As praetor (62 B.C.) Caesar supported pr_Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Bulgaria" to "Calgary" Volume 4, Part 4

brought him into violent collision with the senate. This was a

master-stroke of tactics, as Pompey's return was imminent. Thus when Pompey

landed in Italy and disbanded his army he found in Caesar a natural ally.

After some delay, said to have been caused by the exigencies of his

creditors, which were met by a loan of £200,000 from Crassus, Caesar left

Rome for his province of Further Spain, where he was able to retrieve his

financial position, and to lay the foundations of a military reputation. He

returned to Rome in 60 B.C. to find that the senate had sacrificed the

support of the capitalists (which Cicero had worked so hard to secure), and

had finally alienated Pompey by refusing to ratify his acts and grant lands

to his soldiers. Caesar at once approached both Pompey and Crassus, who

alike detested the existing system of government but were personally at

variance, and succeeded in persuading them to forget their quarrel and join

him in a coalition which should put an end to the rule of the oligarchy. He

even made a generous, though unsuccessful, endeavour to enlist the support

of Cicero. The so-called First Triumvirate was formed, and constitutional

government ceased to exist save in name.

The first prize which fell to Caesar was the consulship, to secure which he

forewent the triumph which he had earned in Spain. His colleague was M.

Bibulus, who belonged to the straitest sect of the senatorial oligarchy

and, together with [Sidenote: Coalition with Pompey and Crassus.] his

party, placed every form of constitutional obstruction in the path of

Caesar's legislation. Caesar, however, overrode all opposition, mustering

Pompey's veterans to drive his colleague from the forum. Bibulus became a

virtual prisoner in his own house, and Caesar placed himself outside the

pale of the free republic. Thus the programme of the coalition was carried

through. Pompey was satisfied by the ratification of his acts in Asia, and

by the assignment of the Campanian state domains to his veterans, the

capitalists (with whose interests Crassus was identified) had their bargain

for the farming of the Asiatic revenues cancelled, Ptolemy Auletes received

the confirmation of his title to the throne of Egypt (for a consideration

amounting to £1,500,000), and a fresh act was passed for preventing

extortion by provincial governors.

It was now all-important for Caesar to secure practical irresponsibility by

obtaining a military command. The senate, [Sidenote: Gallic wars.] in

virtue of its constitutional prerogative, had assigned as the _provincia_

of the consuls of 59 B.C. the supervision of roads and forests in Italy.

Caesar secured the passing of a legislative enactment conferring upon

himself the government of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria for five years, and

exacted from the terrorized senate the addition of Transalpine Gaul, where,

as he well knew, a storm was brewing which threatened to sweep away Roman

civilization beyond the Alps. The mutual jealousies of the Gallic tribes

had enabled German invaders first to gain a foothold on the left bank of

the Rhine, and then to obtain a predominant position in Central Gaul. In 60

B.C. the German king Ariovistus had defeated the Aedui, who were allies of

Rome, and had wrested from the Sequani a large portion of their territory.

Caesar must have seen that the Germans were preparing to dispute with Rome

the mastery of Gaul; but it was necessary to gain time, and in 59 B.C.

Ariovistus was inscribed on the roll of the friends of the Roman people. In

58 B.C. the Helvetii, a Celtic people inhabiting Switzerland, determined to

migrate for the shores of the Atlantic and demanded a passage through Roman

territory. According to Caesar's statement they numbered 368,000, and it

was necessary at all hazards to save the Roman province from the invasion.

Caesar had but one legion beyond the Alps. With this he marched to Geneva,

destroyed the bridge over the Rhone, fortified the left bank of the river,

and forced the Helvetii to follow the right bank. Hastening back to Italy

he withdrew his three remaining legions from Aquileia, raised two more,

and, crossing the Alps by forced marches, arrived in the neighbourhood of

Lyons to find that three-fourths of the Helvetii had already crossed the

Saône, marching westward. He destroyed their rearguard, the Tigurini, as it

was about to cross, transported his army across the river in twenty-four

hours, pursued the Helvetii in a northerly direction, and utterly defeated

them at Bibracte (Mont Beuvray). Of the survivors a few were settled

amongst the Aedui; the rest were sent back to Switzerland lest it should

fall into German hands.

The Gallic chiefs now appealed to Caesar to deliver them from the actual or

threatened tyranny of Ariovistus. He at once demanded a conference, which

Ariovistus refused, and on hearing that fresh swarms were crossing the

Rhine, marched with all haste to Vesontio (Besançon) and thence by way of

Belfort into the plain of Alsace, where he gained a decisive victory over

the Germans, of whom only a few (including Ariovistus) reached the right

bank of the Rhine in safety. These successes roused natural alarm in the

minds of the Belgae--a confederacy of tribes in the north-west of Gaul,

whose civilization was less advanced than that of the Celtae of the

centre--and in the spring of 57 B.C. Caesar determined to anticipate the

offensive movement which they were understood to be preparing and marched

northwards into the territory of the Rem[=i] (about Reims), who alone

amongst their neighbours were friendly to Rome. He successfully checked the

advance of the enemy at the passage of the Aisne (between Laon and Reims)

and their ill-organized force melted away as he advanced. But the Nervii,

and their neighbours further to the north-west, remained to be dealt with,

and were [v.04 p.0940] crushed only after a desperate struggle on the banks

of the Sambre, in which Caesar was forced to expose his person in the

_mêlée_. Finally, the Aduatuci (near Namur) were compelled to submit, and

were punished for their subsequent treachery by being sold wholesale into

slavery. In the meantime Caesar's lieutenant, P. Crassus, received the

submission of the tribes of the north-east, so that by the close of the

campaign almost the whole of Gaul--except the Aquitani in the

south-west--acknowledged Roman suzerainty.

In 56 B.C., however, the Veneti of Brittany threw off the yoke and detained

two of Crassus's officers as hostages. Caesar, who had been hastily

summoned from Illyricum, crossed the Loire and invaded Brittany, but found

that he could make no headway without destroying the powerful fleet of

high, flat-bottomed boats like floating castles possessed by the Veneti. A

fleet was hastily constructed in the estuary of the Loire, and placed under

the command of Decimus Brutus. The decisive engagement was fought

(probably) in the Gulf of Morbihan and the Romans gained the victory by

cutting down the enemy's rigging with sickles attached to poles. As a

punishment for their treachery, Caesar put to death the senate of the

Veneti and sold their people into slavery. Meanwhile Sabinus was victorious

on the northern coasts, and Crassus subdued the Aquitani. At the close of

the season Caesar raided the territories of the Morini and Menapii in the

extreme north-west.

In 55 B.C. certain German tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteri, crossed the

lower Rhine, and invaded the modern Flanders. [Sidenote: Expeditions to

Britain ] Caesar at once marched to meet them, and, on the pretext that

they had violated a truce, seized their leaders who had come to parley with

him, and then surprised and practically destroyed their host. His enemies

in Rome accused him of treachery, and Cato even proposed that he should be

handed over to the Germans. Caesar meanwhile constructed his famous bridge

over the Rhine in ten days, and made a demonstration of force on the right

bank. In the remaining weeks of the summer he made his first expedition to

Britain, and this was followed by a second crossing in 54 B.C. On the first

occasion Caesar took with him only two legions, and effected little beyond

a landing on the coast of Kent. The second expedition consisted of five

legions and 2000 cavalry, and set out from the Portus Itius (Boulogne or

Wissant; see T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius

Caesar_, 1907, later views in _Classical Review_, May 1909, and H.S. Jones,

in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ xxiv., 1909, p. 115). Caesar now penetrated into

Middlesex and crossed the Thames, but the British prince Cassivellaunus

with his war-chariots harassed the Roman columns, and Caesar was compelled

to return to Gaul after imposing a tribute which was never paid.

The next two years witnessed the final struggle of the Gauls for freedom.

Just before the second crossing to Britain, Dumnorix, an Aeduan chief, had

been detected in treasonable intrigues, and killed in an attempt to escape

from Caesar's camp. At the close of the campaign Caesar distributed his

legions over a somewhat wide extent of territory. Two of their camps were

treacherously attacked. At Aduatuca (near Aix-la-Chapelle) a newly-raised

legion was cut to pieces by the Eburones under Ambiorix, while Quintus

Cicero was besieged in the neighbourhood of Namur and only just relieved in

time by Caesar, who was obliged to winter in Gaul in order to check the

spread of the rebellion. Indutiomarus, indeed, chief of the Treveri (about

Trèves), revolted and attacked Labienus, but was defeated and killed. The

campaign of 53 B.C. was marked by a second crossing of the Rhine and by the

destruction of the Eburones, whose leader Ambiorix, however, escaped. In

the autumn Caesar held a conference at Durocortorum (Reims), and Acco, a

chief of the Senones, was convicted of treason and flogged to death.

Early in 52 B.C. some Roman traders were massacred at Cenabum (Orléans),

and, on hearing the news, the Arverni revolted under Vercingetorix and were

quickly joined by other tribes, especially the Bituriges, whose capital was

Avaricum (Bourges). Caesar hastened back from Italy, slipped past

Vercingetorix and reached Agedincum (Sens), the headquarters of his

legions. Vercingetorix saw that Caesar could not be met in open battle, and

determined to concentrate his forces in a few strong positions. Caesar

first besieged and took Avaricum, whose occupants were massacred, and then

invested Gergovia (near the Puy-de-Dôme), the capital of the Arverni, but

suffered a severe repulse and was forced to raise the siege. Hearing that

the Roman province was threatened, he marched westward, defeated

Vercingetorix near Dijon and shut him up in Alesia (Mont-Auxois), which he

surrounded with lines of circumvallation. An attempt at relief by

Vercassivellaunus was defeated after a desperate struggle and Vercingetorix

surrendered. The struggle was over except for some isolated operations in

51 B.C., ending with the siege and capture of Uxellodunum (Puy d'Issolu),

whose defenders had their hands cut off. Caesar now reduced Gaul to the

form of a province, fixing the tribute at 40,000,000 sesterces (£350,000),

and dealing liberally with the conquered tribes, whose cantons were not

broken up.

In the meantime his own position was becoming critical. In 56 B.C., at the

conference of Luca (Lucca), Caesar, Pompey [Sidenote: Break-up of the

Coalition.] and Crassus had renewed their agreement, and Caesar's command

in Gaul, which would have expired on the 1st of March 54 B.C., was renewed,

probably for five years, _i.e._ to the 1st of March 49 B.C., and it was

enacted that the question of his successor should not be discussed until

the 1st of March 50 B.C., by which time the provincial commands for 49 B.C.

would have been assigned, so that Caesar would retain _imperium_, and thus

immunity from persecution, until the end of 49 B.C. He was to be elected

consul for 48 B.C., and, as the law prescribed a personal canvass, he was

by special enactment dispensed from its provisions. But in 54 B.C. Julia,

the daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died, and in 53 B.C. Crassus was

killed at Carrhae. Pompey now drifted apart from Caesar and became the

champion of the senate. In 52 B.C. he passed a fresh law _de jure

magistratuum_ which cut away the ground beneath Caesar's feet by making it

possible to provide a successor to the Gallic provinces before the close of

49 B.C., which meant that Caesar would become for some months a private

person, and thus liable to be called to account for his unconstitutional

acts. Caesar had no resource left but uncompromising obstruction, which he

sustained by enormous bribes. His representative in 50 B.C., the tribune C.

