous

four years at Caerphilly, though "no Borough." Its markets during the 19th

century had been chiefly noted for the Caerphilly cheese sold there. The

district was one of the chief centres of the Methodist revival of the 18th

century, the first synod of the Calvinistic Methodists being held in 1743

at Watford farm close to the town, from which place George Whitefield was

married at Eglwysilan church two years previously. The church of St Martin

was built in 1879, and there are Nonconformist chapels. Mining is now the

chief industry of the district.

(D. LL. T.)

CAESALPINUS (CESALPINO), ANDREAS (1519-1603), Italian natural philosopher,

was born in Arezzo in Tuscany in 1519. He studied anatomy and medicine at

the university of Pisa, where he took his doctor's degree in 1551, and in

1555 became professor materia medica and director of the botanical garden.

Appointed physician to Pope Clement VIII., he removed in 1592 to Rome,

where he died on the 23rd of February 1603. Caesalpinus was the most

distinguished botanist of his time. His work, _De Plantis libri xvi._

(Florence, 1583), was not only the source from which various subsequent

writers, and especially Robert Morison (1620-1683) derived their ideas of

botanical arrangement but it was a mine of science to which Linnaeus

himself gratefully avowed his obligations. Linnaeus's copy of the book

evinces the great assiduity with which he studied it; he laboured

throughout to remedy the defect of the want of synonyms, sub-joined his own

generic names to nearly every species, and particularly indicated the two

remarkable passages where the germination of plants and their sexual

distinctions are explained. Caesalpinus was also distinguished as a

physiologist, and it has been claimed that he had a clear idea of the

circulation of the blood (see HARVEY, WILLIAM). His other works include

_Daemonum investigatio peripatetica_ (1580), _Quaestionum medicarum libri

ii._ (1593), _De Metallicis_ (1596), and _Quaestionum peripateticarum libri

v._ (1571)

CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102-44 B.C.), the great Roman soldier and statesman,

was born on the 12th of July 102 B.C.[1] [Sidenote: Early years.] His

family was of patrician rank and traced a legendary descent from Iulus, the

founder of Alba Longa, son of Aeneas and grandson of Venus and Anchises.

Caesar made the most of his divine ancestry and built a temple in his forum

to Venus Genetrix; but his patrician descent was of little importance in

politics and disqualified Caesar from holding the tribunate, an office to

which, as a leader of the popular party, he would naturally have aspired.

The Julii Caesares, however, had also acquired the new _nobilitas_, which

belonged to holders of the great magistracies. Caesar's uncle was consul in

91 B.C., and his father held the praetorship. Most of the family seem to

have belonged to the senatorial party (_optimates_); but Caesar himself was

from the first a _popularis_. The determining factor is no doubt to be

sought in his relationship with C. Marius, the husband of his aunt Julia.

Caesar was born in the year of Marius's first great victory over the

Teutones, and as he grew up, inspired by the traditions of the great

soldier's career, attached himself to his party and its fortunes. Of his

education we know scarcely anything. His mother, Aurelia, belonged to a

distinguished family, and Tacitus (_Dial. de Orat._ xxviii.) couples her

name with that of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, as an example of the

Roman matron whose _disciplina_ and _severitas_ formed her son for the

duties of a soldier and statesman. His tutor was M. Antonius Gnipho, a

native of Gaul (by which Cisalpine Gaul may be meant), who is said to have

been equally learned in Greek and Latin literature, and to have set up in

later years a school of rhetoric which was attended by Cicero in his

praetorship 66 B.C. It is possible that Caesar may have derived from him

his interest in Gaul and its people and his sympathy with the claims of the

Romanized Gauls of northern Italy to political rights.

In his sixteenth year (87 B.C.) Caesar lost his father, and assumed the

_toga virilis_ as the token of manhood. The social war (90-89 B.C.) had

been brought to a close by the enfranchisement of Rome's Italian subjects;

and the civil war which followed it led, after the departure of Sulla for

the East, to the temporary triumph of the _populares_, led by Marius and

Cinna, and the indiscriminate massacre of their political opponents,

including both of Caesar's uncles. Caesar was at once marked out for high

distinction, being created _flamen Dialis_ or priest of Jupiter. In the

following year (which saw the death of Marius) Caesar, rejecting a proposed

marriage with a wealthy capitalist's heiress, sought and obtained the hand

of Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, and thus became further identified with

the ruling party. His career was soon after interrupted by the triumphant

return of Sulla (82 B.C.), who ordered him to divorce his wife, and on his

refusal deprived him of his property and priesthood and was induced to

spare his life only by the intercession of his aristocratic relatives and

the college of vestal virgins.

