CABET, ÉTIENNE (1788-1856), French communist, was born at Dijon in 1788,

the son of a cooper. He chose the profession of advocate, without

succeeding in it, but ere long became notable as the persevering apostle of

republicanism and communism. He assisted in a secondary way in the

revolution of 1830, and obtained the appointment of _procureur-général_ in

Corsica under the government of Louis Philippe; but was dismissed for his

attack upon the conservatism of the government, in his _Histoire de la

révolution de 1830_. Elected, notwithstanding, to the chamber of deputies,

he was prosecuted for his bitter criticism of the government, and obliged

to go into exile in England in 1834, where he became an ardent disciple of

Robert Owen. On the amnesty of 1839 he returned to France, and attracted

some notice by the publication of a badly written and fiercely democratic

history of the Revolution of 1789 (4 vols., 1840), and of a social romance,

_Voyage en Icarie_, in which he set forth his peculiar views. These works

met with some success among the radical working-men of Paris. Like Owen, he

sought to realize his ideas in practice, and, pressed as well by his

friends, he made arrangements for an experiment in communism on American

soil. By negotiations in England favoured by Owen, he purchased a

considerable tract of land on the Red river, Texas, and drew up an

elaborate scheme for the intending colony, community of property being the

distinctive principle of the society. Accordingly in 1848 an expedition of

1500 "Icarians" sailed to America; but unexpected difficulties arose and

the complaints of the disenchanted settlers soon reached Europe. Cabet, who

had remained in France, had more than one judicial investigation to undergo

in consequence, but was honourably acquitted. In 1849 he went out in person

to America, but on his arrival, finding that the Mormons had been expelled

from their city Nauvoo (_q.v._), in Illinois, he transferred his settlement

thither. There, with the exception of a journey to France, where he

returned to defend himself successfully before the tribunals, he remained,

the dictator of his little society. In 1856, however, he withdrew and died

the same year at St Louis.

See COMMUNISM. Also Félix Bonnaud, _Cabet et son oeuvre, appel à tous les

socialistes_ (Paris, 1900); J. Prudhommeaux, _Icaria and its Founder,

Étienne Cabet_ (Nîmes, 1907).

CABIN, a small, roughly built hut or shelter; the term is particularly

applied to the thatched mud cottages of the negro slaves of the southern

states of the Unites States of America, or of the poverty-stricken

peasantry of Ireland or the crofter districts of Scotland. In a special

sense it is used of the small rooms or compartments on board a vessel used

for sleeping, eating or other accommodation. The word in its earlier

English forms was _cabane_ or _caban_, and thus seems to be an adaptation

of the French _cabane_; the French have taken _cabine_, for the room on

board a ship, from the English. In French and other Romanic languages, in

which the word occurs, _e.g._ Spanish _cabaña_, Portuguese _cabana_, the

origin is usually found in the Medieval Latin _capanna_. Isidore of Seville

(_Origines_, lib. xiv. 12) says:--_Tugurium_ (hut) _parva casula est, quam

faciunt sibi custodes vinearum, ad tegimen seu quasi tegurium. Hoc rustici

Capannam vocant, quod unum tantum capiat_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v.

_Capanna_). Others derive from Greek [Greek: kapê], crib, manger. Skeat

considers the English word was taken from the Welsh _caban_, rather than

from the French, and that the original source for all the forms was Celtic.

CABINET, a word with various applications which may be traced to two

principal meanings, (1) a small private chamber, and (2) an article of

furniture containing compartments formed of drawers, shelves, &c. The word

is a diminutive of "cabin" and therefore properly means a small hut or

shelter. This meaning is now obsolete; the _New English Dictionary_ quotes

from Leonard Digges's _Stratioticos_ (published with additions by his son

Thomas in 1579), "the Lance Knights encamp always in the field very

strongly, two or three to a Cabbonet." From the use both of the article of

furniture and of a small chamber for the safe-keeping of a collection of

valuable prints, pictures, medals or other objects, the word is frequently

applied to such a collection or to objects fit for such safe-keeping. The

name of _Cabinet du Roi_ was given to the collection of prints prepared by

the best artists of the 17th century by order of Louis XIV. These were

intended to commemorate the chief events of his reign, and also to

reproduce the paintings and sculptures and other art treasures contained in

the royal palaces. It was begun in 1667 and was placed under the

superintendence of Nicholas Clement (1647 or 1651-1712), the royal

librarian. The collection was published in 1727. The plates are now in the

Louvre. A "cabinet" edition [v.04 p.0918] of a literary work is one of

somewhat small size, and bound in such a way as would suit a tasteful

collection. The term is applied also to a size of photograph of a larger

size than the _carte de visite_ but smaller than the "panel." The political

use of the term is derived from the private chamber of the sovereign or

head of a state in which his advisers met.

_Cabinet in Furniture._--The artificer who constructs furniture is still

called a "cabinet-maker," although the manufacture of cabinets, properly so

called, is now a very occasional part of his work. Cabinets can be divided

into a very large number of classes according to their shape, style, period

and country of origin; but their usual characteristic is that they are

supported upon a stand, and that they contain a series of drawers and

pigeon-holes. The name is, however, now given to many pieces of furniture

for the safe-keeping or exhibition of valuable objects, which really answer

very little to the old conception of a cabinet. The cabinet represented an

evolution brought about by the necessities of convenience, and it appealed

to so many tastes and needs that it rapidly became universal in the houses

of the gentle classes, and in great measure took the impress of the peoples

who adopted it. It would appear to have originated in Italy, probably at

the very beginning of the 16th century. In its rudimentary form it was

little more than an oblong box, with or without feet, small enough to stand

upon a table or chair, filled with drawers and closed with doors. In this

early form its restricted dimensions permitted of its use only for the

safeguard of jewels, precious stones and sometimes money. One of the

earliest cabinets of which we have mention belonged to Francis I. of

France, and is described as covered with gilt leather, tooled with

mauresque work. As the Renaissance became general these early forms gave

place to larger, more elaborate and more architectural efforts, until the

cabinet became one of the most sumptuous of household adornments. It was

natural that the countries which were earliest and most deeply touched by

the Renaissance should excel in the designing of these noble and costly

pieces of furniture. The cabinets of Italy, France and the Netherlands were

especially rich and monumental. Those of Italy and Flanders are often of

great magnificence and of real artistic skill, though like all other

furniture their style was often grievously debased, and their details

incongruous and bizarre. Flanders and Burgundy were, indeed, their lands of

adoption, and Antwerp added to its renown as a metropolis of art by

developing consummate skill in their manufacture and adornment. The cost

and importance of the finer types have ensured the preservation of

innumerable examples of all but the very earliest periods; and the student

never ceases to be impressed by the extraordinary variety of the work of

the 16th and 17th centuries, and very often of the 18th also. The basis of

the cabinet has always been wood, carved, polished or inlaid; but lavish

use has been made of ivory, tortoise-shell, and those cut and polished

precious stones which the Italians call _pietra dura_. In the great Flemish

period of the 17th century the doors and drawers of cabinets were often

painted with classical or mythological scenes. Many French and Florentine

cabinets were also painted. In many classes the drawers and pigeon-holes

are enclosed by folding doors, carved or inlaid, and often painted on the

inner sides. Perhaps the most favourite type during a great part of the

16th and 17th centuries--a type which grew so common that it became

cosmopolitan--was characterized by a conceit which acquired astonishing

popularity. When the folding doors are opened there is disclosed in the

centre of the cabinet a tiny but palatial interior. Floored with alternate

squares of ebony and ivory to imitate a black and white marble pavement,

adorned with Corinthian columns or pilasters, and surrounded by mirrors,

the effect, if occasionally affected and artificial, is quite as often

exquisite. Although cabinets have been produced in England in considerable

variety, and sometimes of very elegant and graceful form, the foreign

makers on the whole produced the most elaborate and monumental examples. As

we have said, Italy and the Netherlands acquired especial distinction in

this kind of work. In France, which has always enjoyed a peculiar genius

for assimilating modes in furniture, Flemish cabinets were so greatly in

demand that Henry IV. determined to establish the industry in his own

dominions. He therefore sent French workmen to the Low Countries to acquire

the art of making cabinets, and especially those which were largely

constructed of ebony and ivory. Among these workmen were Jean Macé and

Pierre Boulle, a member of a family which was destined to acquire something

approaching immortality. Many of the Flemish cabinets so called, which were

in such high favour in France and also in England, were really _armoires_

consisting of two bodies superimposed, whereas the cabinet proper does not

reach to the floor. Pillared and fluted, with panelled sides, and front

elaborately carved with masks and human figures, these pieces which were

most often in oak were exceedingly harmonious and balanced. Long before

this, however, France had its own school of makers of cabinets, and some of

their carved work was of the most admirable character. At a somewhat later

date André Charles Boulle made many pieces to which the name of cabinet has

been more or less loosely given. They were usually of massive proportions

and of extreme elaboration of marquetry. The North Italian cabinets, and

especially those which were made or influenced by the Florentine school,

were grandiose and often gloomy. Conceived on a palatial scale, painted or

carved, or incrusted with marble and _pietra dura_, they were intended for

the adornment of galleries and lofty bare apartments where they were not

felt to be overpowering. These North Italian cabinets were often covered

with intarsia or marquetry, which by its subdued gaiety retrieved somewhat

their heavy stateliness of form. It is, however, often difficult to ascribe

a particular fashion of shape or of workmanship to a given country, since

the interchange of ideas and the imports of actual pieces caused a rapid

assimilation which destroyed frontiers. The close connexion of centuries

between Spain and the Netherlands, for instance, led to the production

north and south of work that was not definitely characteristic of either.

Spain, however, was more closely influenced than the Low Countries, and

contains to this day numbers of cabinets which are not easily to be

distinguished from the characteristic ebony, ivory and tortoise-shell work

of the craftsmen whose skill was so rapidly acquired by the emissaries of

Henry IV. The cabinets of southern Germany were much influenced by the

models of northern Italy, but retained to a late date some of the

characteristics of domestic Gothic work such as elaborately fashioned

wrought-iron handles and polished steel hinges. Often, indeed, 17th-century

South Germany work is a curious blend of Flemish and Italian ideas executed

in oak and Hungarian ash. Such work, however interesting, necessarily lacks

simplicity and repose. A curious little detail of Flemish and Italian, and

sometimes of French later 17th-century cabinets, is that the interiors of

the drawers are often lined with stamped gold or silver paper, or marbled

ones somewhat similar to the "end papers" of old books. The great English

cabinet-makers of the 18th century were very various in their cabinets,

which did not always answer strictly to their name; but as a rule they will

not bear comparison with the native work of the preceding century, which

was most commonly executed in richly marked walnut, frequently enriched

with excellent marquetry of woods. Mahogany was the dominating timber in

English furniture from the accession of George II. almost to the time of

the Napoleonic wars; but many cabinets were made in lacquer or in the

bright-hued foreign woods which did so much to give lightness and grace to

the British style. The glass-fronted cabinet for China or glass was in high

favour in the Georgian period, and for pieces of that type, for which

massiveness would have been inappropriate, satin and tulip woods, and other

timbers with a handsome grain taking a high polish were much used.