Scribonius Curio, served him well, and induced the lukewarm majority of the

senate to refrain from extreme measures, insisting that Pompey, as well as

Caesar, should resign the _imperium_. But all attempts at negotiation

failed, and in January 49 B.C., martial law having been proclaimed on the

proposal of the consuls, the tribunes Antony and Cassius fled to Caesar,

who crossed the Rubicon (the frontier of Italy) with a single legion,

exclaiming "_Alea jacta est._"

Pompey's available force consisted in two legions stationed in Campania,

and eight, commanded by his lieutenants, Afranius [Sidenote: The Civil war

] and Petreius, in Spain; both sides levied troops in Italy. Caesar was

soon joined by two legions from Gaul and marched rapidly down the Adriatic

coast, overtaking Pompey at Brundisium (Brindisi), but failing to prevent

him from embarking with his troops for the East, where the prestige of his

name was greatest. Hereupon Caesar (it is said) exclaimed "I am going to

Spain to fight an army without a general, and thence to the East to fight a

general without an army." He carried out the first part of this programme

with marvellous rapidity. He reached Ilerda (Lerida) on the 23rd of June

and, after extricating his army from a perilous situation, outmanoeuvred

Pompey's lieutenants and received their submission on the 2nd of August.

Returning to Rome, he held the dictatorship for eleven days, was elected

consul for 48 B.C., and set sail for Epirus at Brundisium on the 4th of

January. He attempted to invest Pompey's lines at Dyrrhachium (Durazzo),

though his opponent's force was double that of his own, and was defeated

with considerable loss. He now marched eastwards, in order if possible to

intercept the reinforcements which Pompeys father-in-law, Scipio, was

bringing up; but Pompey [v.04 p.0941] was able to effect a junction with

this force and descended into the plain of Thessaly, where at the battle of

Pharsalus he was decisively defeated and fled to Egypt, pursued by Caesar,

who learnt of his rival's murder on landing at Alexandria. Here he remained

for nine months, fascinated (if the story be true) by Cleopatra, and almost

lost his life in an _émeute_. In June 47 B.C. he proceeded to the East and

Asia Minor, where he "came, saw and conquered" Pharnaces, son of

Mithradates the Great, at Zela. Returning to Italy, he quelled a mutiny of

the legions (including the faithful Tenth) in Campania, and crossed to

Africa, where a republican army of fourteen legions under Scipio was cut to

pieces at Thapsus (6th of April 46 B.C.). Here most of the republican

leaders were killed and Cato committed suicide. On the 26th to 29th July

Caesar celebrated a fourfold triumph and received the dictatorship for ten

years. In November, however, he was obliged to sail for Spain, where the

sons of Pompey still held out. On the 17th of March 45 B.C. they were

crushed at Munda. Caesar returned to Rome in September, and six months

later (15th of March 44 B.C.) was murdered in the senate house at the foot

of Pompey's statue.

It was remarked by Seneca that amongst the murderers of Caesar were to be

found more of his friends than of his enemies. [Sidenote: Caesar's

dictatorship ] We can account for this only by emphasizing the fact that

the form of Caesar's government became as time went on more undisguised in

its absolutism, while the honours conferred upon seemed designed to raise

him above the rest of humanity. It is explained elsewhere (see ROME:

_History, Ancient_) that Caesar's power was exercised under the form of

dictatorship. In the first instance (autumn of 49 B.C.) this was conferred

upon him as the only solution of the constitutional deadlock created by the

flight of the magistrates and senate, in order that elections (including

that of Caesar himself to the consulship) might be held in due course. For

this there were republican precedents. In 48 B.C. he was created dictator

for the second time, probably with constituent powers and for an undefined

period, according to the dangerous and unpopular precedent of Sulla. In May

46 B.C. a third dictatorship was conferred on Caesar, this time for ten

years and apparently as a yearly office, so that he became Dictator IV. in

May 45 B.C. Finally, before the 15th of February 44 B.C., this was

exchanged for a life-dictatorship. Not only was this a contradiction in

terms, since the dictatorship was by tradition a makeshift justified only

when the state had to be carried through a serious crisis, but it involved

military rule in Italy and the permanent suspension of the constitutional

guarantees, such as _intercessio_ and _provocatio_, by which the liberties

of Romans were protected. That Caesar held the _imperium_ which he enjoyed

as dictator to be distinct in kind from that of the republican magistrates

he indicated by placing the term _imperator_ at the head of his titles.[2]

Besides the dictatorship, Caesar held the consulship in each year of his

reign except 47 B.C. (when no curule magistrates were elected save for the

last three months of the year); and he was moreover invested by special

enactments with a number of other privileges and powers; of these the most

important was the _tribunicia potestas_, which we may believe to have been

free from the limits of place (_i.e._ Rome) and collegiality. Thus, too, he

was granted the sole right of making peace and war, and of disposing of the

funds in the treasury of the state.[3] Save for the title of dictator,

which undoubtedly carried unpopular associations and was formally abolished

on the proposal of Antony after Caesar's death, this cumulation of powers

has little to distinguish it from the Principate of Augustus; and the

assumption of the perpetual dictatorship would hardly by itself suffice to

account for the murder of Caesar. But there are signs that in the last six

months of his life he aspired not only to a monarchy in name as well as in

fact, but also to a divinity which Romans should acknowledge as well as

Greeks, Orientals and barbarians. His statue was set up beside those of the

seven kings of Rome, and he adopted the throne of gold, the sceptre of

ivory and the embroidered robe which tradition ascribed to them. He allowed

his supporters to suggest the offer of the regal title by putting in

circulation an oracle according to which it was destined for a king of Rome

to subdue the Parthians, and when at the Lupercalia (15th February 44 B.C.)

Antony set the diadem on his head he rejected the offer half-heartedly on

account of the groans of the people. His image was carried in the _pompa

circensis_ amongst those of the immortal gods, and his statue set up in the

temple of Quirinus with the inscription "To the Unconquerable God." A

college of Luperci, with the surname Juliani, was instituted in his honour

and _flamines_ were created as priests of his godhead. This was intolerable

to the aristocratic republicans, to whom it seemed becoming that victorious

commanders should accept divine honours at the hands of Greeks and

Asiatics, but unpardonable that Romans should offer the same worship to a

Roman.

Thus Caesar's work remained unfinished, and this must be borne in mind in

considering his record of legislative and [Sidenote: Legislative reforms.]

administrative reform. Some account of this is given elsewhere (see ROME:

_History, Ancient_), but it may be well to single out from the list of his

measures (some of which, such as the restoration of exiles and the children

of proscribed persons, were dictated by political expediency, while others,

such as his financial proposals for the relief of debtors, and the steps

which he took to restore Italian agriculture, were of the nature of

palliatives) those which have a permanent significance as indicating his

grasp of imperial problems. The Social War had brought to the inhabitants

of Italy as far as the Po the privileges of Roman citizenship; it remained

to extend this gift to the Transpadane Italians, to establish a uniform

system of local administration and to devise representative institutions by

which at least some voice in the government of Rome might be permitted to

her new citizens. This last conception lay beyond the horizon of Caesar, as

of all ancient statesmen, but his first act on gaining control of Italy was

to enfranchise the Transpadanes, whose claims he had consistently

advocated, and in 45 B.C. he passed the _Lex Julia Municipalis_, an act of

which considerable fragments are inscribed on two bronze tables found at

Heraclea near Tarentum.[4] This law deals _inter alia_ with the police and

the sanitary arrangements of the city of Rome, and hence it has been argued

by Mommsen that it was Caesar's intention to reduce Rome to the level of a

municipal town. But it is not likely that such is the case. Caesar made no

far-reaching modifications in the government of the city, such as were

afterwards carried out by Augustus, and the presence in the _Lex Julia

Municipalis_ of the clauses referred to is an example of the common process

of "tacking" (legislation _per saturam_, as it was called by the Romans).

The law deals with the constitution of the local senates, for whose members

qualifications of age (30 years) and military service are laid down, while

persons who have suffered conviction for various specified offences, or who

are insolvent, or who carry on discreditable or immoral trades are

excluded. It also provides that the local magistrates shall take a census

of the citizens at the same time as the census takes place in Rome, and

send the registers to Rome within sixty days. The existing fragments tell

us little as to the decentralization of the functions of government, but

from the _Lex Rubria_, which applies to the Transpadane districts

enfranchised by Caesar (it must be remembered that Cisalpine Gaul remained

nominally a province until 42 B.C.) we gather that considerable powers of

independent jurisdiction were reserved to the municipal magistrates. But

Caesar was not content with framing a uniform system of local government

[v.04 p.0942] for Italy. He was the first to carry out on a large scale

those plans of transmarine colonization whose inception was due to the

Gracchi. As consul in 59 B.C. Caesar had established colonies [Sidenote:

Colonies.] of veterans in Campania under the _Lex Julia Agraria_, and had

even then laid down rules for the foundation of such communities. As

dictator he planted numerous colonies both in the eastern and western

provinces, notably at Corinth and Carthage. Mommsen interprets this policy

as signifying that "the rule of the urban community of Rome over the shores

of the Mediterranean was at an end," and says that the first act of the

"new Mediterranean state" was "to atone for the two greatest outrages which

that urban community had perpetrated on civilization." This, however,

cannot be admitted. The sites of Caesar's colonies were selected for their

commercial value, and that the citizens of Rome should cease to be rulers

of the Mediterranean basin could never have entered into Caesar's mind. The

colonists were in many cases veterans who had served under Caesar, in

others members of the city proletariat. We possess the charter of the

colony planted at Urso in southern Spain under the name of _Colonia Julia

Genetiva Urbanorum_. Of the two latter titles, the first is derived from

the name of Venus Genetrix, the ancestress of the Julian house, the second

indicates that the colonists were drawn from the _plebs urbana_.

Accordingly, we find that free birth is not, as in Italy, a necessary

qualification for municipal office. By such foundations Caesar began the

extension to the provinces of that Roman civilization which the republic

had carried to the bounds of the Italian peninsula. Lack of time alone

prevented him from carrying into effect such projects as the piercing of

the Isthmus of Corinth, whose object was to promote trade and intercourse

throughout the Roman dominions, and we are told that at the time of his

death he was contemplating the extension of the empire to its natural

frontiers, and was about to engage in a war with Parthia with the object of

carrying Roman arms to the Euphrates. Above all, he was determined that the

empire should be governed in the true sense of the word and no longer

exploited by its rulers, and he kept a strict control over the _legati_,

who, under the form of military subordination, were responsible to him for

the administration of their provinces.