Released from his religious obligations, Caesar now (81 B.C.) left Rome for

the East and served his first campaign under Minucius Thermus, who was

engaged in stamping out the embers of resistance to Roman rule in the

province of Asia, and received from him the "civic crown" for saving a

fellow-soldier's life at the storm of Mytilene. In 78 B.C. he was serving

under Servilius Isauricus against the Cilician pirates when the news of

Sulla's death reached him and he at once returned to Rome. Refusing to

entangle himself in the abortive and equivocal schemes of Lepidus to

subvert the Sullan constitution, Caesar took up the only instrument of

political warfare left to the opposition by prosecuting two senatorial

governors, Cn. Cornelius Dolabella (in 77 B.C.) and C. Antonius (in 76

B.C.) for extortion in the provinces of Macedonia and Greece, and though he

lost both cases, probably convinced the world at large of the corruption of

the senatorial tribunals. After these failures Caesar determined to take no

active part in politics for a time, and retraced his steps to the East in

order to study rhetoric under Molon, at Rhodes. On the journey thither he

was caught by pirates, whom he treated with consummate nonchalance while

awaiting his ransom, threatening to return and crucify them; when released

he lost no time in carrying out his threat. Whilst he was studying at

Rhodes the third Mithradatic War broke out, and Caesar at once raised a

corps of volunteers and helped to secure the wavering loyalty of the

provincials of Asia. When Lucullus assumed the command of the Roman troops

in Asia, Caesar returned to Rome, to find that he had been elected to a

seat on the college of _pontifices_ left vacant by the death of his uncle,

C. Aurelius Cotta. He was likewise elected first of the six _tribuni

militum a populo_, but we hear nothing of his service in this capacity.

Suetonius tells us that he threw himself into the agitation for the

restoration of the ancient powers of the tribunate curtailed by Sulla, and

that he secured the passing of a law of amnesty in favour of the partisans

of Sertorius. He was not, however, destined to compass the downfall of the

Sullan _régime_; the crisis of the Slave War placed the Senate at the mercy

of Pompey and Crassus, who in 70 B.C. swept away the safeguards of

senatorial ascendancy, restored the initiative in legislation to the

tribunes, and replaced the Equestrian order, _i.e._ the capitalists, in

partial possession of the jury-courts. This judicial reform (or rather

compromise) was the work of Caesar's uncle, L. Aurelius Cotta. Caesar

himself, however, gained no accession of influence. In 69 B.C. he served as

quaestor under Antistius Vetus, governor of Hither Spain, and on his way

back to Rome (according to Suetonius) promoted a revolutionary agitation

[v.04 p.0939] amongst the Transpadanes for the acquisition of full

political rights, which had been denied them by Sulla's settlement.

Caesar was now best known as a man of pleasure, celebrated for his debts

and his intrigues; in politics he had no force behind [Sidenote: Opposition

to the Optimates.] him save that of the discredited party of the

_populares_, reduced to lending a passive support to Pompey and Crassus.

But as soon as the proved incompetence of the senatorial government had

brought about the mission of Pompey to the East with the almost unlimited

powers conferred on him by the Gabinian and Manilian laws of 67 and 66 B.C.

(see POMPEY), Caesar plunged into a network of political intrigues which it

is no longer possible to unravel. In his public acts he lost no opportunity

of upholding the democratic tradition. Already in 68 B.C. he had paraded

the bust of Marius at his aunt's funeral; in 65 B.C., as curule aedile, he

restored the trophies of Marius to their place on the Capitol; in 64 B.C.,

as president of the murder commission, he brought three of Sulla's

executioners to trial, and in 63 B.C. he caused the ancient procedure of

trial by popular assembly to be revived against the murderer of Saturninus.

By these means, and by the lavishness of his expenditure on public

entertainments as aedile, he acquired such popularity with the plebs that

he was elected _pontifex maximus_ in 63 B.C. against such distinguished

rivals as Q. Lutatius Catulus and P. Servilius Isauricus. But all this was

on the surface. There can be no doubt that Caesar was cognizant of some at

least of the threads of conspiracy which were woven during Pompey's absence

in the East. According to one story, the _enfants perdus_ of the

revolutionary party--Catiline, Autronius and others--designed to

assassinate the consuls on the 1st of January 65, and make Crassus

dictator, with Caesar as master of the horse. We are also told that a

public proposal was made to confer upon him an extraordinary military

command in Egypt, not without a legitimate king and nominally under the

protection of Rome. An equally abortive attempt to create a counterpoise to

Pompey's power was made by the tribune Rullus at the close of 64 B.C. He

proposed to create a land commission with very wide powers, which would in

effect have been wielded by Caesar and Crassus. The bill was defeated by

Cicero, consul in 63 B.C. In the same year the conspiracy associated with

the name of Catiline came to a head. The charge of complicity was freely

levelled at Caesar, and indeed was hinted at by Cato in the great debate in

the senate. But Caesar, for party reasons, was bound to oppose the

execution of the conspirators; while Crassus, who shared in the accusation,

was the richest man in Rome and the least likely to further anarchist

plots. Both, however, doubtless knew as much and as little as suited their

convenience of the doings of the left wing of their party, which served to

aggravate the embarrassments of the government.