(J. P.-B.)

_The Political Cabinet._--Among English political institutions, the

"Cabinet" is a conventional but not a legal term employed to describe those

members of the privy council who fill the highest executive offices in the

state, and by their concerted policy direct the government, and are

responsible for all the acts of the crown. The cabinet now always includes

the persons filling the following offices, who are therefore called

"cabinet ministers," viz.:--the first lord of the treasury, the lord

chancellor of England, the lord president of the council, the lord privy

seal, the five secretaries of state, the chancellor of the exchequer [v.04

p.0919] and the first lord of the admiralty. The chancellor of the duchy of

Lancaster, the postmaster-general, the first commissioner of works, the

president of the board of trade, the chief secretary for Ireland, the lord

chancellor of Ireland, the president of the local government board, the

president of the board of agriculture, and the president of the board of

education, are usually members of the cabinet, but not necessarily so. A

modern cabinet contains from sixteen to twenty members. It used to be said

that a large cabinet is an evil; and the increase in its numbers in recent

years has often been criticized. But the modern widening of the franchise

has tended to give the cabinet the character of an executive committee for

the party in power, no less than that of the prime-minister's consultative

committee, and to make such a committee representative it is necessary to

include the holders of all the more important offices in the

administration, who are generally selected as the influential politicians

of the party rather than for special aptitude in the work of the

departments.

The word "cabinet," or "cabinet council," was originally employed as a term

of reproach. Thus Lord Bacon says, in his essay _Of Counsel_ (xx.), "The

doctrine of Italy and practice of France, in some kings' times, hath

introduced cabinet councils--a remedy worse than the disease"; and, again,

"As for cabinet councils, it may be their motto _Plenus rimarum sum_." Lord

Clarendon--after stating that, in 1640, when the great Council of Peers was

convened by the king at York, the burden of affairs rested principally on

Laud, Strafford and Cottington, with five or six others added to them on

account of their official position and ability--adds, "These persons made

up the committee of state, which was reproachfully after called the

_Juncto_, and enviously then in court the _Cabinet Council_." And in the

Second Remonstrance in January 1642, parliament complained "of the managing

of the great affairs of the realm in _Cabinet Councils_ by men unknown and

not publicly trusted." But this use of the term, though historically

curious, has in truth nothing in common with the modern application of it.

It meant, at that time, the employment of a select body of favourites by

the king, who were supposed to possess a larger share of his confidence

than the privy council at large. Under the Tudors, at least from the later

years of Henry VIII. and under the Stuarts, the privy council was the

council of state or government. During the Commonwealth it assumed that

name.

The Cabinet Council, properly so called, dates from the reign of William

III. and from the year 1693, for it was not until some years after the

Revolution that the king discovered and adopted the two fundamental

principles of a constitutional executive government, namely, that a

ministry should consist of statesmen holding the same political principles

and identified with each other; and, secondly, that the ministry should

stand upon a parliamentary basis, that is, that it must command and retain

the majority of votes in the legislature. It was long before these

principles were thoroughly worked out and understood, and the perfection to

which they have been brought in modern times is the result of time,

experience and in part of accident. But the result is that the cabinet

council for the time being _is_ the government of Great Britain; that all

the powers vested in the sovereign (with one or two exceptions) are

practically exercised by the members of this body; that all the members of

the cabinet are jointly and severally responsible for all its measures, for

if differences of opinion arise their existence is unknown as long as the

cabinet lasts--when publicly manifested the cabinet is at an end; and

lastly, that the cabinet, being responsible to the sovereign for the

conduct of executive business, is also collectively responsible to

parliament both for its executive conduct and for its legislative measures,

the same men being as members of the cabinet the servants of the crown, and

as members of parliament and leaders of the majority responsible to those

who support them by their votes and may challenge in debate every one of

their actions. In this latter sense the cabinet has sometimes been

described as a standing committee of both Houses of Parliament.

One of the consequences of the close connexion of the cabinet with the

legislature is that it is desirable to divide the strength of the ministry

between the two Houses of Parliament. Pitt's cabinet of 1783 consisted of

himself in the House of Commons and seven peers. But so aristocratic a

government would now be impracticable. In Gladstone's cabinet of 1868,

eight, and afterwards nine, ministers were in the House of Commons and six

in the House of Lords. Great efforts were made to strengthen the

ministerial bench in the Commons, and a new principle was introduced, that

the representatives of what are called the spending departments--that is,

the secretary of state for war and the first lord of the admiralty--should,

if possible, be members of the House which votes the supplies. Disraeli

followed this precedent but it has since been disregarded. In Sir H.

Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet formed in 1905, six ministers were in the

House of Lords and thirteen in the House of Commons.

Cabinets are usually convoked by a summons addressed to "His Majesty's

confidential servants" by the prime minister; and the ordinary place of

meeting is either at the official residence of the first lord of the

treasury in Downing Street or at the foreign office, but they may be held

anywhere. No secretary or other officer is present at the deliberations of

this council. No official record is kept of its proceedings, and it is even

considered a breach of ministerial confidence to keep a private record of

what passed in the cabinet, inasmuch as such memoranda may fall into other

hands. But on some important occasions, as is known from the _Memoirs of

Lord Sidmouth_, the _Correspondence of Earl Grey with King William IV._,

and from Sir Robert Peel's _Memoirs_, published by permission of Queen

Victoria, cabinet minutes are drawn up and submitted to the sovereign, as

the most formal manner in which the advice of the ministry can be tendered

to the crown and placed upon record. (See also Sir Algernon West's

_Recollections_, 1899.) More commonly, it is the duty of the prime minister

to lay the collective opinion of his colleagues before the sovereign, and

take his pleasure on public measures and appointments. The sovereign never

presides at a cabinet; and at the meetings of the privy council, where the

sovereign does preside, the business is purely formal. It has been laid

down by some writers as a principle of the British constitution that the

sovereign is never present at a discussion between the advisers of the

crown; and this is, no doubt, an established fact and practice. But like

many other political usages of Great Britain it originated in a happy

accident.

King William and Queen Anne always presided at weekly cabinet councils. But

when the Hanoverian princes ascended the throne, they knew no English, and

were barely able to converse at all with their ministers; for George I. or

George II. to take part in, or even to listen to, a debate in council was

impossible. When George III. mounted the throne the practice of the

independent deliberations of the cabinet was well established, and it has

never been departed from.

Upon the resignation or dissolution of a ministry, the sovereign exercises

the undoubted prerogative of selecting the person who may be thought by him

most fit to form a new cabinet. In several instances the statesmen selected

by the crown have found themselves unable to accomplish the task confided

to them. But in more favourable cases the minister chosen for this supreme

office by the crown has the power of distributing all the political offices

of the government as may seem best to himself, subject only to the ultimate

approval of the sovereign. The prime minister is therefore in reality the

author and constructor of the cabinet; he holds it together; and in the

event of his retirement, from whatever cause, the cabinet is really

dissolved, even though its members are again united under another head.

AUTHORITIES.--Sir W. Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_ (1896); W.

Bagehot, _The English Constitution_; M.T. Blauvelt, _The Development of

Cabinet Government in England_ (New York, 1902); E. Boutmy, _The English

Constitution_ (trans. I.M. Eaden, 1891); A. Lawrence Lowell, _The

Government of England_ (1908), part I.; A.V. Dicey, _Law of the

Constitution_ (1902); Sir T. Erskine May, _Constitutional History of

England_ (1863-1865); H. Hallam, _Constitutional History of England_; W.E.

Hearn, _The Government of England_ (1867); S. Low, _The Governance of

England_ (1904); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_; Hannis

Taylor, _Origin and Growth of the English Constitution_ (Boston,

1889-1900); [v.04 p.0920] A. Todd, _Parliamentary Government in England_

(1867-1869); much valuable information will also be found in such works as

W.E. Gladstone's _Gleanings_; the third earl of Malmesbury's _Memoirs of an

ex-Minister_ (1884-1885); Greville's _Memoirs_; Sir A. West's

_Recollections_, 1832-1886 (1889), &c.

CABINET NOIR, the name given in France to the office where the letters of

suspected persons were opened and read by public officials before being

forwarded to their destination. This practice had been in vogue since the

establishment of posts, and was frequently used by the ministers of Louis

XIII. and Louis XIV.; but it was not until the reign of Louis XV. that a

separate office for this purpose was created. This was called the _cabinet

du secret des postes_, or more popularly the _cabinet noir_. Although

declaimed against at the time of the Revolution, it was used both by the

revolutionary leaders and by Napoleon. The _cabinet noir_ has now

disappeared, but the right to open letters in cases of emergency appears

still to be retained by the French government; and a similar right is

occasionally exercised in England under the direction of a secretary of

state, and, indeed, in all civilized countries. In England this power was

frequently employed during the 18th century and was confirmed by the Post

Office Act of 1837; its most notorious use being, perhaps, the opening of

Mazzini's letters in 1844.

CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844- ) American author, was born in New Orleans,

Louisiana, on the 12th of October 1844. At the age of fourteen he entered a

mercantile establishment as a clerk; joined the Confederate army (4th

Mississippi Cavalry) at the age of nineteen; at the close of the war

engaged in civil engineering, and in newspaper work in New Orleans; and

first became known in literature by sketches and stories of old

French-American life in that city. These were first published in

_Scribner's Monthly_, and were collected in book form in 1879, under the

title of _Old Creole Days_. The characteristics of the series--of which the

novelette _Madame Delphine_ (1881) is virtually a part--are neatness of

touch, sympathetic accuracy of description of people and places, and a

constant combination of gentle pathos with quiet humour. These shorter

tales were followed by the novels _The Grandissimes_ (1880), _Dr Sevier_

(1883) and _Bonaventure_ (1888), of which the first dealt with Creole life

in Louisiana a hundred years ago, while the second was related to the

period of the Civil War of 1861-65. _Dr Sevier_, on the whole, is to be

accounted Cable's masterpiece, its character of Narcisse combining nearly

all the qualities which have given him his place in American literature as

an artist and a social chronicler. In this, as in nearly all of his

stories, he makes much use of the soft French-English dialect of Louisiana.