Caesar's writings are treated under LATIN LITERATURE. It is sufficient here

to say that of those preserved to us the [Sidenote: The Commentaries.]

seven books _Commentarii de bello Gallico_ appear to have been written in

51 B.C. and carry the narrative of the Gallic campaigns down to the close

of the previous year (the eighth book, written by A. Hirtius, is a

supplement relating the events of 51-50 B.C.), while the three books _De

bello civili_ record the struggle between Caesar and Pompey (49-48 B.C.).

Their veracity was impeached in ancient times by Asinius Pollio and has

often been called in question by modern critics. The _Gallic War_, though

its publication was doubtless timed to impress on the mind of the Roman

people the great services rendered by Caesar to Rome, stands the test of

criticism as far as it is possible to apply it, and the accuracy of its

narrative has never been seriously shaken. The _Civil War_, especially in

its opening chapters is, however, not altogether free from traces of

misrepresentation. With respect to the first moves made in the struggle,

and the negotiations for peace at the outset of hostilities, Caesar's

account sometimes conflicts with the testimony of Cicero's correspondence

or implies movements which cannot be reconciled with geographical facts. We

have but few fragments of Caesar's other works, whether political pamphlets

such as the _Anticato_, grammatical treatises (_De Analogia_) or poems. All

authorities agree in describing him as a consummate orator. Cicero (_Brut.

22_) wrote: _de Caesare ita judico, illum omnium fere oratorum Latine loqui

elegantissime_, while Quintilian (x. i. 114) says that had he practised at

the bar he would have been the only serious rival of Cicero.

The verdict of historians on Caesar has always been coloured by their

political sympathies. All have recognised his commanding [Sidenote:

Character.] genius, and few have failed to do justice to his personal charm

and magnanimity, which almost won the heart of Cicero, who rarely appealed

in vain to his clemency. Indeed, he was singularly tolerant of all but

intellectual opposition. His private life was not free from scandal,

especially in his youth, but it is difficult to believe the worst of the

tales which were circulated by his opponents, _e.g._ as to his relations

with Nicomedes of Bithynia. As to his public character, however, no

agreement is possible between those who regard Caesarism as a great

political creation, and those who hold that Caesar by destroying liberty

lost a great opportunity and crushed the sense of dignity in mankind. The

latter view is unfortunately confirmed by the undoubted fact that Caesar

treated with scant respect the historical institutions of Rome, which with

their magnificent traditions might still have been the organs of true

political life. He increased the number of senators to 900 and introduced

provincials into that body; but instead of making it into a grand council

of the empire, representative of its various races and nationalities, he

treated it with studied contempt, and Cicero writes that his own name had

been set down as the proposer of decrees of which he knew nothing,

conferring the title of king on potentates of whom he had never heard. A

similar treatment was meted out to the ancient magistracies of the

republic; and thus began the process by which the emperors undermined the

self-respect of their subjects and eventually came to rule over a nation of

slaves. Few men, indeed, have partaken as freely of the inspiration of

genius as Julius Caesar; few have suffered more disastrously from its

illusions. See further ROME: _History_, ii. "The Republic," Period C _ad

fin._

AUTHORITIES.--The principal ancient authorities for the life of Caesar are

his own _Commentaries_, the biographies of Plutarch and Suetonius, letters

and speeches of Cicero, the _Catiline_ of Sallust, the _Pharsalia_ of

Lucan, and the histories of Appian, Dio Cassius and Velleius Paterculus

(that of Livy exists only in the _Epitome_). Amongst modern works may be

named the exhaustive repertory of fact contained in Drumann, _Geschichte

Roms_, vol. iii. (new ed. by Groebe, 1906, pp. 125-829), and the brilliant

but partial panegyric of Th. Mommsen in his _History of Rome_ (Eng. trans.,

vol. iv., esp. p. 450 ff.). J.A. Froude's _Caesar; a Sketch_ (2nd ed.,

1896) is equally biased and much less critical. W. Warde Fowler's _Julius

Caesar_ (1892) gives a favourable account (see also his _Social Life at

Rome_, 1909). On the other side see especially A. Holm, _History of Greece_

(Eng. trans., vol. iv. p. 582 ff.), J.L. Strachan Davidson, _Cicero_

(1894), p. 345 ff., and the introductory Lections in Prof. Tyrrell's

edition of the _Correspondence of Cicero_, particularly "Cicero's case

against Caesar," vol. v. p. 13 ff. Vol. ii. of G. Ferrero's _Greatness and

Decline of Rome_ (Eng. trans., 1907) is largely devoted to Caesar, but must

be used with caution. The Gallic campaigns have been treated by Napoleon

III., _Histoire de Jules César_ (1865-1866), which is valuable as giving

the result of excavations, and in English by T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's

Conquest of Gaul_ (1901), in which references to earlier literature will be

found. A later account is that of G. Veith, _Geschichte der Feldzüge C.

Julius Caesars_ (1906). For maps see A. von Kampen. For the Civil War see

Colonel Stoffel (the collaborator of Napoleon III.), _Histoire de Jules

César: guerre civile_ (1887). There is an interesting article, "The

Likenesses of Julius Caesar," by J.C. Ropes, in _Scribner's Magazine_, Feb.

1887, with 18 plates.

(H. S. J.)

_Medieval Legends._

In the middle ages the story of Caesar did not undergo such extraordinary

transformations as befell the history of Alexander the Great and the Theban

legend. Lucan was regularly read in medieval schools, and the general facts

of Caesar's life were too well known. He was generally, by a curious error,

regarded as the first emperor of Rome,[5] and representing as he did in the

popular mind the glory of Rome, by an easy transition he became a pillar of

the Church. Thus, in a French pseudo-historic romance, _Les Faits des

Romains_ (c. 1223), he receives the honour of a bishopric. His name was not

usually associated with the marvellous, and the _trouvère_ of _Huon de

Bordeaux_ outstepped the usual sober tradition when he made Oberon the son

of Julius Caesar and Morgan la Fay. About 1240 Jehan de Tuim composed a

prose _Hystore de Julius Cesar_ (ed. F. Settegast, Halle, 1881) based on

the _Pharsalia_ of Lucan, and the _commentaries_ of Caesar (on the Civil

War) and his continuators (on the Alexandrine, African and Spanish wars).

The author gives a romantic description of the meeting with Cleopatra, with

an interpolated dissertation on _amour courtois_ as understood by the

_trouvères_. [v.04 p.0943] The _Hystore_ was turned into verse

(alexandrines) by Jacot de Forest (latter part of the 13th century) under

the title of _Roman de Julius César_. A prose compilation by an unknown

author, _Les Fails des Romains_ (c. 1225), has little resemblance to the

last two works, although mainly derived from the same sources. It was

originally intended to contain a history of the twelve Caesars, but

concluded with the murder of the dictator, and in some MSS. bears the title

of _Li livres de César_. Its popularity is proved by the numerous MSS. in

which it is preserved and by three separate translations into Italian. A

_Mistaire de Julius César_ is said to have been represented at Amboise in

1500 before Louis XII.

See A. Graf, _Roma nella memoria e nella imaginazione del medio evo_, i.

ch. 8 (1882-1883); P. Meyer in _Romania_, xiv. (Paris, 1885), where the

_Faits des Romains_ is analysed at length; A. Duval in _Histoire littéraire

de la France_, xix. (1838); L. Constans in Petit de Jullevilles' _Hist. de

la langue et de la litt. française_, i. (1896); H. Wesemann, _Die

Cäsarfabeln des Mittelalters_ (Löwenberg, 1879).

(M. BR.)

[1] In spite of the explicit statements of Suetonius, Plutarch and Appian

that Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year at the time of his murder, it is,

as Mommsen has shown, practically certain that he was born in 102 B.C.,

since he held the chief offices of state in regular order, beginning with

the aedileship in 65 B.C., and the legal age for this was fixed at 37-38.

[2] Suetonius, _Jul._ 76, errs in stating that he used the title

_imperator_ as a _praenomen_.

[3] The statement of Dio and Suetonius, that a general _cura legum et

morum_ was conferred on Caesar in 46 B.C., is rejected by Mommsen. It is

possible that it may have some foundation in the terms of the law

establishing his third dictatorship.

[4] Since the discovery of a fragmentary municipal charter at Tarentum (see

ROME), dating from a period shortly after the Social War, doubts have been

cast on the identification of the tables of Heraclea with Caesar's

municipal statute. It has been questioned whether Caesar passed such a law,

since the _Lex Julia Municipalis_ mentioned in an inscription of Patavium

(Padua) may have been a local charter. See Legras, _La Table latine

d'Héraclée_ (Paris, 1907).

[5] Brunetto Latini, _Trésor_: "_Et ainsi Julius César fu li premiers

empereres des Romains._"

CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636), English judge, descended by the female

line from the dukes de' Cesarini in Italy, was born near Tottenham in

Middlesex. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and afterwards studied

at the university of Paris, where in the year 1581 he was made a doctor of

the civil law. Two years later he was admitted to the same degree at

Oxford, and also became doctor of the canon law. He held many high offices

during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., including a judgeship of the

admiralty court (1584), a mastership in chancery (1588), a mastership of

the court of requests (1595), chancellor and under treasurer of the

exchequer (1606). He was knighted by King James in 1603, and in 1614 was

appointed master of the rolls, an office which he held till his death on

the 18th of April 1636, He was so remarkable for his bounty and charity to

all persons of worth that it was said of him that he seemed to be the

almoner-general of the nation. His manuscripts, many of which are now in

the British Museum, were sold by auction in 1757 for upwards of £500.

See E. Lodge, _Life of Sir Julius Caesar_ (1810); Wood, _Fasti Oxonienses_,

ed. Bliss; Foss, _Lives of the Judges_.

CAESAREA MAZACA (mod. _Kaisarieh_), chief town of a sanjak in the Angora

vilayet of Asia Minor. Mazaca, the residence of the kings of Cappadocia,

later called _Eusebea_ (perhaps after Ariarathes Eusebes), and named

_Caesarea_ probably by Claudius, stood on a low spur on the north side of

Erjies Dagh (_M. Argaeus_). The site, now called _Eski-shehr_, shows only a

few traces of the old town. It was taken by Tigranes and destroyed by the

Persian king Shapur (Sapor) I. after his defeat of Valerian in A.D. 260. At

this time it is stated to have contained 400,000 inhabitants. In the 4th

century Basil, when bishop, established an ecclesiastical centre on the

plain, about 1 m. to the north-east, and this gradually supplanted the old

town. A portion of Basil's new city was surrounded with strong walls and

turned into a fortress by Justinian; and within the walls, rebuilt in the

13th and 16th centuries, lies the greater part of Kaisarieh, altitude 3500

ft. The town was captured by the Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, 1064, and by

the Mongols, 1243, before passing to the Osmanli Turks. Its geographical

situation has made it a place of commercial importance throughout history.

It lay on the ancient trade route from Sinope to the Euphrates, on the

Persian "Royal Road" from Sardis to Susa, and on the great Roman highway

from Ephesus to the East. It is still the most important trade centre in

eastern Asia Minor. The town is noted for its fruit, especially its vines;

and it exports tissues, carpets, hides, yellow berries and dried fruit.

Kaisarieh is the headquarters of the American mission in Cappadocia, which

has several churches and schools for boys and girls and does splendid

medical work. It is the seat of a Greek bishop, an Armenian archbishop and

a Roman Catholic bishop, and there is a Jesuit school. On the 30th of

November 1895 there was a massacre of Armenians, in which several Gregorian

priests and Protestant pastors lost their lives. Pop., according to Cuinet,

71,000 (of whom 26,000 are Christians). Sir C. Wilson gave it as 50,000

(23,000 Christians).

(C. W. W.; J. G. C. A.)

CAESAREAN SECTION, in obstetrics (_q.v._) the operation for removal of a

foetus from the uterus by an abdominal incision, so called from a legend of

its employment at the birth of Julius Caesar. This procedure has been

practised on the dead mother since very early times; in fact it was

prescribed by Roman law that every woman dying in advanced pregnancy should

be so treated; and in 1608 the senate of Venice enacted that any

practitioner who failed to perform this operation on a pregnant woman

supposed to be dead, laid himself open to very heavy penalties. But the

first recorded instance of its being performed on a living woman occurred

about 1500, when a Swiss pig-gelder operated on his own wife. From this

time onwards it was tried in many ways and under many conditions, but

almost invariably with the same result, the death of the mother. Even as

recently as the first half of the 19th century the recorded mortality is

over 50%. Thus it is no surprise that craniotomy--in which the life of the

child is sacrificed to save that of the mother--was almost invariably

preferred. As the use of antiseptics was not then understood, and as it was

customary to return the uterus to the body cavity without suturing the

incision, the immediate cause of death was either septicaemia or

haemorrhage. But in 1882 Sänger published his method of suturing the

uterus--that of employing two series of sutures, one deep, the other

superficial. This method of procedure was immediately adopted by many

obstetricians, and it has proved so satisfactory that it is still in use

today. This, and the increasing knowledge of aseptic technique, has brought

the mortality from this operation to less than 3% for the mother and about

5% for the child; and every year it is being advised more freely for a

larger number of morbid conditions, and with increasingly favourable

results. Craniotomy, _i.e._ crushing the head of the foetus to reduce its

size, is now very rarely performed on the living child, but symphysiotomy,

_i.e._ the division of the symphysis pubis to produce a temporary

enlargement of the pelvis, or caesarean section, is advocated in its place.

Of these two operations, symphysiotomy is steadily being replaced by

caesarean section.

This operation is now advised for (1) extreme degrees of pelvic

contraction, (2) any malformation or tumour of the uterus, cervix or

vagina, which would render the birth of the child through the natural

passages impossible, (3) maternal complications, as eclampsia and concealed

accidental haemorrhage, and (4) at the death of the mother for the purpose

of saving the child.

CAESAREA PALAESTINA, a town built by Herod about 25-13 B.C., on the

sea-coast of Palestine, 30 miles N. of Joppa, on the site of a place

previously called _Tunis Stratonis_. Remains of all the principal buildings

erected by Herod existed down to the end of the 19th century; the ruins

were much injured by a colony of Bosnians established here in 1884. These

buildings are a temple, dedicated to Caesar; a theatre; a hippodrome; two

aqueducts; a boundary wall; and, chief of all, a gigantic mole, 200 ft.

wide, built of stones 50 ft. long, in 20 fathoms of water, protecting the

harbour on the south and west. The harbour measures 180 yds. across. The

massacre of Jews at this place led to the Jewish rebellion and to the Roman

war. Vespasian made it a colony and called it Flavia: the old name,

however, persisted, and still survives as _Kaisarieh_. Eusebius was

archbishop here (A.D. 315-318). It was captured by the Moslems in 638 and

by the Crusaders in 1102, by Saladin in 1187, recaptured by the Crusaders

in 1191, and finally lost by them in 1265, since when till its recent

settlement it has lain in ruins. Remains of the medieval town are also

visible, consisting of the walls (one-tenth the area of the Roman city),

the castle, the cathedral (now covered by modern houses), and a church.

(R. A. S. M.)

CAESAREA PHILIPPI, the name of a town 95 miles N. of Jerusalem, 35 miles

S.W. from Damascus, 1150 ft. above the sea, on the south base of Hermon,

and at an important source of the Jordan. It does not certainly appear in

the Old Testament history, though identifications with Baal-Gad and (less

certainly) with Laish (Dan) have been proposed. It was certainly a place of

great sanctity from very early times, and when foreign [v.04 p.0944]

religious influences intruded upon Palestine, the cult of its local _numen_

gave place to the worship of Pan, to whom was dedicated the cave in which

the copious spring feeding the Jordan arises. It was long known as _Panium_

or _Panias_, a name that has survived in the modern _Banias_. When Herod

the Great received the territory from Augustus, 20 B.C., he erected here a

temple in honour of his patron; but the re-foundation of the town is due to

his son, Philip the Tetrarch, who here erected a city which he named

_Caesarea_ in honour of Tiberius, adding _Philippi_ to immortalize his own

name and to distinguish his city from the similarly-named city founded by

his father on the sea-coast. Here Christ gave His charge to Peter (Matt.

xvi. 13). Many Greek inscriptions have been found here, some referring to

the shrine. Agrippa II. changed the name to _Neronias_, but this name

endured but a short while. Titus here exhibited gladiatorial shows to

celebrate the capture of Jerusalem. The Crusaders took the city in 1130,

and lost it to the Moslems in 1165. Banias is a poor village inhabited by

about 350 Moslems; all round it are gardens of fruit-trees. It is well

watered and fertile. There are not many remains of the Roman city above

ground. The Crusaders' castle of Subeibeh, one of the finest in Palestine,

occupies the summit of a conical hill above the village.

(R. A. S. M.)

CAESIUM (symbol Cs, atomic weight 132.9), one of the alkali metals. Its

name is derived from the Lat. _caesius_, sky-blue, from two bright blue

lines of its spectrum. It is of historical importance, since it was the

first metal to be discovered by the aid of the spectroscope (R. Bunsen,

_Berlin Acad. Ber._, 1860), although caesium salts had undoubtedly been

examined before, but had been mistaken for potassium salts (see C.F.

Plattner, _Pog. Ann._, 1846, p. 443, on the analysis of pollux and the

subsequent work of F. Pisani, _Comptes Rendus_, 1864, 58, p. 714). Caesium

is found in the mineral springs of Frankenhausen, Montecatini, di Val di

Nievole, Tuscany, and Wheal Clifford near Redruth, Cornwall (W.A. Miller,

_Chem. News_, 1864, 10, p. 181), and, associated with rubidium, at

Dürkheim; it is also found in lepidolite, leucite, petalite, triphylline

and in the carnallite from Stassfurt. The separation of caesium from the

minerals which contain it is an exceedingly difficult and laborious

process. According to R. Bunsen, the best source of rubidium and caesium

salts is the residue left after extraction of lithium salts from

lepidolite. This residue consists of sodium, potassium and lithium

chlorides, with small quantities of caesium and rubidium chlorides. The

caesium and rubidium are separated from this by repeated fractional

crystallization of their double platinum chlorides, which are much less

soluble in water than those of the other alkali metals (R. Bunsen, _Ann._,

1862, 122, p. 347; 1863, 125, p. 367). The platino-chlorides are reduced by

hydrogen, and the caesium and rubidium chlorides extracted by water. See

also A. Schrötter (_Jour. prak. Chem._, 1864, 93, p. 2075) and W. Heintz

(_Journ. prak. Chem._, 1862, 87, p. 310). W. Feit and K. Kubierschky

(_Chem. Zeit._, 1892, 16, p. 335) separate rubidium and caesium from the

other alkali metals by converting them into double chlorides with stannic

chloride; whilst J. Redtenbacher (_Jour. prak. Chem._, 1865, 94, p. 442)

separates them from potassium by conversion into alums, which C. Setterberg

(_Ann._, 1882, 211, p. 100) has shown are very slightly soluble in a

solution of potash alum. In order to separate caesium from rubidium, use is

made of the different solubilities of their various salts. The bitartrates

RbHC_4H_40_6 and CsHC_4H_40_6 have been employed, as have also the alums

(see above). The double chloride of caesium and antimony 3CsCl·2SbCl_3 (R.

Godeffroy, _Ber._, 1874, 7, p. 375; _Ann._, 1876, 181, p. 176) has been

used, the corresponding compound not being formed by rubidium. The metal

has been obtained by electrolysis of a mixture of caesium and barium

cyanides (C. Setterberg, _Ann._, 1882, 211, p. 100) and by heating the

hydroxide with magnesium or aluminium (N. Beketoff, _Chem. Centralblatt_,

1889, 2, p. 245). L. Hackspill (_Comptes Rendus_, 1905, 141, p. 101) finds

that metallic caesium can be obtained more readily by heating the chloride

with metallic calcium. A special V-shaped tube is used in the operation,

and the reaction commences between 400°C. and 500°C. It is a silvery white

metal which burns on heating in air. It melts at 26° to 27°C. and has a

specific gravity of 1.88 (15°C.).

The atomic weight of caesium has been determined by the analysis of its

chloride and bromide. Richards and Archibald (_Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1903,

34, p. 353) obtained 132.879 (O=16).

_Caesium hydroxide_, Cs(OH)_2, obtained by the decomposition of the

sulphate with baryta water, is a greyish-white deliquescent solid, which

melts at a red heat and absorbs carbon dioxide rapidly. It readily

dissolves in water, with evolution of much heat. _Caesium chloride_, CsCl,

is obtained by the direct action of chlorine on caesium, or by solution of

the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid. It forms small cubes which melt at a

red heat and volatilize readily. It deliquesces in moist air. Many double

chlorides are known, and may be prepared by mixing solutions of the two

components in the requisite proportions. The _bromide_, CsBr, and _iodide_,

CsI, resemble the corresponding potassium salts. Many trihaloid salts of

caesium are also known, such as CsBr_3, CsClBr_2, CsI_3, CsBrI_2, CsBr_2I,

&c. (H.L. Wells and S.L. Penfield, _Zeit. fur anorg. Chem._, 1892, i, p.

85). _Caesium sulphate_, Cs_2SO_4, may be prepared by dissolving the

hydroxide or carbonate in sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in short hard

prisms, which are readily soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol. It

combines with many metallic sulphates (silver, zinc, cobalt, nickel, &c.)

to form double sulphates of the type Cs_2SO_4·RSO_4·6H_2O. It also forms a

caesium-alum Cs_2SO_4·Al_2(SO_4)_3·24H_2O. _Caesium nitrate_, CsNO_3, is

obtained by dissolving the carbonate in nitric acid, and crystallizes in

glittering prisms, which melt readily, and on heating evolve oxygen and

leave a residue of caesium nitrite. The carbonate, Cs_2CO_3,

silicofluoride, Cs_2SiF_6, borate, Cs_2O·3B_2O_3, and the sulphides

Cs_2S·4H_2O, Cs_2S_2·H_2O, Cs_2S_3·H_2O, Cs_2S_4 and Cs_2S_6·H_2O, are also

known.