He does not confine himself to New Orleans, laying many of his scenes, as

in the short story _Belles Demoiselles Plantation_, in the marshy lowlands

towards the mouth of the Mississippi. Cable was the leader in the

noteworthy literary movement which has influenced nearly all southern

writers since the war of 1861--a movement of which the chief importance lay

in the determination to portray local scenes, characters and historical

episodes with accuracy instead of merely imaginative romanticism, and to

interest readers by fidelity and sympathy in the portrayal of things well

known to the authors. Other writings by Cable have dealt with various

problems of race and politics in the southern states during and after the

"reconstruction period" following the Civil War; while in _The Creoles of

Louisiana_ (1884) he presented a history of that folk from the time of its

appearance as a social and military factor. His dispassionate treatment of

his theme in this volume and its predecessors gave increasing offence to

sensitive Creoles and their sympathizers, and in 1886 Cable removed to

Northampton, Massachusetts. At one time he edited a magazine in

Northampton, and afterwards conducted the monthly _Current Literature_,

published in New York. His _Collected Works_ were published in a uniform

issue in 5 vols. (New York, 1898). Among his later volumes are _The

Cavalier_ (1901), _Bylow Hill_ (1902), and _Kincaid's Battery_ (1908).

CABLE (from Late Lat. _capulum_, a halter, from _capere_, to take hold of),

a large rope or chain, used generally with ships, but often employed for

other purposes; the term "cable" is also used by analogy in minor varieties

of similar engineering or other attachments, and in the case of "electric

cables" for the submarine wires (see TELEGRAPH) by which telegraphic

messages are transmitted.[1]

The cable by which a ship rides at her anchor is now made of iron; prior to

1811 only hempen cables were supplied to ships of the British navy, a

first-rate's complement on the East Indian station being eleven; the

largest was 25 in. (equal to 2¼ in. iron cable) and weighed 6 tons. In

1811, iron cables were supplied to stationary ships; their superiority over

hempen ones was manifest, as they were less liable to foul or to be cut by

rocks, or to be injured by enemy's shot. Iron cables are also handier and

cleaner, an offensive odour being exhaled from dirty hempen cables, when

unbent and stowed inboard. The first patent for iron cables was by Phillip

White in 1634; twisted links were suggested in 1813 by Captain Brown (who

afterwards, in conjunction with Brown, Lenox & Co., planned the Brighton

chain pier in 1823); and studs were introduced in 1816. Hempen cables are

not now supplied to ships, having been superseded by steel wire hawsers.

The length of a hempen cable is 101 fathoms, and a cable's length, as a

standard of measurement, usually placed on charts, is assumed to be 100

fathoms or 600 ft. The sizes, number and lengths of cables supplied to

ships of the British navy are given in the official publication, the

_Ship's Establishment_; cables for merchant ships are regulated by Lloyds,

and are tested according to the Anchors and Chain Cables Act 1899.

In manufacturing chain cables, the bars are cut to the required length of

link, at an angle for forming the welds and, after heating, are bent by

machinery to the form of a link and welded by smiths, each link being

inserted in the previous one before welding. Cables of less than 1¼ in. are

welded at the crown, there not being sufficient room for a side weld;

experience has shown that the latter method is preferable and it is

employed in making larger sized cables. In 1898 steel studs were introduced

instead of cast iron ones, the latter having a tendency to work loose, but

the practice is not universal. After testing, the licensed tester must

place on every five fathoms of cable a distinctive mark which also

indicates the testing establishments; the stamp or die employed must be

approved by the Board of Trade. The iron used in the construction, also the

testing, of mooring chains and cables for the London Trinity House

Corporation are subject to more stringent regulations.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Stud-link Chain.]

Cables for the British navy and mercantile marine are supplied in 12½

fathom and 15 fathom lengths respectively, connected together by "joining

shackles", D (fig. 1). Each length is "marked" by pieces of iron wire being

twisted round the studs of the links; the wire is placed on the first studs

on each side of the first shackle, on the second studs on each side of the

second shackle, and so on; thus the number of lengths of cable out is

clearly indicated. For instance, if the wire is on the sixth [v.04 p.0921]

studs on each side of the shackle, it indicates that six lengths or 75

fathoms of cable are out. In joining the lengths together, the round end of

the shackle is placed towards the anchor. The end links of each length

(C.C.) are made without studs, in order to take the shackle; but as studs

increase the strength of a link, in a studless or open link the iron is of

greater diameter. The next links (B.B.) have to be enlarged, in order to

take the increased size of the links C.C. In the joining shackle (D), the

pin is oval, its greater diameter being in the direction of the strain. The

pin of a shackle, which attaches the cable to the anchor (called an "anchor

shackle", to distinguish it from a joining shackle) projects and is secured

by a forelock; but since any projection in a joining shackle would be

liable to be injured when the cable is running out or when passing around a

capstan, the pins are made as shown at D, and are secured by a small pin d.

This small pin is kept from coming out by being made a little short, and

lead pellets are driven in at either end to fill up the holes in the

shackle, which are made with a groove, so that as the pellets are driven in

they expand or dovetail, keeping the small pin in its place.[2]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Mooring Swivel.]

The cables are stowed in chain lockers, the inboard ends being secured by a

"slip" (in the mercantile marine the cable is often shackled or lashed to

the kelson); the slip prevents the cable's inner end from passing

overboard, and also enables the cable to be "slipped", or let go, in case

of necessity. In the British navy, swivel pieces are fitted in the first

and last lengths of cable, to avoid and, if required, to take out turns in

a cable, caused by a ship swinging round when at anchor. With a ship moored

with two anchors, the cables are secured to a mooring swivel (fig. 2),

which prevents a "foul hawse", _i.e._ the cables being entwined round each

other. When mooring, unmooring, and as may be necessary, cables are

temporarily secured by "slips" shackled to eye or ring bolts in the deck

(see ANCHOR). The cable is hove up by either a capstan or windlass (see

CAPSTAN) actuated by steam, electricity or manual power. Ships in the

British navy usually ride by the compressor, the cable holder being used

for checking the cable running out. When a ship has been given the

necessary cable, the cable holder is eased up and the compressor "bowsed

to"; in a heavy sea, a turn, or if necessary two turns, are taken round the

"bitts," a strong iron structure placed between the hawse and navel

("deck") pipes. A single turn of cable is often taken round the bitts when

anchoring in deep water. Small vessels of the mercantile marine ride by

turns around the windlass; in larger or more modern vessels fitted with a

steam windlass, the friction brakes take the strain, aided when required by

the bitts, compressor or controller in bad weather.

(J. W. D.)

[1] The word "cable" is a various reading for "camel" in the Biblical

phrase, "it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle" of

Matt. xix. 24, Mark x. 25, and Luke xviii. 25, mentioned as early as Cyril

of Alexandria (5th cent.); and it was adopted by Sir John Cheke and other

16th century and later English writers. The reading [Greek: kamilos] for

[Greek: kamêlos] is found in several late cursive MSS. Cheyne, in the

_Ency. Biblica_, ascribes it to a non-Semitic scribe, and regards [Greek:

kamêlos] as correct. (See under CAMEL.)

[2] The dimensions marked in the figure are those for 1-in. chains, and

signify so many diameters of the iron of the common links; thus forming a

scale for all sizes.

CABLE MOULDING, in architecture, the term given to a convex moulding carved

in imitation of a rope or cord, and used to decorate the mouldings of the

Romanesque style in England, France and Spain. The word "cabling" by itself

indicates a convex circular moulding sunk in the concave fluting of a

classic column, and rising about one-third of the height of the shaft.

CABOCHE, SIMON. Simon Lecoustellier, called "Caboche", a skinner of the

Paris Boucherie, played an important part in the Parisian riots of 1413. He

had relations with John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, since 1411, and was

prominent in the seditious disturbances which broke out in April and May,

following on the _États_ of February 1413. In April he stirred the people

to the point of revolt, and was among the first to enter the hôtel of the

dauphin. When the butchers had made themselves masters of Paris, Caboche

became bailiff (_huissier d'armes_) and warden of the bridge of Charenton.

Upon the publication of the great ordinance of May 26th, he used all his

efforts to prevent conciliation between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs.

After the fall of the _Cabochien_ party on the 4th of August he fled to

Burgundy in order to escape from royal justice. Doubtless he returned to

Paris in 1418 with the Burgundians.

See Colville, _Les Cabochiens et l'ordonnance de 1413_ (Paris, 1888).

CABOT, GEORGE (1751-1823), American political leader, was born in Salem,

Massachusetts, on the 16th of December 1751. He studied at Harvard from

1766 to 1768, when he went to sea as a cabin boy. He gradually became a

ship-owner and a successful merchant, retiring from business in 1794.

Throughout his life he was much interested in politics, and though his

temperamental indolence and his aversion for public life often prevented

his accepting office, he exercised, as a contributor to the press and

through his friendships, a powerful political influence, especially in New

England. He was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of

1770-1780, of the state senate in 1782-1783, of the convention which in

1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution, and from 1791 to

1796 of the United States Senate, in which, besides serving on various

important committees, he became recognized as an authority on economic and

commercial matters. Among the bills introduced by him in the Senate was the

Fugitive Slave Act of 1793. Upon the establishment of the navy department

in 1798, he was appointed and confirmed as its secretary, but he never

performed the duties of the office, and was soon replaced by Benjamin

Stoddert (1751-1813), actually though not nominally the first secretary of

the department. In 1814-1815 Cabot was the president of the Hartford

Convention, and as such was then and afterwards acrimoniously attacked by

the Republicans throughout the country. He died in Boston on the 18th of

April 1823. In politics he was a staunch Federalist, and with Fisher Ames,

Timothy Pickering and Theophilus Parsons (all of whom lived in Essex

county, Massachusetts) was classed as a member of the "Essex Junto",--a

wing of the party and not a formal organization. A fervent advocate of a

strong centralized government, he did much to secure the ratification by

Massachusetts of the Federal Constitution, and after the overturn of the

Federalist by the Republican party, he wrote (1804): "We are democratic

altogether, and I hold democracy in its natural operation to be a

government of the worst".

See Henry Cabot Lodge's _Life and Letters of George Cabot_ (Boston, 1877).