Caesium compounds can be readily recognized by the two bright blue lines

(of wave length 4555 and 4593) in their flame spectrum, but these are not

present in the spark spectrum. The other lines include three in the green,

two in the yellow, and two in the orange.

CAESPITOSE (Lat. _caespes_, a sod), a botanical term for "growing in

tufts," like many grasses.

CAESTUS, or CESTUS (from Lat. _caedo_, strike), a gauntlet or boxing-glove

used by the ancient pugilists. Of this there were several varieties, the

simplest and least dangerous being the _meilichae_ ([Greek: meilichai]),

which consisted of strips of raw hide tied under the palm, leaving the

fingers bare. With these the athletes in the _palaestrae_ were wont to

practise, reserving for serious contests the more formidable kinds, such as

the _sphaerae_ ([Greek: sphairai]), which were sewn with small metal balls

covered with leather, and the terrible _murmekes_ ([Greek: murmêkes]),

sometimes called "limb-breakers" ([Greek: guiotoroi]), which were studded

with heavy nails. The straps ([Greek: himantes]) were of different lengths,

many reaching to the elbow, in order to protect the forearm when guarding

heavy blows (see J.H. Krause, _Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen_,

1841). The _caestus_ is to be distinguished from _cestus_ (=embroidered,

from [Greek: kentein]), an adjective used as a noun in the sense of

"girdle," especially the girdle of Aphrodite, which was supposed to have

the power of exciting love.

CAESURA (Lat. for "cutting," Gr. [Greek: tomê]), in prosody, a rest or

pause, usually occurring about the middle of a verse, which is thereby

separated into two parts ([Greek: kôla], members). In Greek and Latin

hexameters the best and most common caesura is the penthemimeral (_i.e._

after the 5th half-foot):

Another caesura very common in Homer, but rare in Latin verse, is after the

2nd syllable of the 3rd dactyl:

On the other hand, the hephthemimeral caesura (_i.e._ after the 7th

half-foot) is common in Latin, but rare in Greek:

The "bucolic" caesura, peculiar to Greek (so called because it is chiefly

found in writers like Theocritus) occurs after the 4th dactyl:

In the pentameter verse of the elegiac distich the caesura is always

penthemimeral. In the iambic trimeter (consisting of three dipodia or pairs

of feet), both in Greek and Latin, the most usual caesura is the

penthemimeral; next, the hephthemimeral:

[v.04 p.0945] Verses in which neither of these caesuras occurs are

considered faulty. On the other hand, secondary or subsidiary caesuras are

found in both Greek and Latin; thus, a trithemimeral (after the 3rd

half-foot) is combined with the hephthemimeral, which divides the verse

into two unequal parts. A caesura is often called masculine when it falls

after a long, feminine when it falls after a short syllable.

The best treatise on Greek and Latin metre for general use is L. Müller,

_Die Metrik der Griechen und Romer_ (1885); see also the article VERSE.

CAFFEINE, or THEINE (1.3.7 trimethyl 2.6 dioxypurin), C_8H_{10}N_4O_2·H_2O,

a substance found in the leaves and beans of the coffee tree, in tea, in

Paraguay tea, and in small quantities in cocoa and in the kola nut. It may

be extracted from tea or coffee by boiling with water, the dissolved tannin

precipitated by basic lead acetate, the solution filtered, excess of lead

precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen and the filtered liquid then

evaporated to crystallization; or, tea is boiled with water, and the whole

then evaporated to a syrup, which is mixed with slaked lime, evaporated to

dryness on the water-bath and extracted with chloroform (P. Cazeneuve,

_Bull. de la soc. chim. de Paris_, 1876-1877, 27, p. 199). Synthetically it

may be prepared by the methylation of silver theobromine and silver

theophyllin or by boiling heteroxanthine with methyl iodide and potash. E.

Fischer and L. Ach (_Berichte_, 1895, 28, p. 3135) have synthesized it from

dimethyl alloxan, whilst W. Traube (_Berichte_, 1900, 33, p. 3435) has

obtained it from 1.3 diamethyl 4.5 diamino 2.6 dioxypyrimidine. On the

constitution of caffeine see PURIN and also E. Fischer (_Annalen_, 1882,

215, p. 253).

Caffeine crystallizes in long silky needles, which are slightly soluble in

cold water. It becomes anhydrous at 100°C. and melts at 234° to 235°C. It

has a faint bitter taste and gives salts with mineral acids. On oxidation

with nitric acid caffeine gives cholesterophane (dimethyl parabanic acid),

but if chlorine water be used as the oxidant, then it yields monomethyl

urea and dimethyl alloxan (E. Fischer).

CAFFIERI, JACQUES (1678-1755), French worker in metal, the most famous

member of a family several of whom distinguished themselves in plastic art,

was the fifth son of Philippe Caffieri (1634-1716), a decorative sculptor,

who, after serving Pope Alexander VII., entered the service of Louis XIV.

in 1660. An elder son of Philippe, François Charles (1667-1721), was

associated with him. As a _fondeur ciseleur_, however, the renown of the

house centred in Jacques, though it is not always easy to distinguish

between his own work and that of his son Philippe (1714-1777). A large

proportion of his brilliant achievement as a designer and chaser in bronze

and other metals was executed for the crown at Versailles, Fontainebleau,

Compiègne, Choisy and La Muette, and the crown, ever in his debt, still

owed him money at his death. Jacques and his son Philippe undoubtedly

worked together in the "Appartement du Dauphin" at Versailles, and although

much of their contribution to the palace has disappeared, the decorations

of the marble chimney-piece still remain. They belong to the best type of

the Louis XV. style--vigorous and graceful in design, they are executed

with splendid skill. It is equally certain that father and son worked

together upon the gorgeous bronze case of the famous astronomical clock

made by Passement and Danthiau for Louis XV. between 1749 and 1753. The

form of the case has been much criticized, and even ridiculed, but the

severest critics in that particular have been the readiest to laud the

boldness and freedom of the motives, the jewel-like finish of the

craftsmanship, the magnificent dexterity of the master-hand. The elder

Caffieri was, indeed, the most consummate practitioner of the _style

rocaille_, which he constantly redeemed from its mannered conventionalism

by the ease and mastery with which he treated it. From the studio in which

he and his son worked side by side came an amazing amount of work, chiefly

in the shape of those gilded bronze mounts which in the end became more

insistent than the pieces of furniture which they adorned. Little of his

achievement was ordinary; an astonishingly large proportion of it is

famous. There is in the Wallace collection (Hertford House, London) a

commode from the hand of Jacques Caffieri in which the brilliance and

spontaneity, the sweeping boldness and elegance of line that mark his style

at its best, are seen in a perfection hardly exceeded in any other example.

Also at Hertford House is the exceptionally fine lustre which was a wedding

present from Louis XV. to Louise Elizabeth of France. After Jacques' death

his son Philippe continued to work for the crown, but had many private

clients. He made a great cross and six candlesticks for the high altar of

Notre Dame, which disappeared in the revolution, but similar work for

Bayeux cathedral still exists. A wonderful enamelled toilet set which he

executed for the Princess of Asturias has also disappeared. Philippe's

style was gradually modified into that which prevailed in the third quarter

of the 18th century, since by 1777, when he died, the taste for the

magnificent mounts of his early days had passed away. Like his father, he

drew large sums from the crown, usually after giving many years' credit,

while many other years were needed by his heirs to get in the balance of

the royal indebtedness. Philippe's younger brother, Jean Jacques Caffieri

(1725-1792), was a sculptor, but was sufficiently adept in the treatment of

metals to design the fine _rampe d'escalier_ which still adorns the Palais

Royal.

CAFTAN, or KAFTAN (a Turkish word, also in use in Persia), a tunic or

under-dress with long hanging sleeves, tied with a girdle at the waist,

worn in the East by persons of both sexes. The caftan was worn by the upper

and middle classes in Russia till the time of Peter the Great, when it was

generally discarded.

CAGLI, a town and (with Pergola) an episcopal see of the Marches, Italy, in

the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 18 m. S. of the latter town by rail, and

830 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, 4628; commune, 12,533. The

church of S. Domenico contains a good fresco (Madonna and saints) by

Giovanni Santi, the father of Raphael. The citadel of the 15th century,

constructed by Francesco di Giorgio Martini of Siena, is on the S.E. of the

modern town. Cagli occupies the site of an ancient _vicus_ (village) on the

Via Flaminia, which seems to have borne the name Cale, 24 m. N. of

Helvillum (mod. _Sigillo_) and 18 m. S.W. of Forum Sempronii (mod.

_Fossombrone_). Below the town to the north is a single arched bridge of

the road, the arch having the span of 38¼ ft. (See G. Mochi, _Storia di

Cagli_, Cagli, 1878.) About 5 m. to the N.N.W. of Cagli and 2½ m. W. of the

Via Flaminia at the mod. _Acqualagna_ is the site of an ancient town; the

place is now called _piano di Valeria_, and is scattered with ruins.

Inscriptions show that this was a Roman _municipium_, perhaps Pitinum

Mergens (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi. [Berlin, 1901] p. 876). Three miles north

of Acqualagna the Via Flaminia, which is still in use as the modern

high-road, traverses the Furlo Pass, a tunnel about 40 yds. long, excavated

by Vespasian in A.D. 77, as an inscription at the north end records. There

is another tunnel at lower level, which belongs to an earlier date; this

seems to have been in use till the construction of the Roman road, which at

first ran round the rock on the outside, until Vespasian cut the tunnel. In

repairing the modern road just outside the south entrance to the tunnel, a

stratum of carbonized corn, beans, &c., and a quantity of burnt wood,

stones, tiles, pottery, &c., was found under and above the modern road, for

a distance of some 500 yds. This débris must have belonged to the castle of

Petra Pertusa, burned by the Lombards in 570 or 571 on their way to Rome.

The castle itself is mentioned by Procopius (_Bell. Goth._ ii. 11, iii. 6,

iv. 28, 34). Here also was found the inscription of A.D. 295, relating to

the measures taken to suppress brigandage in these parts. (See APENNINES.)

See A. Vernarecci in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1886, 411 (cf. _ibid._ 227);

_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ (Berlin, 1901), Nos. 6106, 6107.

(T. AS.)

CAGLIARI (anc. _Carales_), the capital of the island of Sardinia, an

archiepiscopal see, and the chief town of the province of Cagliari, which

embraces the southern half of the island. It is 270 m. W.S.W. of Naples,

and 375 m. south of Genoa by sea. Pop. (1900) of town, 48,098; of commune,

53,057. It is finely situated at the northern extremity of the Gulf of

Cagliari, in the centre of the south coast of the island. The medieval town

occupies a long narrow hill running N. and S. with precipitous [v.04

p.0946] cliffs on the E. and W. which must have been the ancient acropolis,

but the modern town, like the Roman town before it, extends to the slopes

of the hill and to the low ground by the sea. On each side of the town are

lagoons. That of S. Gilla on the W., which produces fish in abundance, was

originally an open bay. That of Molentargius on the E. has large saltpans.

The upper town still retains in part its fortifications, including the two

great towers at the two extremities, called the Torre dell' Elefante (S.)

and the Torre di S. Pancrazio (N.), both erected by the Pisans, the former

in 1307, the latter in 1305. The Torre di S. Pancrazio at the highest point

(367 ft. above sea-level) commands a magnificent view. Close to it is the

archaeological museum, the most important in the island. To the north of it

are the modern citadel and the barracks, and beyond, a public promenade.

The narrow streets run from north to south for the whole length of the

upper town. On the edge of the cliffs on the E. is the cathedral, built in

1257-1312 by the Pisans, and retaining two of the original transept doors.

The pulpit of the same period is also fine: it now stands, divided into

two, on each side of the entrance, while the lions which supported it are

on the balustrade in front of the cathedral (see E. Brunelli in _L'Arte_,

Rome, 1901, 59; D. Scano, _ibid._ 204). Near the sacristy are also some

Gothic chapels of the Aragonese period. The church was, however, remodelled

in 1676, and the interior is baroque. Two fine silver candelabra, the

tabernacle and the altar front are of the 17th century; and the treasury

also contains some good silver work. (See D. Scano in _Bolletino d'Arte_,

February 1907, p. 14; and E. Brunelli in _L'Arte_, 1907, p. 47.) The crypt

contains three ancient sarcophagi. The façade, in the baroque style, was

added in 1703. The university, a little farther north, the buildings of

which were erected in 1764, has some 240 students. At the south extremity

of the hill, on the site of the bastian of south Caterina, a large terrace,

the Passeggiata Umberto Primo, has been constructed: it is much in use on

summer evenings, and has a splendid view. Below it are covered promenades,

and from it steps descend to the lower town, the oldest part of which (the

so-called Marina), sloping gradually towards the sea, is probably the

nucleus of the Roman _municipium_, while the quarter of Stampace lies to

the west, and beyond it again the suburb of Sant' Avendrace. The northern

portion of this, below the castle hill, is the older, while the part near

the shore consists mainly of modern buildings of no great interest. To the

east of the castle hill and the Marina is the quarter of Villanova, which

contains the church of S. Saturnino, a domed church of the 8th century with

a choir of the Pisan period. The harbour of Cagliari (along the north side

of which runs a promenade called the Via Romo) is a good one, and has a

considerable trade, exporting chiefly lead, zinc and other minerals and

salt, the total annual value of exports amounting to nearly 1½ million

sterling in value. The Campidano of Cagliari, the plain which begins at the

north end of the lagoon of S. Gilla, is very fertile and much cultivated,

as is also the district to the east round Quarto S. Elena, a village with

8459 inhabitants (1901). The national costumes are rarely now seen in the

neighbourhood of Cagliari, except at certain festivals, especially that of

S. Efisio (May 1-4) at Pula (see NORA). The methods of cultivation are

primitive: the curious water-wheels, made of brushwood with pots tied on to

them, and turned by a blindfolded donkey, may be noted. The ox-carts are

often made with solid wheels, for greater strength. Prickly pear

(_opuntia_) hedges are as frequent as in Sicily. Cagliari is considerably

exposed to winds in winter, while in summer it is almost African in

climate. The aqueduct was constructed in quite recent times, rain-water

having previously given the only supply. The main line of railway runs

north to Decimomannu (for Iglesias), Oristano, Macomer and Chilivani (for

Golfo degli Aranci and Sassari); while another line (narrow-gauge) runs to

Mandas (for Sorgono and Tortoli). There is also a tramway to Quarto S.

Elena.

In A.D. 485 the whole of Sardinia was taken by the Vandals from Africa; but

in 533 it was retaken by Justinian. In 687 Cagliari rose against the East

Roman emperors, under Gialetus, one of the citizens, who made himself king

of the whole island, his three brothers becoming governors of Torres (in

the N.W.), Arborea (in the S.W.) and Gallura (in the N.E. of the island).

The Saracens devastated it in the 8th century, but were driven out, and the

island returned to the rule of kings, until they fell in the 10th century,

their place being taken by four "judges" of the four provinces, Cagliari,

Torres, Arborea and Gallura. In the 12th century Musatto, a Saracen,

established himself in Cagliari, but was driven out with the help of the

Pisans and Genoese. The Pisans soon acquired the sovereignty over the whole

island with the exception of Arborea, which continued to be independent. In

1297 Boniface VIII. invested the kings of Aragon with Sardinia, and in 1326

they finally drove the Pisans out of Cagliari, and made it the seat of

their government. In 1348 the island was devastated by the plague described

by Boccaccio. It was not until 1403 that the kings of Aragon were able to

conquer the district of Arborea, which, under the celebrated Eleonora

(whose code of laws--the so-called _Carta de Logu_--was famous), offered a

heroic resistance. In 1479 the native princes were deprived of all

independence. The island remained in the hands of Spain until the peace of

Utrecht (1714), by which it was assigned to Austria. In 1720 it was ceded

by the latter, in exchange for Sicily, to the duke of Savoy, who assumed

the title of king of Sardinia (Cagliari continuing to be the seat of

government), and this remained the title of the house of Savoy until 1861.

Cagliari was bombarded by the French fleet in 1793, but Napoleon's attempt

to take the island failed.

(T. AS.)

CAGLIOSTRO, ALESSANDRO, COUNT (1743-1793), Italian alchemist and impostor,

was born at Palermo on the 8th of June 1743. Giuseppe Balsamo--for such was

the "count's" real name--gave early indications of those talents which

afterwards gained for him so wide a notoriety. He received the rudiments of

his education at the monastery of Caltagirone in Sicily, but was expelled

from it for misconduct and disowned by his relations. He now signalized

himself by his dissolute life and the ingenuity with which he contrived to

perpetrate forgeries and other crimes without exposing himself to the risk

of detection. Having at last got into trouble with the authorities he fled

from Sicily, and visited in succession Greece, Egypt, Arabia, Persia,

Rhodes--where he took lessons in alchemy and the cognate sciences from the

Greek Althotas--and Malta. There he presented himself to the grand master

of the Maltese order as Count Cagliostro, and curried favour with him as a

fellow alchemist, for the grand master's tastes lay in the same direction.

From him he obtained introductions to the great houses of Rome and Naples,

whither he now hastened. At Rome he married a beautiful but unprincipled

woman, Lorenza Feliciani, with whom he travelled, under different names,

through many parts of Europe. It is unnecessary to recount the various

infamous means which he employed to pay his expenses during these journeys.

He visited London and Paris in 1771, selling love-philtres, elixirs of

youth, mixtures for making ugly women beautiful, alchemistic powders, &c.,

and deriving large profits from his trade. After further travels on the

continent he returned to London, where he posed as the founder of a new

system of freemasonry, and was well received in the best society, being

adored by the ladies. He went to Germany and Holland once more, and to

Russia, Poland, and then again to Paris, where, in 1785, he was implicated

in the affair of the Diamond Necklace (_q.v._); and although Cagliostro

escaped conviction by the matchless impudence of his defence, he was

imprisoned for other reasons in the Bastille. On his liberation he visited

England once more, where he succeeded well at first; but was ultimately

outwitted by some English lawyers, and confined for a while in the Fleet

prison. Leaving England, he travelled through Europe as far as Rome, where

he was arrested in 1789. He was tried and condemned to death for being a

heretic, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual imprisonment, while his

wife was immured in a convent. He died in the fortress prison of San Leo in

1795.

The best account of the life, adventures and character of Giuseppe Balsamo

is contained in Carlyle's _Miscellanies_. Dumas's novel, _Memoirs of a

Physician_, is founded on his adventures; see also a [v.04 p.0947] series

of papers in the _Dublin University Magazine_, vols. lxxviii. and lxxix.;

_Memorial, or Brief for Cagliostro in the Cause of Card. de Rohan_, &c.

(Fr.) by P. Macmahon (1786); _Compendio della vita e delle gesta di

Giuseppe Balsamo denominato il conte di Cagliostro_ (Rome, 1791); Sierke,

_Schwarmer und Schwindler zu Ende des XVIII. Jahrhunderts_ (1875); and the

sketch of his life in D. Silvagni's _La Corte e la Società Romana nei

secoli XVIII. e XIX._ vol. i. (Florence, 1881).

(L. V.*)

CAGNIARD DE LA TOUR, CHARLES (1777-1859), French engineer and physicist,

was born in Paris on the 31st of March 1777, and after attending the École

Polytechnique became one of the _ingénieurs géographiques_. He was made a

baron in 1818, and died in Paris on the 5th of July 1859. He was the author

of numerous inventions, including the cagniardelle, a blowing machine,

which consists essentially of an Archimedean screw set obliquely in a tank

of water in such a way that its lower end is completely and its upper end

partially immersed, and operated by being rotated in the opposite direction

to that required for raising water. In acoustics he invented, about 1819,

the improved siren which is known by his name, using it for ascertaining

the number of vibrations corresponding to a sound of any particular pitch,

and he also made experiments on the mechanism of voice-production. In

course of an investigation in 1822-1823 on the effects of heat and pressure

on certain liquids he found that for each there was a certain temperature

above which it refused to remain liquid but passed into the gaseous state,

no matter what the amount of pressure to which it was subjected, and in the

case of water he determined this critical temperature, with a remarkable

approach to accuracy, to be 362°C. He also studied the nature of yeast and

the influence of extreme cold upon its life.

CAGNOLA, LUIGI, MARCHESE (1762-1833), Italian architect, was born on the

9th of June 1762 in Milan. He was sent at the age of fourteen to the

Clementine College at Rome, and afterwards studied at the university of

Pavia. He was intended for the legal profession, but his passion for

architecture was too strong, and after holding some government posts at

Milan, he entered as a competitor for the construction of the Porta

Orientale. His designs were commended, but were not selected on account of

the expense their adoption would have involved. From that time Cagnola

devoted himself entirely to architecture. After the death of his father he

spent two years in Verona and Venice, studying the architectural structures

of these cities. In 1806 he was called upon to erect a triumphal arch for

the marriage of Eugene Beauharnais with the princess of Bavaria. The arch

was of wood, but was of such beauty that it was resolved to carry it out in

marble. The result was the magnificent Arco della Pace in Milan, surpassed

in dimensions only by the Arc de l'Étoile at Paris. Among other works

executed by Cagnola are the Porta di Marengo at Milan, the campanile at

Urgnano, and the chapel of Santa Marcellina in Milan. He died on the 14th

of August 1833, five years before the completion of the Arco del Sempione,

which he designed for his native city.