CABOT, JOHN [GIOVANNI CABOTO] (1450-1498), Italian navigator and discoverer

of North America, was born in Genoa, but in 1461 went to live in Venice, of

which he became a naturalized citizen in 1476. During one of his trading

voyages to the eastern Mediterranean, Cabot paid a visit to Mecca, then the

greatest mart in the world for the exchange of the goods of the East for

those of the West. On inquiring whence came the spices, perfumes, silks and

precious stones bartered there in great quantities, Cabot learned that they

were brought by caravan from the north-eastern parts of farther Asia. Being

versed in a knowledge of the sphere, it occurred to him that it would be

shorter and quicker to bring these goods to Europe straight across the

western ocean. First of all, however, a way would have to be found across

this ocean from Europe to Asia. Full of this idea, Cabot, about the year

1484, removed with his family to London. His plans were in course of time

made known to [v.04 p.0922] the leading merchants of Bristol, from which

port an extensive trade was carried on already with Iceland. It was decided

that an attempt should be made to reach the island of Brazil or that of the

Seven Cities, placed on medieval maps to the west of Ireland, and that

these should form the first halting-places on the route to Asia by the

west.

To find these islands vessels were despatched from Bristol during several

years, but all in vain. No land of any sort could be seen. Affairs were in

this state when in the summer of 1493 news reached England that another

Genoese, Christopher Columbus, had set sail westward from Spain and had

reached the Indies. Cabot and his friends at once determined to forgo

further search for the islands and to push straight on to Asia. With this

end in view application was made to the king for formal letters patent,

which were not issued until March 5, 1496. By these Henry VII. granted to

his "well-beloved John Cabot, citizen of Venice, to Lewis, Sebastian and

Santius,[1] sonnes of the said John, full and free authority, leave and

power upon theyr own proper costs and charges, to seeke out, discover and

finde whatsoever isles, countries, regions or provinces of the heathen and

infidels, which before this time have been unknown to all Christians".

Merchandise from the countries visited was to be entered at Bristol free of

duty, but one-fifth of the net gains was to go to the king.

Armed with these powers Cabot set sail from Bristol on Tuesday the 2nd of

May 1497, on board a ship called the "Mathew" manned by eighteen men.

Rounding Ireland they headed first north and then west. During several

weeks they were forced by variable winds to keep an irregular course,

although steadily towards the west. At length, after being fifty-two days

at sea, at five o'clock on Saturday morning, June 24, they reached the

northern extremity of Cape Breton Island. The royal banner was unfurled,

and in solemn form Cabot took possession of the country in the name of King

Henry VII. The soil being found fertile and the climate temperate, Cabot

was convinced he had reached the north-eastern coast of Asia, whence came

the silks and precious stones he had seen at Mecca. Cape North was named

Cape Discovery, and as the day was the festival of St John the Baptist, St

Paul Island, which lies opposite, was called the island of St John.

Having taken on board wood and water, preparations were made to return home

as quickly as possible. Sailing north, Cabot named Cape Ray, St George's

Cape, and christened St Pierre and Miquelon, which then with Langley formed

three separate islands, the Trinity group. Hereabout they met great schools

of cod, quantities of which were caught by the sailors merely by lowering

baskets into the water. Cape Race, the last land seen, was named England's

Cape.

The return voyage was made without difficulty, since the prevailing winds

in the North Atlantic are westerly, and on Sunday, the 6th of August, the

"Mathew" dropped anchor once more in Bristol harbour. Cabot hastened to

Court, and on Thursday the 10th of August received from the king £10 for

having "found the new isle". Cabot reported that 700 leagues beyond Ireland

he had reached the country of the Grand Khan. Although both silk and

brazil-wood could be obtained there, he intended on his next voyage to

follow the coast southward as far as Cipangu or Japan, then placed near the

equator. Once Cipangu had been reached London would become a greater centre

for spices than Alexandria. Henry VII. was delighted, and besides granting

Cabot a pension of £20 promised him in the spring a fleet of ten ships with

which to sail to Cipangu.

On the 3rd of February 1498, fresh letters patent were issued, whereby

Cabot was empowered to "take at his pleasure VI. englisshe shippes and

theym convey and lede to the londe and iles of late founde by the seid

John". Henry VII. himself also advanced considerable sums of money to

various members of the expedition. As success seemed assured, it was

expected the returns would be high.

In the spring Cabot visited Lisbon and Seville, to secure the services of

men who had sailed along the African coast with Cam and Diaz or to the

Indies with Columbus. At Lisbon he met a certain João Fernandes, called

Llavrador, who about the year 1492 appears to have made his way from

Iceland to Greenland. Cabot, on learning from Fernandes that part of Asia,

as they supposed Greenland to be, lay so near Iceland, determined to return

by way of this country. On reaching Bristol he laid his plans accordingly.

Early in May the expedition, which consisted of two ships and 300 men, left

Bristol. Several vessels in the habit of trading to Iceland accompanied

them. Off Ireland a storm forced one of these to return, but the rest of

the fleet proceeded on its way along the parallel of 58°. Each day the

ships were carried northward by the Gulf Stream. Early in June Cabot

reached the east coast of Greenland, and as Fernandes was the first who had

told him of this country he named it the Labrador's Land.

In the hope of finding a passage Cabot proceeded northward along the coast.

As he advanced, the cold became more intense and the icebergs thicker and

larger. It was also noticed that the land trended eastward. As a result on

the 11th of June in latitude 67° 30' the crews mutinied and refused to

proceed farther in that direction. Cabot had no alternative but to put his

ships about and look for a passage towards the south. Rounding Cape

Farewell he explored the southern coast of Greenland and then made his way

a certain distance up the west coast. Here again his progress was checked

by icebergs, whereupon a course was set towards the west. Crossing Davis

Strait Cabot reached our modern Baffin Land in 66°. Judging this to be the

Asiatic mainland, he set off southward in search of Cipangu. South of

Hudson Strait a little bartering was done with the Indians, but these could

offer nothing in exchange but furs. Our strait of Belle Isle was mistaken

for an ordinary bay, and Newfoundland was regarded by Cabot as the main

shore itself. Rounding Cape Race he visited once more the region explored

in the previous summer, and then proceeded to follow the coast of our Nova

Scotia and New England in search of Cipangu. He made his way as far south

as the thirty-eighth parallel, when the absence of all signs of eastern

civilization and the low state of his stores forced him to abandon all hope

of reaching Cipangu on this voyage. Accordingly the ships were put about

and a course set for England, where they arrived safely late in the autumn

of 1498. Not long after his return John Cabot died.

His son, SEBASTIAN CABOT (1476-1557),[2] is not independently heard of

until May 1512, when he was paid twenty shillings "for making a carde of

Gascoigne and Guyenne", whither he accompanied the English army sent that

year by Henry VIII. to aid his father-in-law Ferdinand of Aragon against

the French. Since Ferdinand and his daughter Joanna were contemplating the

dispatch of an expedition from Santander to explore Newfoundland, Sebastian

was questioned about this coast by the king's councillors. As a result

Ferdinand summoned him in September 1512 to Logroño, and on the 30th of

October appointed him a captain in the navy at a salary of 50,000 maravedis

a year. A letter was also written to the Spanish ambassador in England to

help Cabot and his family to return to Spain, with the result that in March

1514 he was again back at Court discussing with Ferdinand the proposed

expedition to Newfoundland. Preparations were made for him to set sail in

March 1516; but the death of the king in January of that year put an end to

the undertaking. His services were retained by Charles V., and on the 5th

of February 1518 Cabot was named Pilot Major and official examiner of

pilots.

In the winter of 1520-1521 Sebastian Cabot returned to England [v.04

p.0923] and while there was offered by Wolsey the command of five vessels

which Henry VIII. intended to despatch to Newfoundland. Being reproached by

a fellow Venetian with having done nothing for his own country, Cabot

refused, and on reaching Spain entered into secret negotiations with the

Council of Ten at Venice. It was agreed that as soon as an opportunity

offered Cabot should come to Venice and lay his plans before the Signiory.

The conference of Badajoz took up his time in 1524, and on the 4th of March

1525 he was appointed commander of an expedition fitted out at Seville "to

discover the Moluccas, Tarsis, Ophir, Cipango and Cathay."

The three vessels set sail in April, and by June were off the coast of

Brazil and on their way to the Straits of Magellan. Near the La Plata river

Cabot found three Spaniards who had formed part of De Solis's expedition of

1515. These men gave such glowing accounts of the riches of the country

watered by this river that Cabot was at length induced, partly by their

descriptions and in part by the casting away of his flag-ship, to forgo the

search for Tarsis and Ophir and to enter the La Plata, which was reached in

February 1527. All the way up the Parana Cabot found the Indians friendly,

but those on the Paraguay proved so hostile that the attempt to reach the

mountains, where the gold and silver were procured, had to be given up. On

reaching Seville in August 1530, Cabot was condemned to four years'

banishment to Oran in Africa, but in June 1533 he was once more reinstated

in his former post of Pilot Major, which he continued to fill until he

again removed to England.

As early as 1538 Cabot tried to obtain employment under Henry VIII., and it

is possible he was the Sevillian pilot who was brought to London by the

king in 1541. Soon after the accession of Edward VI., however, his friends

induced the Privy Council to advance money for his removal to England, and

on the 5th of January 1549 the king granted him a pension of £166, 13s. 4d.

On Charles V. objecting to this proceeding, the Privy Council, on the zist

of April 1550, made answer that since "Cabot of himself refused to go

either into Spayne or to the emperour, no reason or equitie wolde that he

shulde be forced or compelled to go against his will." A fresh application

to Queen Mary on the 9th of September 1553 likewise proved of no avail.

On the 26th of June 1550 Cabot received £200 "by waie of the kinges

Majesties rewarde," but it is not clear whether this was for his services

in putting down the privileges of the German Merchants of the Steelyard or

for founding the company of Merchant Adventurers incorporated on the 18th

of December 1551. Of this company Cabot was made governor for life. Three

ships were sent out in May 1553 to search for a passage to the East by the

north-east. Two of the vessels were caught in the ice near Arzina and the

crews frozen to death. Chancellor's vessel alone reached the White Sea,

whence her captain made his way overland to Moscow. He returned to England

in the summer of 1554 and was the means of opening up a very considerable

trade with Russia. Vessels were again despatched to Russia in 1555 and

1556. On the departure of the "Searchthrift" in May 1556, "the good old

gentleman Master Cabot gave to the poor most liberal alms, wishing them to

pray for the good fortune and prosperous success of the 'Searchthrift'; and

then, at the sign of the Christopher, he and his friends banqueted and made

them that were in the company good cheer; and for very joy that he had to

see the towardness of our intended discovery, he entered into the dance

himself among the rest of the young and lusty company." On the arrival of

King Philip II. in England Cabot's pension was stopped on the 26th of May

1557, but three days later Mary had it renewed. The date of Cabot's death

has not been definitely discovered. It is supposed that he died within the

year.