CAGOTS, a people found in the Basque provinces, Béarn, Gascony and

Brittany. The earliest mention of them is in 1288, when they appear to have

been called Christiens or Christianos. In the 16th century they had many

names, Cagots, Gahets, Gafets in France; Agotes, Gafos in Spain; and

Cacons, Cahets, Caqueux and Caquins in Brittany. During the middle ages

they were popularly looked upon as cretins, lepers, heretics and even as

cannibals. They were shunned and hated; were allotted separate quarters in

towns, called _cagoteries_, and lived in wretched huts in the country

distinct from the villages. Excluded from all political and social rights,

they were only allowed to enter a church by a special door, and during the

service a rail separated them from the other worshippers. Either they were

altogether forbidden to partake of the sacrament, or the holy wafer was

handed to them on the end of a stick, while a receptacle for holy water was

reserved for their exclusive use. They were compelled to wear a distinctive

dress, to which, in some places, was attached the foot of a goose or duck

(whence they were sometimes called _Canards_). And so pestilential was

their touch considered that it was a crime for them to walk the common road

barefooted. The only trades allowed them were those of butcher and

carpenter, and their ordinary occupation was wood-cutting. Their language

is merely a corrupt form of that spoken around them; but a Teutonic origin

seems to be indicated by their fair complexions and blue eyes. Their crania

have a normal development; their cheek-bones are high; their noses

prominent, with large nostrils; their lips straight; and they are marked by

the absence of the auricular lobules.

The origin of the Cagots is undecided. Littré defines them as "a people of

the Pyrenees affected with a kind of cretinism." It has been suggested that

they were descendants of the Visigoths, and Michael derives the name from

_caas_ (dog) and _Goth_. But opposed to this etymology is the fact that the

word _cagot_ is first found in the _for_ of Béarn not earlier than 1551.

Marca, in his _Histoire de Béarn_, holds that the word signifies "hunters

of the Goths," and that the Cagots are descendants of the Saracens. Others

made them descendants of the Albigenses. The old MSS. call them Chrétiens

or Chrestiaas, and from this it has been argued that they were Visigoths

who originally lived as Christians among the Gascon pagans. A far more

probable explanation of their name "Chrétiens" is to be found in the fact

that in medieval times all lepers were known as _pauperes Christi_, and

that, Goths or not, these Cagots were affected in the middle ages with a

particular form of leprosy or a condition resembling it. Thus would arise

the confusion between Christians and Cretins. To-day their descendants are

not more subject to goitre and cretinism than those dwelling around them,

and are recognized by tradition and not by features or physical degeneracy.

It was not until the French Revolution that any steps were taken to

ameliorate their lot, but to-day they no longer form a class, but have been

practically lost sight of in the general peasantry.

See Francisque Michel, _Histoire des races maudites de France et d'Espagne_

(Paris, 1846); Abbé Venuti, _Recherches sur les Cahets de Bordeaux_ (1754);

_Bulletins de la société anthropologique_ (1861, 1867, 1868, 1871);

_Annales medico-psychologiques_ (Jan. 1867); Lagneau, _Questionnaire sur

l'ethnologie de la France_; Paul Raymond, _Moeurs béarnaises_ (Pau, 1872);

V. de Rochas, _Les Parias de France et d'Espagne (Cagots et Bohémiens)_

(Paris, 1877); J. Hack Tuke, _Jour. Anthropological Institute_ (vol. ix.,

1880).

CAHER (or CAHIR), a market-town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, in the south

parliamentary division, beautifully situated on the river Suir at the foot

of the Galtee Mountains. Pop. (1901) 2058. It stands midway between Clonmel

and Tipperary town on the Waterford and Limerick line of the Great Southern

and Western railway, 124 m. S.W. from Dublin. It is the centre of a rich

agricultural district, and there is some industry in flour-milling. Its

name (_cathair_, stone fortress) implies a high antiquity and the site of

the castle, picturesquely placed on an island in the river, was occupied

from very early times. Here was a fortress-palace of Munster, originally

called _Dun-iasgach_, the suffix signifying "abounding in fish." The

present castle dates from 1142, being built by O'Connor, lord of Thomond,

and is well restored. It was besieged during the wars of 1599 and 1647, and

by Cromwell. Among the fine environs of the town the demesne of Caher Park

is especially noteworthy. The Mitchelstown stalactite caverns, 10 m. S.W.,

and the finely-placed Norman castle of Ardfinnan, on a precipitous crag 6

m. down the Suir, are other neighbouring features of interest, while the

Galtee Mountains, reaching in Galtymore a height of 3015 ft., command

admirable prospects.

CAHITA, a group of North American Indians, mainly of the Mayo and Yaqui

tribes, found chiefly in Mexico, belonging to the Piman family, and

numbering some 40,000.

CAHOKIA, the name of a North American Indian tribe of the Illinois

confederacy, and of their mission station, near St Louis. The "Cahokia

mound" there (a model of which is in the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.)

is interesting as the largest pre-historic earth-work in America.

CAHORS, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Lot,

70 m. N. of Toulouse, on the railway between that city and Limoges. Pop.

(1906) 10,047. Cahors stands on the right bank of the river Lot, occupying

a rocky peninsula formed by a bend in the stream. It is divided into two

portions [v.04 p.0948] by the Boulevard Gambetta, which runs from the Pont

Louis Philippe on the south to within a short distance of the fortified

wall of the 14th and 15th centuries enclosing the town on the north. To the

east lies the old town, with its dark narrow streets and closely-packed

houses; west of the Boulevard a newer quarter, with spacious squares and

promenades, stretches to the bank of the river. Cahors communicates with

the opposite shore by three bridges. One of these, the Pont Valentré to the

west of the town, is the finest fortified bridge of the middle ages in

France. It is a structure of the early 14th century, restored in the 19th

century, and is defended at either end by high machicolated towers, another

tower, less elaborate, surmounting the centre pier. The east bridge, the

Pont Neuf, also dates from the 14th century. The cathedral of St Étienne

stands in the heart of the old town. It dates from the 12th century, but

was entirely restored in the 13th century. Its exterior, for the most part

severe in appearance, is relieved by some fine sculpture, that of the north

portal being especially remarkable. The nave, which is without aisles, is

surmounted by two cupolas; its interior is whitewashed and plain in

appearance, while the choir is decorated with medieval paintings. Adjoining

the church to the south-east there are remains of a cloister built from

1494 to 1509. St Urcisse, the chief of the other ecclesiastical buildings,

stands near the cathedral. Dating from the 12th and 13th centuries, it

preserves Romanesque capitals recarved in the 14th century. The principal

of the civil buildings is the palace of Pope John XXII., built at the

beginning of the 14th century; a massive square tower is still standing,

but the rest is in ruins. The residence of the seneschals of Quercy, a

building of the 14th to the 17th centuries, known as the Logis du Roi, also

remains. The chief of the old houses, of which there are many in Cahors, is

one of the 15th century, known as the Maison d'Henri IV. Most of the state

buildings are modern, with the exception of the prefecture which occupies

the old episcopal palace, and the old convent and the Jesuit college in

which the Lycée Gambetta is established. The Porte de Diane is a large

archway of the Roman period, probably the entrance to the baths. Of the

commemorative monuments, the finest is that erected in the Place d'Armes to

Gambetta, who was a native of the town. There is also a statue of the poet

Clément Marot, born at Cahors in 1496. Cahors is the seat of a bishopric, a

prefect and a court of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and of

commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. There

are also training colleges, a lycée, a communal college for girls, an

ecclesiastical seminary, a library, museum and hospital. The manufacture of

farm implements, tanning, wool-spinning, metal-founding, distilling and the

preparation of _pâté de foie gras_ and other delicacies are carried on.

Wine, nuts, oil of nuts, tobacco, truffles and plums are leading articles

of commerce.

_History._--Before the Roman conquest, Cahors, which grew up near the

sacred fountain of Divona (now known as the Fontaine des Chartreux), was

the capital of the Cadurci. Under the Romans it enjoyed a prosperity partly

due to its manufacture of cloth and of mattresses, which were exported even

to Rome. The first bishop of Cahors, St Genulfus, appears to have lived in

the 3rd century. In the middle ages the town was the capital of Quercy, and

its territory until after the Albigensian Crusade was a fief of the counts

of Toulouse. The seigniorial rights, including that of coining money,

belonged to the bishops. In the 13th century Cahors was a financial centre

of much importance owing to its colony of Lombard bankers, and the name

_cahorsin_ consequently came to signify "banker" or "usurer." At the

beginning of the century a commune was organized in the town. Its constant

opposition to the bishops drove them, in 1316, to come to an arrangement

with the French king, by which the administration of the town was placed

almost entirely in the hands of royal officers, king and bishop being

co-seigneurs. This arrangement survived till the Revolution. In 1331 Pope

John XXII., a native of Cahors, founded there a university, which

afterwards numbered Jacques Cujas among its teachers and François Fénelon

among its students. It flourished till 1751, when it was united to its

rival the university of Toulouse. During the Hundred Years' War, Cahors,

like the rest of Quercy, consistently resisted the English occupation, from

which it was relieved in 1428. In the 16th century it belonged to the

viscounts of Béarn, but remained Catholic and rose against Henry of Navarre

who took it by assault in 1580. On his accession Henry IV. punished the

town by depriving it of its privileges as a wine-market; the loss of these

was the chief cause of its decline.

CAIATIA (mod. _Caiazzo_), an ancient city of Campania, on the right bank of

the Volturnus, 11 m. N.E. of Capua, on the road between it and Telesia. It

was already in the hands of the Romans in 306 B.C., and since in the 3rd

century B.C. it issued copper coins with a Latin legend it must have had

the _civitas sine suffragio_. In the Social War it rebelled from Rome, and

its territory was added to that of Capua by Sulla. In the imperial period,

however, we find it once more a _municipium_. Caiatia has remains of

Cyclopean walls, and under the Piazza del Mercato is a large Roman cistern,

which still provides a good water supply. The episcopal see was founded in

A.D. 966. The place is frequently confused with Calatia (_q.v._).

CAIETAE PORTUS (mod. _Gaeta_), an ancient harbour of _Latium adiectum_,

Italy, in the territory of Formiae, from which it is 5 m. S.W. The name

(originally [Greek: Aiêtê]) is generally derived from the nurse of Aeneas.

The harbour, owing to its fine anchorage, was much in use, but the place

was never a separate town, but always dependent on Formiae. Livy mentions a

temple of Apollo. The coast of the Gulf not only between Caietae Portus and

Formiae, but E. of the latter also, as far as the modern Monte Scauri, was

a favourite summer resort (see FORMIA). Cicero may have had villas both at

Portus Caietae and at Formiae[1] proper, and the emperors certainly

possessed property at both places. After the destruction of Formiae in A.D.

847 it became one of the most important seaports of central Italy (see

GAETA). In the town are scanty remains of an amphitheatre and theatre: near

the church of La Trinità, higher up, are remains of a large reservoir.

There are also traces of an aqueduct. The promontory (548 ft.) is crowned

by the tomb of Munatius Plancus, founder of Lugudunum (mod. Lyons), who

died after 22 B.C. It is a circular structure of blocks of travertine 160

ft. high and 180 ft. in diameter. Further inland is the so-called tomb of

L. Atratinus, about 100 ft. in diameter. Caietae Portus was no doubt

connected with the Via Appia (which passed through Formiae) by a

_deverticulum_. There seems also to have been a road running W.N.W. along

the precipitous coast to Speluncae (mod. Sperlonga).

See E. Gesualdo _Osservazioni critiche sopra la storia della Via Appia di

Pratilli_ p. 7 (Naples, 1754).

(T. AS.)

[1] The two places are sufficiently close for the one villa to have borne

both names; but Mommsen (_Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 603)

prefers to differentiate them.

CAILLIÉ (or CAILLÉ), RENÉ AUGUSTE (1799-1838), French explorer, was born at

Mauzé, Poitou, in 1799, the son of a baker. The reading of _Robinson

Crusoe_ kindled in him a love of travel and adventure, and at the age of

sixteen he made a voyage to Senegal whence he went to Guadeloupe. Returning

to Senegal in 1818 he made a journey to Bondu to carry supplies to a

British expedition then in that country. Ill with fever he was obliged to

go back to France, but in 1824 was again in Senegal with the fixed idea of

penetrating to Timbuktu. He spent eight months with the Brakna "Moors"

living north of Senegal river, learning Arabic and being taught, as a

convert, the laws and customs of Islam. He laid his project of reaching

Timbuktu before the governor of Senegal, but receiving no encouragement

went to Sierra Leone where the British authorities made him superintendent

of an indigo plantation. Having saved £80 he joined a Mandingo caravan

going inland. He was dressed as a Mussulman, and gave out that he was an

Arab from Egypt who had been carried off by the French to Senegal and was

desirous of regaining his own country. Starting from Kakundi near Boké on

the Rio Nunez on 19th of April 1827, he travelled east along the hills of

Futa Jallon, passing the head streams of the Senegal and crossing the Upper

Niger at Kurussa. Still going east he came to the Kong highlands, where at

a place called Timé he was detained five months by illness. Resuming his

journey [v.04 p.0949] in January 1828 he went north-east and gained the

city of Jenné, whence he continued his journey to Timbuktu by water. After

spending a fortnight (20th April-4th May) in Timbuktu he joined a caravan

crossing the Sahara to Morocco, reaching Fez on the 12th of August. From

Tangier he returned to France. He had been preceded at Timbuktu by a

British officer, Major Gordon Laing, but Laing had been murdered (1826) on

leaving the city and Caillié was the first to accomplish the journey in

safety. He was awarded the prize of £400 offered by the Geographical

Society of Paris to the first traveller who should gain exact information

of Timbuktu, to be compared with that given by Mungo Park. He also received

the order of the Legion of Honour, a pension, and other distinctions, and

it was at the public expense that his _Journal d'un voyage à Temboctou et à

Jenne dans l'Afrique Centrale_, etc. (edited by E.F. Jomard) was published

in three volumes in 1830. Caillié died at Badère in 1838 of a malady

contracted during his African travels. For the greater part of his life he

spelt his name Caillié, afterwards omitting the second "i."

See Dr Robert Brown's _The Story of Africa_, vol. i. chap. xii. (London,

1892); Goepp and Cordier, _Les Grands Hommes de France, voyageurs: René

Caillé_ (Paris, 1885); E.F. Jomard, _Notice historique sur la vie et les

voyages de R. Caillié_ (Paris, 1839). An English version of Caillié's

_Journal_ was published in London in 1830 in two volumes under the title of

_Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo_, &c.

CAIN, in the Bible, the eldest son of Adam and Eve (Gen. iv.), was a tiller

of the ground, whilst his younger brother, Abel, was a keeper of sheep.

Enraged because the Lord accepted Abel's offering, and rejected his own, he

slew his brother in the field (see ABEL). For this a curse was pronounced

upon him, and he was condemned to be a "fugitive and a wanderer" on the

earth, a mark being set upon him "lest any finding him should kill him." He

took up his abode in the land of Nod ("wandering") on the east of Eden,

where he built a city, which he named after his son Enoch. The narrative

presents a number of difficulties, which early commentators sought to solve

with more ingenuity than success. But when it is granted that the ancient

Hebrews, like other primitive peoples, had their own mythical and

traditional figures, the story of Cain becomes less obscure. The mark set

upon Cain is usually regarded as some tribal mark or sign analogous to the

cattle marks of Bedouin and the related usages in Europe. Such marks had

often a religious significance, and denoted that the bearer was a follower

of a particular deity. The suggestion has been made that the name Cain is

the eponym of the Kenites, and although this clan has a good name almost

everywhere in the Old Testament, yet in Num. xxiv. 22 its destruction is

foretold, and the Amalekites, of whom they formed a division, are

consistently represented as the inveterate enemies of Yahweh and of his

people Israel. The story of Cain and Abel, which appears to represent the

nomad life as a curse, may be an attempt to explain the origin of an

existence which in the eyes of the settled agriculturist was one of

continual restlessness, whilst at the same time it endeavours to find a

reason for the institution of blood-revenge on the theory that at some

remote age a man (or tribe) had killed his brother (or brother tribe).

Cain's subsequent founding of a city finds a parallel in the legend of the

origin of Rome through the swarms of outlaws and broken men of all kinds

whom Romulus attracted thither. The list of Cain's descendants reflects the

old view of the beginnings of civilization; it is thrown into the form of a

genealogy and is parallel to Gen. v. (see GENESIS). It finds its analogy in

the Phoenician account of the origin of different inventions which Eusebius

(_Praep. Evang._ i. 10) quotes from Philo of Byblus (Gebal), and probably

both go back to a common Babylonian origin.

On this question, see Driver, _Genesis_ (Westminster Comm., London, 1904),

p. 80 seq.; A. Jeremias, _Alte Test. im Lichte d. Alten Orients_ (Leipzig,

1906), pp. 220 seq.; also ENOCH, LAMECH. On the story of Cain, see

especially Stade, _Akademische Reden_, pp. 229-273; Ed. Meyer,

_Israeliten_, pp. 395 sqq.; A.R. Gordon, _Early Trad. Genesis_ (Index).

Literary criticism (see Cheyne, _Encycl. Bib._ col. 620-628, and 4411-4417)

has made it extremely probable that Cain the nomad and outlaw (Gen. iv.

1-16) was originally distinct from Cain the city-builder (vv. 17 sqq.). The

latter was perhaps regarded as a "smith," cp. v. 22 where Tubal-cain is the

"father" of those who work in bronze (or copper). That the Kenites, too,

were a race of metal-workers is quite uncertain, although even at the

present day the smiths in Arabia form a distinct nomadic class. Whatever be

the meaning of the name, the words put into Eve's mouth (v. 1) probably are

not an etymology, but an assonance (Driver). It is noteworthy that Kenan,

son of Enosh ("man," Gen. v. 9), appears in Sabaean inscriptions of South

Arabia as the name of a tribal-god.

A Gnostic sect of the 2nd century was known by the name of Cainites. They

are first mentioned by Irenaeus, who connects them with the Valentinians.

They believed that Cain derived his existence from the superior power, and

Abel from the inferior power, and that in this respect he was the first of

a line which included Esau, Korah, the Sodomites and Judas Iscariot.

(S. A. C.)

CAINE, THOMAS HENRY HALL (1853- ), British novelist and dramatist, was born

of mixed Manx and Cumberland parentage at Runcorn, Cheshire, on the 14th of

May 1853. He was educated with a view to becoming an architect, but turned

to journalism, becoming a leader-writer on the _Liverpool Mercury_. He came

up to London at the suggestion of D.G. Rossetti, with whom he had had some

correspondence, and lived with the poet for some time before his death. He

published a volume of _Recollections of Rossetti_ (1882), and also some

critical work; but in 1885 he began an extremely successful career as a

novelist of a melodramatic type with _The Shadow of a Crime_, followed by

_The Son of Hagar_ (1886), _The Deemster_ (1887), _The Bondman_ (1890),

_The Scapegoat_ (1891), _The Manxman_ (1894), _The Christian_ (1897), _The

Eternal City_ (1901), and _The Prodigal Son_ (1904). His writings on Manx

subjects were acknowledged by his election in 1901 to represent Ramsey in

the House of Keys. _The Deemster_, _The Manxman_ and _The Christian_ had

already been produced in dramatic form, when _The Eternal City_ was staged

with magnificent accessories by Mr Beerbohm Tree in 1902, and in 1905 _The

Prodigal Son_ had a successful run at Drury Lane.

See C.F. Kenyon, _Hall Caine_; _The Man and the Novelist_ (1901); and the

novelist's autobiography, _My Story_ (1908).

CA'ING WHALE (_Globicephalus melas_), a large representative of the dolphin

tribe frequenting the coasts of Europe, the Atlantic coast of North

America, the Cape and New Zealand. From its nearly uniform black colour it

is also called the "black-fish." Its maximum length is about 20 ft. These

cetaceans are gregarious and inoffensive in disposition and feed chiefly on

cuttle-fish. Their sociable character constantly leads to their

destruction, as when attacked they instinctively rush together, and blindly

follow the leaders of the herd, whence the names pilot-whale and ca'ing (or

driving) whale. Many hundreds at a time are thus frequently driven ashore

and killed, when a herd enters one of the bays or fiords of the Faeroe

Islands or north of Scotland. The ca'ing whale of the North Pacific has

been distinguished as _G. scammoni_, while one from the Atlantic coast,

south of New Jersey, and another from the bay of Bengal, are possibly also

distinct. (See CETACEA.)

CAINOZOIC (from the Gr. [Greek: kainos], recent, [Greek: zôê], life), also

written Cenozoic (American), _Kainozoisch_, _Cänozoisch_ (German),

_Cénozoaire_ (Renevier), in geology, the name given to the youngest of the

three great eras of geological time, the other two being the Mesozoic and

Palaeozoic eras. Some authors have employed the term "Neozoic"

(_Neozoisch_) with the same significance, others have restricted its

application to the Tertiary epoch (_Néozoique_, De Lapparent). The

"Neogene" of Hörnes (1853) included the Miocene and Pliocene periods;

Renevier subsequently modified its form to _Néogénique_. The remaining

Tertiary periods were classed as Paléogaen by Naumaun in 1866. The word

"Neocene" has been used in place of Neozoic, but its employment is open to

objection.

Some confusion has been introduced by the use of the term Cainozoic to

include, on the one hand, the Tertiary period alone, and on the other hand,

to make it include both the Tertiary and the post-Tertiary or Quaternary

epochs; and in order that it may bear a relationship to the concepts of

time and faunal development similar to those indicated by the terms

Mesozoic and Palaeozoic it is advisable to restrict its use to the latter

alternative. Thus the Cainozoic era would embrace all the geological

periods from Eocene to Recent. (See TERTIARY and PLEISTOCENE.)

(J. A. H.)

[v.04 p.0950] CAÏQUE (from Turk. _Kaik_), a light skiff or rowing-boat used

by the Turks, having from one to twelve rowers; also a Levantine sailing

vessel of considerable size.

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