See G.P. Winship, _Cabot Bibliography, with an Introductory Essay on the

Careers of the Cabots_ (London, 1900); and H.P. Biggar, "The Voyages of the

Cabots to North America and Greenland," in the _Revue Hispanique_, tome x.

pp. 485-593 (Paris, 1903).

(H. P. B.)

[1] Nothing further is known of Lewis and Santius.

[2] The dates are conjectural. Richard Eden (_Decades of the Newe Worlde_,

f. 255) says Sebastian told him that when four years old he was taken by

his father to Venice, and returned to England "after certeyne yeares;

wherby he was thought to have bin born in Venice"; Stow (_Annals_, under

year 1498) styles "Sebastian Caboto, a Genoas sonne, borne in Bristow".

Galvano and Herrera also give England the honour of his nativity. See also

Nicholls, _Remarkable Life of Sebastian Cabot_ (1869), a eulogistic

account, with which may be contrasted Henry Harrisse's _John Cabot and his

son Sebastian_ (1896).

CABOTAGE, the French term for coasting-trade, a coast-pilotage. It is

probably derived from _cabot_, a small boat, with which the name Cabot may

be connected; the conjecture that the word comes from _cabo_, the Spanish

for cape, and means "sailing from cape to cape", has little foundation.

CABRA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova, 28 m. S.E. by

S. of Cordova, on the Jaen-Málaga railway. Pop. (1900) 13,127. Cabra is

built in a fertile valley between the Sierra de Cabra and the Sierra de

Montilla, which together form the watershed between the rivers Cabra and

Guadajoz. The town was for several centuries an episcopal see. Its chief

buildings are the cathedral, originally a mosque, and the ruined castle,

which is the chief among many interesting relics of Moorish rule. The

neighbouring fields of clay afford material for the manufacture of bricks

and pottery; coarse cloth is woven in the town; and there is a considerable

trade in farm produce. Cabra is the Roman _Baebro_ or _Aegabro_. It was

delivered from the Moors by Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1240, and

entrusted to the Order of Calatrava; in 1331 it was recaptured by the

Moorish king of Granada; but in the following century it was finally

reunited to Christian Spain.

CABRERA, RAMON (1806-1877), Carlist general, was born at Tortosa, province

of Tarragona, Spain, on the 27th of December 1806. As his family had in

their gift two chaplaincies, young Cabrera was sent to the seminary of

Tortosa, where he made himself conspicuous as an unruly pupil, ever mixed

up in disturbances and careless in his studies. After he had taken minor

orders, the bishop refused to ordain him as a priest, telling him that the

Church was not his vocation, and that everything in him showed that he

ought to be a soldier. Cabrera followed this advice and took part in

Carlist conspiracies on the death of Ferdinand VII. The authorities exiled

him and he absconded to Morella to join the forces of the pretender Don

Carlos. In a very short time he rose by sheer daring, fanaticism and

ferocity to the front rank among the Carlist chiefs who led the bands of

Don Carlos in Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia. As a raider he was often

successful, and he was many times wounded in the brilliant fights in which

he again and again defeated the generals of Queen Isabella. He sullied his

victories by acts of cruelty, shooting prisoners of war whose lives he had

promised to spare and not respecting the lives and property of

non-combatants. The queen's generals seized his mother as a hostage,

whereupon Cabrera shot several mayors and officers. General Nogueras

unfortunately caused the mother of Cabrera to be shot, and the Carlist

leader then started upon a policy of reprisals so merciless that the people

nicknamed him "The Tiger of the Maeztrazgo". It will suffice to say that he

shot 1110 prisoners of war, 100 officers and many civilians, including the

wives of four leading Isabellinos, to avenge his mother. When Marshal

Espartero induced the Carlists of the north-western provinces, with Maroto

at their head, to submit in accordance with the Convention of Vergara,

which secured the recognition of the rank and titles of 1000 Carlist

officers, Cabrera held out in Central Spain for nearly a year. Marshals

Espartero and O'Donnell, with the bulk of the Isabellino armies, had to

conduct a long and bloody campaign against Cabrera before they succeeded in

driving him into French territory in July 1840. The government of Louis

Philippe kept him in a fortress for some months and then allowed him to go

to England, where he quarrelled with the pretender, disapproving of his

abdication in favour of the count of Montemolin. In 1848 Cabrera reappeared

in the mountains of Catalonia at the head of Carlist bands. These were soon

dispersed and he again fled to France. After this last effort he did not

take a very active part in the propaganda and subsequent risings of the

Carlists, who, however, continued to consult him. He took offence when new

men, not a few of them quondam regular officers, became the advisers and

lieutenants of Don Carlos in the war which lasted more or less from

1870-1876. Indeed, his long residence in England, his marriage with Miss

Richards, and his prolonged absence from Spain had much shaken his devotion

to his old cause and belief in its success. In March 1875 Cabrera sprang

upon Don Carlos a manifesto in which he called upon the adherents of the

pretender to follow his own example and submit to the restored monarchy of

Alphonso XII., the son of Queen Isabella, who recognized the rank of

captain-general and the title of count of Morella conferred on Cabrera by

[v.04 p.0924] the first pretender. Only a very few insignificant Carlists

followed Cabrera's example, and Don Carlos issued a proclamation declaring

him a traitor and depriving him of all his honours and titles. Cabrera, who

was ever afterwards regarded with contempt and execration by the Carlists,

died in London on the 24th of May 1877. He did not receive much attention

from the majority of his fellow-countrymen, who commonly said that his

disloyalty to his old cause had proved more harmful to him than beneficial

to the new state of things. A pension which had been granted to his widow

was renounced by her in 1899 in aid of the Spanish treasury after the loss

of the colonies.

(A. E. H.)

CACCINI, GIULIO (1558-1615?), Italian musical composer, also known as

Giulio Romano, but to be distinguished from the painter of that name, was

born at Rome about 1558, and in 1578 entered the service of the grand duke

of Tuscany at Florence. He collaborated with J. Peri in the early attempts

at musical drama which were the ancestors of modern opera (_Dafne_, 1594,

and _Euridice_, 1600), produced at Florence by the circle of musicians and

amateurs which met at the houses of G. Bardi and Corsi. He also published

in 1601 _Le nuove musiche_, a collection of songs which is of great

importance in the history of singing as well as in that of the transition

period of musical composition. He was a lyric composer rather than a

dramatist like Peri, and the genuine beauty of his works makes them

acceptable even at the present day.

CÁCERES, a province of western Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken

from Estremadura, and bounded on the N. by Salamanca and Ávila, E. by

Toledo, S. by Badajoz, and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 362,164; area, 7667

sq. m. Cáceres is the largest of Spanish provinces, after Badajoz, and one

of the most thinly peopled, although the number of its inhabitants steadily

increases. Except for the mountainous north, where the Sierra de Gata and

the Sierra de Grédos mark respectively the boundaries of Salamanca and

Ávila, and in the south-east, where there are several lower ranges, almost

the entire surface is flat or undulating, with wide tracts of moorland and

thin pasture. There is little forest and many districts suffer from

drought. The whole province, except the extreme south, belongs to the basin

of the river Tagus, which flows from east to west through the central

districts, and is joined by several tributaries, notably the Alagon and

Tietar, from the north, and the Salor and Almonte from the south. The

climate is temperate except in summer, when hot east winds prevail. Fair

quantities of grain and olives are raised, but as a stock-breeding province

Cáceres ranks second only to Badajoz. In 1900 its flocks and herds numbered

more than 1,000,000 head. It is famed for its sheep and pigs, and exports

wool, hams and the red sausages called _embutidos_. Its mineral resources

are comparatively insignificant. The total number of mines at work in 1903

was only nine; their output consisted of phosphates, with a small amount of

zinc and tin. Brandy, leather and cork goods, and coarse woollen stuffs are

manufactured in many of the towns, but the backwardness of education, the

lack of good roads, and the general poverty retard the development of

commerce. The more northerly of the two Madrid-Lisbon railways enters the

province on the east; passes south of Plasencia, where it is joined by the

railway from Salamanca, on the north; and reaches the Portuguese frontier

at Valencia de Alcántara. This line is supplemented by a branch from Arroyo

to the city of Cáceres, and thence southwards to Mérida in Badajoz. Here it

meets the railways from Seville and Cordova. The principal towns of Cáceres

are Cáceres (pop. 1900, 16,933); Alcántara (3248), famous for its Roman

bridge; Plasencia (8208); Trujillo (12,512), and Valencia de Alcántara

(9417). These are described in separate articles. Arroyo, or Arroyo del

Puerco (7094), is an important agricultural market. (See also ESTREMADURA.)

CÁCERES, the capital of the Spanish province of Cáceres, about 20 m. S. of

the river Tagus, on the Cáceres-Mérida railway, and on a branch line which

meets the more northerly of the two Madrid-Lisbon railways at Arroyo, 10 m.

W. Pop. (1900) 16,933. Cáceres occupies a conspicuous eminence on a low

ridge running east and west. At the highest point rises the lofty tower of

San Mateo, a fine Gothic church, which overlooks the old town, with its

ancient palaces and massive walls, gateways and towers. Many of the

palaces, notably those of the provincial legislature, the dukes of

Abrantes, and the counts of la Torre, are good examples of medieval

domestic architecture. The monastery and college of the Jesuits, formerly

one of the finest in Spain, has been secularized and converted into a

hospital. In the modern town, built on lower ground beyond the walls, are

the law courts, town-hall, schools and the palace of the bishops of Cória

(pop. 3124), a town on the river Alagon. The industries of Cáceres include

the manufacture of cork and leather goods, pottery and cloth. There is also

a large trade in grain, oil, live-stock and phosphates from the

neighbouring mines. The name of _Cáceres_ is probably an adaptation of _Los

Alcázares_, from the Moorish _Alcázar_, a tower or castle; but it is

frequently connected with the neighbouring _Castra Caecilia_ and _Castra

Servilia_, two Roman camps on the Mérida-Salamanca road. The town is of

Roman origin and probably stands on the site of _Norba Caesarina_. Several

Roman inscriptions, statues and other remains have been discovered.

CACHAR, or KACHAR, a district of British India, in the province of Eastern

Bengal and Assam. It occupies the upper basin of the Surma or Barak river,

and is bounded on three sides by lofty hills. Its area is 3769 sq. m. It is

divided naturally between the plain and hills. The scenery is beautiful,

the hills rising generally steeply and being clothed with forests, while

the plain is relieved of monotony by small isolated undulations and by its

rich vegetation. The Surma is the chief river, and its principal

tributaries from the north are the Jiri and Jatinga, and from the south the

Sonai and Daleswari. The climate is extremely moist. Several extensive

fens, notably that of Chatla, which becomes lakes in time of flood, are

characteristic of the plain. This is alluvial and bears heavy crops of

rice, next to which in importance is tea. The industry connected with the

latter crop employs large numbers of the population; manufacturing

industries are otherwise slight. The Assam-Bengal railway serves the

district, including the capital town of Silchar. The population of the

district in 1901 was 455,593, and showed a large increase, owing in great

part to immigration from the adjacent district of Sylhet. The plain is the

most thickly populated part of the district; in the North Cachar Hills the

population is sparse. About 66% of the population are Hindus and 29%

Mahommedans. There are three administrative subdivisions of the district:

Silchar, Hailakandi and North Cachar. The district takes name from its

former rulers of the Kachari tribe, of whom the first to settle here did so

early in the 18th century, after being driven out of the Assam valley in

1536, and from the North Cachar Hills in 1706, by the Ahoms. About the

close of the 18th century the Burmans threatened to expel the Kachari raja

and annex his territory; the British, however, intervened to prevent this,

and on the death of the last raja without heir in 1830 they obtained the

territory under treaty. A separate principality which had been established

in the North Cachar Hills earlier in the century by a servant of the raja,

and had been subsequently recognized as such, was taken over by the British

in 1854 owing to the misconduct of its rulers. The southern part of the

district was raided several times in the 19th century by the turbulent

tribe of Lushais.

CACHOEIRA, an important inland town of Bahia, Brazil, on the Paraguassu

river, about 48 m. from São Salvador, with which it is connected by

river-boats. Pop. (1890) of the city, 12,607; of the municipality, 48,352.

The Bahia Central railway starts from this point and extends S. of W. to

Machado Portella, 161 m., and N. to Feira de Santa Anna, 28 m. Although

badly situated on the lower levels of the river (52 ft. above sea-level)

and subject to destructive floods, Cachoeira is one of the most thriving

commercial and industrial centres in the state. It exports sugar and

tobacco and is noted for its cigar and cotton factories.

CACTUS. This word, applied in the form of [Greek: Kaktos] by the ancient

Greeks to some prickly plant, was adopted by Linnaeus as the name of a

group of curious succulent or fleshy-stemmed plants, most of them prickly

and leafless, some of which produce [v.04 p.0925] beautiful flowers, and

are now so popular in our gardens that the name has become familiar. As

applied by Linnaeus, the name _Cactus_ is almost conterminous with what is

now regarded as the natural order Cactaceae, which embraces several modern

genera. It is one of the few Linnaean generic terms which have been

entirely set aside by the names adopted for the modern divisions of the

group.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Prickly Pear (_Opuntia vulgaris_). 1, Flower

reduced; 2, Same in vertical section; 3, Flattened branch much reduced; 4,

Horizontal plan of arrangement of flower.]

The _Cacti_ may be described in general terms as plants having a woody

axis, overlaid with thick masses of cellular tissue forming the fleshy

stems. These are extremely various in character and form, being globose,

cylindrical, columnar or flattened into leafy expansions or thick

joint-like divisions, the surface being either ribbed like a melon, or

developed into nipple-like protuberances, or variously angular, but in the

greater number of the species furnished copiously with tufts of horny

spines, some of which are exceedingly keen and powerful. These tufts show

the position of buds, of which, however, comparatively few are developed.

The stems are in most cases leafless, using the term in a popular sense;

the leaves, if present at all, being generally reduced to minute scales. In

one genus, however, _Peireskia_, the stems are less succulent, and the

leaves, though rather fleshy, are developed in the usual form. The flowers

are frequently large and showy, and are generally attractive from their

high colouring. In one group, represented by _Cereus_, they consist of a

tube, more or less elongated, on the outer surface of which, towards the

base, are developed small and at first inconspicuous scales, which

gradually increase in size upwards, and at length become crowded, numerous

and petaloid, forming a funnel-shaped blossom, the beauty of which is much

enhanced by the multitude of conspicuous stamens which with the pistil

occupy the centre. In another group, represented by _Opuntia_ (fig. 1), the

flowers are rotate, that is to say, the long tube is replaced by a very

short one. At the base of the tube, in both groups, the ovary becomes

developed into a fleshy (often edible) fruit, that produced by the

_Opuntia_ being known as the prickly pear or Indian fig.

The principal modern genera are grouped by the differences in the

flower-tube just explained. Those with long-tubed flowers comprise the

genera _Melocactus_, _Mammillaria_, _Echinocactus_, _Cereus_, _Pilocereus_,

_Echinopsis_, _Phyllocactus_, _Epiphyllum_, &c.; while those with

short-tubed flowers are _Rhipsalis_, _Opuntia_, _Peireskia_, and one or two

of minor importance. Cactaceae belong almost entirely to the New World; but

some of the Opuntias have been so long distributed over certain parts of

Europe, especially on the shores of the Mediterranean and the volcanic soil

of Italy, that they appear in some places to have taken possession of the

soil, and to be distinguished with difficulty from the aboriginal

vegetation. The habitats which they affect are the hot, dry regions of

tropical America, the aridity of which they are enabled to withstand in

consequence of the thickness of their skin and the paucity of evaporating

pores or stomata with which they are furnished,--these conditions not

permitting the moisture they contain to be carried off too rapidly; the

thick fleshy stems and branches contain a store of water. The succulent

fruits are not only edible but agreeable, and in fevers are freely

administered as a cooling drink. The Spanish Americans plant the Opuntias

around their houses, where they serve as impenetrable fences.

MELOCACTUS, the genus of melon-thistle or Turk's-cap cactuses, contains,

according to a recent estimate, about 90 species, which inhabit chiefly the

West Indies, Mexico and Brazil, a few extending into New Granada. The

typical species, _M. communis_, forms a succulent mass of roundish or ovate

form, from 1 ft. to 2 ft. high, the surface divided into numerous furrows

like the ribs of a melon, with projecting angles, which are set with a

regular series of stellated spines--each bundle consisting of about five

larger spines, accompanied by smaller but sharp bristles--and the tip of

the plant being surmounted by a cylindrical crown 3 to 5 in. high, composed

of reddish-brown, needle-like bristles, closely packed with cottony wool.

At the summit of this crown the small rosy-pink flowers are produced, half

protruding from the mass of wool, and these are succeeded by small red

berries. These strange plants usually grow in rocky places with little or

no earth to support them; and it is said that in times of drought the

cattle resort to them to allay their thirst, first ripping them up with

their horns and tearing off the outer skin, and then devouring the moist

succulent parts. The fruit, which has an agreeably acid flavour, is

frequently eaten in the West Indies. The _Melocacti_ are distinguished by

the distinct cephalium or crown which bears the flowers.

MAMMILLARIA.--This genus, which comprises nearly 300 species, mostly

Mexican, with a few Brazilian and West Indian, is called nipple cactus, and

consists of globular or cylindrical succulent plants, whose surface instead

of being cut up into ridges with alternate furrows, as in _Melocactus_, is

broken up into teat-like cylindrical or angular tubercles, spirally

arranged, and terminating in a radiating tuft of spines which spring from a

little woolly cushion. The flowers issue from between the mammillae,

towards the upper part of the stem, often disposed in a zone just below the

apex, and are either purple, rose-pink, white or yellow, and of moderate

size. The spines are variously coloured, white and yellow tints

predominating, and from the symmetrical arrangement of the areolae or tufts

of spines they are very pretty objects, and are hence frequently kept in

drawing-room plant cases. They grow freely in a cool greenhouse.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Echinocactus_ much reduced; the flowers are

several inches in diameter.]

ECHINOCACTUS (fig. 2) is the name given to the genus bearing the popular

name of hedgehog cactus. It comprises some 200 species, distributed from

the south-west United States to Brazil and Chile. They have the fleshy

stems characteristic of the order, these being either globose, oblong or

cylindrical, and either ribbed as in _Melocactus_, or broken up into

distinct tubercles, and most of them armed with stiff sharp pines, set in

little woolly cushions occupying the place of the buds. The flowers,

produced near the apex of the plant, are generally large and showy, yellow

and rose being the prevailing colours. They are succeeded by succulent

fruits, which are exserted, and frequently scaly or spiny, in which

respects this genus differs both from _Melocactus_ and _Mamrmllaria_, which

have the fruits immersed and smooth. One of the most interesting species is

the _E. ingens_, of which some very large plants have been from time to

time imported. These large plants have from 40 to 50 ridges, on which the

buds and clusters of spines are sunk at intervals, the aggregate number of

the spines having been in some cases computed at upwards of 50,000 on a

single plant. These spines are used by the Mexicans as toothpicks. The

plants are slow growers and must have plenty of sun heat; they require

sandy loam with a mixture of sand and bricks finely broken and must be kept

dry in winter.

CEREUS.--This group bears the common name of torch thistle. It comprises

about 100 species, largely Mexican but scattered through South America and

the West Indies. The stems are columnar or elongated, some of the latter

creeping on the ground or climbing up the trunks of trees, rooting as they

grow. _C. giganteus_, the largest and most striking species of the genus,

is a native of hot, arid, desert regions of New Mexico, growing there in

rocky valleys and on mountain sides, where the tall stems with their erect

branches have the appearance of telegraph poles. The stems grow to a height

of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., and have a diameter of from 1 ft. to 2 ft., often

unbranched, but sometimes furnished with branches [v.04 p.0926] which grow

out at right angles from the main stem, and then curve upwards and continue

their growth parallel to it; these stems have from twelve to twenty ribs,

on which at intervals of about an inch are the buds with their thick yellow

cushions, from which issue five or six large and numerous smaller spines.

The fruits of this plant, which are green oval bodies from 2 to 3 in. long,

contain a crimson pulp from which the Pimos and Papagos Indians prepare an

excellent preserve; and they also use the ripe fruit as an article of food,

gathering it by means of a forked stick attached to a long pole. The

Cereuses include some of our most interesting and beautiful hothouse

plants. In the allied genus _Echinocereus_, with 25 to 30 species in North

and South America, the stems are short, branched or simple, divided into

few or many ridges all armed with sharp, formidable spines. _E. pectinatus

_produces a purplish fruit resembling a gooseberry, which is very good

eating; and the fleshy part of the stem itself, which is called _cabeza del

viego_ by the Mexicans, is eaten by them as a vegetable after removing the

spines.

PILOCEREUS, the old man cactus, forms a small genus with tallish erect,

fleshy, angulate stems, on which, with the tufts of spines, are developed

hair-like bodies, which, though rather coarse, bear some resemblance to the

hoary locks of an old man. The plants are nearly allied to _Cereus_,

differing chiefly in the floriferous portion developing these longer and

more attenuated hair-like spines, which surround the base of the flowers

and form a dense woolly head or cephalium. The most familiar species is _P.

senilis_, a Mexican plant, which though seldom seen more than a foot or two

in height in greenhouses, reaches from 20 ft. to 30 ft. in its native

country.

ECHINOPSIS is another small group of species, separated by some authors

from _Cereus_. They are dwarf, ribbed, globose or cylindrical plants; and

the flowers, which are produced from the side instead of the apex of the

stem, are large, and in some cases very beautiful, being remarkable for the

length of the tube, which is more or less covered with bristly hairs. They

are natives of Brazil, Bolivia and Chile.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Branch of _Phyllocactus_ much reduced; the flowers

are 6 in. or more in diameter.]

PHYLLOCACTUS (fig. 3), the Leaf Cactus family, consists of about a dozen

species, found in Central and tropical South America. They differ from all

the forms already noticed in being shrubby and epiphytal in habit, and in

having the branches compressed and dilated so as to resemble thick fleshy

leaves, with a strong median axis and rounded woody base. The margins of

these leaf-like branches are more or less crenately notched, the notches

representing buds, as do the spine-clusters in the spiny genera; and from

these crenatures the large showy flowers are produced. As garden plants the

_Phyllocacti_ are amongst the most ornamental of the whole family, being of

easy culture, free blooming and remarkably showy, the colour of the flowers

ranging from rich crimson, through rose-pink to creamy white. Cuttings

strike readily in spring before growth has commenced; they should be potted

in 3-in. or 4-in. pots, well drained, in loamy soil made very porous by the

admixture of finely broken crocks and sand, and placed in a temperature of

60°; when these pots are filled with roots they are to be shifted into

larger ones, but overpotting must be avoided. During the summer they need

considerable heat, all the light possible and plenty of air; in winter a

temperature of 45° or 50° will be sufficient, and they must be kept

tolerably dry at the root. By the spring they may have larger pots if

required and should be kept in a hot and fairly moistened atmosphere; and

by the end of June, when they have made new growth, they may be turned out

under a south wall in the full sun, water being given only as required. In

autumn they are to be returned to a cool house and wintered in a dry stove.

The turning of them outdoors to ripen their growth is the surest way to

obtain flowers, but they do not take on a free blooming habit until they

have attained some age. They are often called _Epiphyllum_, which name is,

however, properly restricted to the group next to be mentioned.

EPIPHYLLUM.--This name is now restricted to two or three dwarf branching

Brazilian epiphytal plants of extreme beauty, which agree with

_Phyllocactus_ in having the branches dilated into the form of fleshy

leaves, but differ in haying them divided into short truncate leaf-like

portions, which are articulated, that is to say, provided with a joint by

which they separate spontaneously; the margins are crenate or dentate, and

the flowers, which are large and showy, magenta or crimson, appear at the

apex of the terminal joints. In _E. truncatum_ the flowers have a very

different aspect from that of other _Cacti_, from the mouth of the tube

being oblique and the segments all reflexed at the tip. The short separate

pieces of which these plants are made up grow out of each other, so that

the branches may be said to resemble leaves joined together endwise.

RHIPSALIS, a genus of about 50 tropical species, mainly in Central and

South America, but a few in tropical Africa and Madagascar. It is a very

heterogeneous group, being fleshy-stemmed with a woody axis, the branches

being angular, winged, flattened or cylindrical, and the flowers small,

short-tubed, succeeded by small, round, pea-shaped berries. _Rhipsalis

Cassytha_, when seen laden with its white berries, bears some resemblance

to a branch of mistletoe. All the species are epiphytal in habit.

OPUNTIA, the prickly pear, or Indian fig cactus, is a large typical group,

comprising some 150 species, found in North America, the West Indies, and

warmer parts of South America, extending as far as Chile. In aspect they

are very distinct from any of the other groups. They are fleshy shrubs,

with rounded, woody stems, and numerous succulent branches, composed in

most of the species of separate joints or parts, which are much compressed,

often elliptic or suborbicular, dotted over in spiral lines with small,

fleshy, caducous leaves, in the axils of which are placed the areoles or

tufts of barbed or hooked spines of two forms. The flowers are mostly

yellow or reddish-yellow, and are succeeded by pear-shaped or egg-shaped

fruits, having a broad scar at the top, furnished on their soft, fleshy

rind with tufts of small spines. The sweet, juicy fruits of _O. vulgaris_

and _O. Tuna_ are much eaten under the name of prickly pears, and are

greatly esteemed for their cooling properties. Both these species are

extensively cultivated for their fruit in Southern Europe, the Canaries and

northern Africa; and the fruits are not unfrequently to be seen in Covent

Garden Market and in the shops of the leading fruiterers of the metropolis.

_O. vulgaris_ is hardy in the south of England.

The cochineal insect is nurtured on a species of _Opuntia_ (_O.

coccinellifera_), separated by some authors under the name of _Nopalea_,

and sometimes also on _O. Tuna_. Plantations of the nopal and the tuna,

which are called nopaleries, are established for the purpose of rearing

this insect, the _Coccus Cacti_, and these often contain as many as 50,000

plants. The females are placed on the plants about August, and in four

months the first crop of cochineal is gathered, two more being produced in

the course of the year. The native country of the insect is Mexico, and it

is there more or less cultivated; but the greater part of our supply comes

from Colombia and the Canary Islands.

PEIRESKIA ACULEATA, or Barbadoes gooseberry, the _Cactus peireskia_ of

Linnaeus, differs from the rest in having woody stems and leaf-bearing

branches, the leaves being somewhat fleshy, but otherwise of the ordinary

laminate character. The flowers are subpaniculate, white or yellowish. This

species is frequently used as a stock on which to graft other _Cacti_.

There are about a dozen species known of this genus, mainly Mexican.

CADALSO VAZQUEZ, JOSÉ (1741-1782), Spanish author, was born at Cadiz on the

8th of October 1741. Before completing his twentieth year he had travelled

through Italy, Germany, England, France and Portugal, and had studied the

literatures of these countries. On his return to Spain he entered the army

and rose to the rank of colonel. He was killed at the siege of Gibraltar,

on the 27th of February 1782. His first published work was a rhymed

tragedy, _Don Sancho Garcia, Conde de Castilla_ (1771). In the following

year he published his _Eruditos á la Violeta_, a prose satire on

superficial knowledge, which was very successful. In 1773 appeared a volume

of miscellaneous poems, _Ocios de mi juventud_, and after his death there

was found among his MSS. a series of fictitious letters in the style of the

_Lettres Persanes_; these were issued in 1793 under the title of _Cartas

marruecas_. A good edition of his works appeared at Madrid, in 3 vols.,

1823. This is supplemented by the _Obras inéditas_ (Paris, 1894) published

by R. Foulché-Delbosc.

[v.04 p.0927] CADAMOSTO (or CA DA MOSTO), ALVISE (1432-1477), a Venetian

explorer, navigator and writer, celebrated for his voyages in the

Portuguese service to West Africa. In 1454 he sailed from Venice for

Flanders, and, being detained by contrary winds off Cape St Vincent, was

enlisted by Prince Henry the Navigator among his explorers, and given

command of an expedition which sailed (22nd of March 1455) for the south.

Visiting the Madeira group and the Canary Islands (of both which he gives

an elaborate account, especially concerned with European colonization and

native customs), and coasting the West Sahara (whose tribes, trade and

trade-routes he likewise describes in detail), he arrived at the Senegal,

whose lower course had already, as he tells us, been explored by the

Portuguese 60 m. up. The negro lands and tribes south of the Senegal, and

especially the country and people of Budomel, a friendly chief reigning

about 50 m. beyond the river, are next treated with equal wealth of

interesting detail, and Cadamosto thence proceeded towards the Gambia,

which he ascended some distance (here also examining races, manners and

customs with minute attention), but found the natives extremely hostile,

and so returned direct to Portugal. Cadamosto expressly refers to the chart

he kept of this voyage. At the mouth of the Gambia he records an

observation of the "Southern Chariot" (Southern Cross). Next year (1456) he

went out again under the patronage of Prince Henry. Doubling Cape Blanco he

was driven out to sea by contrary winds, and thus made the first known

discovery of the Cape Verde Islands. Having explored Boavista and Santiago,

and found them uninhabited, he returned to the African mainland, and pushed

on to the Gambia, Rio Grande and Geba. Returning thence to Portugal, he

seems to have remained there till 1463, when he reappeared at Venice. He

died in 1477.

Besides the accounts of his two voyages, Cadamosto left a narrative of

Pedro de Cintra's explorations in 1461 (or 1462) to Sierre Leone and beyond

Cape Mesurado to El Mina and the Gold Coast; all these relations first

appeared in the 1507 Vicenza Collection of Voyages and Travels (the _Paesi

novamente retrovati et novo mondo da Alberico Vesputio Florentino_); they

have frequently since been reprinted and translated (_e.g._ Ital. text in

1508, 1512, 1519, 1521, 1550 (Ramusio), &c.; Lat. version, _Itinerarium

Portugallensium_, &c.,1508, 1532 (Grynaeus), &c.; Fr. _Sensuyt le nouveau

monde_, &c., 1516, 1521; German, _Newe unbekante Landte_, &c., 1508). See

also C. Schefer, _Relation des voyages ... de Ca' da Mosto_ (1895); R.H.

Major, _Henry the Navigator_ (1868), pp. 246-287; C.R. Beazley, _Henry the

Navigator_ (1895), pp. 261-288; Yule Oldham, _Discovery of the Cape Verde

Islands_ (1892), esp. pp. 4-15.

It may be noted that Antonio Uso di Mare (Antoniotto Ususmaris), the

Genoese, wrote his famous letter of the 12th of December 1455 (purporting

to record a meeting with the last surviving descendant of the

Genoese-Indian expedition of 1291, at or near the Gambia), after

accompanying Cadamosto to West Africa; see Beazley, _Dawn of Modern

Geography_ (1892), iii. 416-418.

CADASTRE (a French word from the Late Lat. _capitastrum_, a register of the

poll-tax), a register of the real property of a country, with details of

the area, the owners and the value. A "cadastral survey" is properly,

therefore, one which gives such information as the Domesday Book, but the

term is sometimes used loosely of the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom

(1=2500), which is on sufficiently large a scale to give the area of every

field or piece of ground.

CADDIS-FLY and CADDIS-WORM, the name given to insects with a superficial

resemblance to moths, sometimes referred to the Neuroptera, sometimes to a

special order, the Trichoptera, in allusion to the hairy clothing of the

body and wings. Apart from this feature the Trichoptera also differ from

the typical Neuroptera in the relatively simple, mostly longitudinal

neuration of the wings, the absence or obsolescence of the mandibles and

the semi-haustellate nature of the rest of the mouth-parts. Although

caddis-flies are sometimes referred to several families, the differences

between the groups are of no great importance. Hence the insects may more

conveniently be regarded as constituting the single family _Phryganeidae_.

The larvae known as caddis-worms are aquatic. The mature females lay their

eggs in the water, and the newly-hatched larvae provide themselves with

cases made of various particles such as grains of sand, pieces of wood or

leaves stuck together with silk secreted from the salivary glands of the

insect. These cases differ greatly in structure and shape. Those of

_Phyrganea_ consist of bits of twigs or leaves cut to a suitable length and

laid side by side in a long spirally-coiled band, forming the wall of a

subcylindrical cavity. The cavity of the tube of _Helicopsyche_, composed

of grains of sand, is itself spirally coiled, so that the case exactly

resembles a small snail-shell in shape. One species of _Limnophilus_ uses

small but entire leaves; another, the shells of the pond-snail _Planorbis_;

another, pieces of stick arranged transversely with reference to the long

axis of the tube. To admit of the free inflow and outflow of currents of

water necessary for respiration, which is effected by means of filamentous

abdominal tracheal gills, the two ends of the tube are open. Sometimes the

cases are fixed, but more often portable. In the latter case the larva

crawls about the bottom of the water or up the stems of plants, with its

thickly-chitinized head and legs protruding from the larger orifice, while

it maintains a secure hold of the silk lining of the tube by means of a

pair of strong hooks at the posterior end of its soft defenceless abdomen.

Their food appears for the most part to be of a vegetable nature. Some

species, however, are alleged to be carnivorous, and a North American form

of the genus _Hydropsyche_ is said to spin around the mouth of its burrow a

silken net for the capture of small animal organisms living in the water.

Before passing into the pupal stage, the larva partially closes the orifice

of the tube with silk or pieces of stone loosely spun together and pervious

to water. Through this temporary protection the active pupa, which closely

resembles the mature insect, subsequently bites a way by means of its

strong mandibles, and rising to the surface of the water casts the pupal

integument and becomes sexually adult.

The above sketch may be regarded as descriptive of the life-history of a

great majority of species of caddis-flies. It is only necessary here to

mention one anomalous form, _Enoicyla pusilla_, in which the mature female

is wingless and the larva is terrestrial, living in moss or decayed leaves.

Caddis-flies are universally distributed. Geologically they are known to

date back to the Oligocene period, and wings believed to be referable to

them have been found in Liassic and Jurassic beds.

(R. I. P.)

CADDO, a confederacy of North American Indian tribes which gave its name to

the Caddoan stock, represented in the south by the Caddos, Wichita and

Kichai, and in the north by the Pawnee and Arikara tribes. The Caddos, now

reduced to some 500, settled in western Oklahoma, formerly ranged over the

Red River (Louisiana) country, in what is now Arkansas, northern Texas and

Oklahoma. The native name of the confederacy is Hasinai, corrupted by the

French into Asinais and Cenis. The Caddoan tribes were mostly agricultural

and sedentary, and to-day they are distinguished by their industry and

intelligence.

See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).

CADE, JOHN (d. 1450), commonly called JACK CADE, English rebel and leader

of the rising of 1450, was probably an Irishman by birth, but the details

of his early life are very scanty. He seems to have resided for a time in

Sussex, to have fled from the country after committing a murder, and to

have served in the French wars. Returning to England, he settled in Kent

under the name of Aylmer and married a lady of good position. When the men

of Kent rose in rebellion in May 1450, they were led by a man who took the

name of Mortimer, and who has generally been regarded as identical with

Cade. Mr James Gairdner, however, considers it probable that Cade did not

take command of the rebels until after the skirmish at Sevenoaks on the

18th of June. At all events, it was Cade who led the insurgents from

Blackheath to Southwark, and under him they made their way into London on

the 3rd of July. A part of the populace was doubtless favourable to the

rebels, but the opposing party gained strength when Cade and his men began

to plunder. Having secured the execution of James Fiennes, Baron Say and

Sele, and of William Crowmer, sheriff of Kent, Cade and his followers

retired to Southwark, and on the 5th of July, after a fierce struggle on

London Bridge, the citizens prevented them from re-entering the city. Cade

then met the chancellor, John [v.04 p.0928] Kemp, archbishop of York, and

William of Wayneflete, bishop of Winchester, and terms of peace were

arranged. Pardons were drawn up, that for the leaders being in the name of

Mortimer. Cade, however, retained some of his men, and at this time, or a

day or two earlier, broke open the prisons in Southwark and released the

prisoners, many of whom joined his band. Having collected some booty, he

went to Rochester, made a futile attempt to capture Queenborough castle,

and then quarrelled with his followers over some plunder. On the 10th of

July a proclamation was issued against him in the name of Cade, and a

reward was offered for his apprehension. Escaping into Sussex he was

captured at Heathfield on the 12th. During the scuffle he had been severely

wounded, and on the day of his capture he died in the cart which was

conveying him to London. The body was afterwards beheaded and quartered,

and in 1451 Cade was attainted.

See Robert Fabyan, _The New Chronicles of England and France_, edited by H.

Ellis (London, 1811); William of Worcester, _Annales rerum Anglicarum_,

edited by J. Stevenson, (London, 1864); _An English Chronicle of the Reigns

of Richard II., Henry IV., Henry V. and Henry VI._, edited by J.S. Davies

(London, 1856); _Historical Collections of a Citizen of London_, edited by

J. Gairdner (London, 1876); _Three Fifteenth Century Chronicles_, edited by

J. Gairdner (London, 1880); J. Gairdner, Introduction to the _Paston

Letters_ (London, 1904); G. Kriehn, _The English Rising of 1450_

(Strassburg, 1892.)

CADENABBIA, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Como, about 15

m. N.N.E. by steamer from the town of Como. It is situated on the W. shore

of the lake of Como, and owing to the great beauty of the scenery and of

the vegetation, and its sheltered situation, is a favourite spring and

autumn resort. The most famous of its villas is the Villa Carlotta, now the

property of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen, which contains marble reliefs by

Thorwaldsen, representing the triumph of Alexander, and statues by Canova.

CADENCE (through the Fr. from the Lat. _cadentia_, from _cadere_, to fall),

a falling or sinking, especially as applied to rhythmical or musical

sounds, as in the "fall" of the voice in speaking, the rhythm or measure of

verses, song or dance. In music, the word is used of the closing chords of

a musical phrase, which succeed one another in such a way as to produce,

first an expectation or suspense, and then an impression of finality,

indicating also the key strongly. "Cadenza," the Italian form of the same

word, is used of a free flourish in a vocal or instrumental composition,

introduced immediately before the close of a movement or at the end of the

piece. The object is to display the performer's technique, or to prevent

too abrupt a contrast between two movements. Cadenzas are usually left to

the improvisation of the performer, but are sometimes written in full by

the composer, or by some famous executant, as in the cadenza in Brahms's

_Violin Concerto_, written by Joseph Joachim.

CADER IDRIS ("the Seat of Idris"), the second most imposing mountain in

North Wales, standing in Merionethshire to the S. of Dolgelly, between the

broad estuaries of the Mawddach and the Dovey. It is so called in memory of

Idris Gawr, celebrated in the Triads as one of the three "Gwyn

Serenyddion," or "Happy Astronomers," of Wales, who is traditionally

supposed to have made his observations on this peak. Its loftiest point,

known as Pen-y-gader, rises to the height of 2914 ft., and in clear weather

commands a magnificent panorama of immense extent. The mountain is

everywhere steep and rocky, especially on its southern side, which falls

abruptly towards the Lake of Tal-y-llyn. Mention of Cader Idris and its

legends is frequent in Welsh literature, old and modern.

CADET (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. _capitettum_, a diminutive of

_caput_, head, through the Provençal form _capdet_), the head of an

inferior branch of a family, a younger son; particularly a military term

for an accepted candidate for a commission in the army or navy, who is

undergoing training to become an officer. This latter use of the term arose

in France, where it was applied to the younger sons of the _noblesse_ who

gained commissioned rank, not by serving in the ranks or by entering the

_écoles militaires_, but by becoming attached to corps without pay but with

certain privileges. "Cadet Corps," in the British service, are bodies of

boys or youths organized, armed and trained on volunteer military lines.

Derived from "cadet," through the Scots form "cadee," comes "caddie," a

messenger-boy, and particularly one who carries clubs at golf, and also the

slang word "cad," a vulgar, ill-bred person.

CADGER (a word of obscure origin possibly connected with "catch"), a hawker

or pedlar, a carrier of farm produce to market. The word in this sense has

fallen into disuse, and now is used for a beggar or loafer, one who gets

his living in more or less questionable ways.

CADI (_q[=a][d.][=i]_), a judge in a _ma[h.]kama_ or Mahommedan

ecclesiastical court, in which decisions are rendered on the basis of the

canon law of Islam (_shar[=i] `a_). It is a general duty, according to

canon law, upon a Moslem community to judge legal disputes on this basis,

and it is an individual duty upon the ruler of the community to appoint a

cadi to act for the community. According to Sh[=a]fi`ite law, such a cadi

must be a male, free, adult Moslem, intelligent, of unassailed character,

able to see, hear and write, learned in the Koran, the traditions, the

Agreement, the differences of the legal schools, acquainted with Arabic

grammar and the exegesis of the Koran. He must not sit in a mosque, except

under necessity, but in some open, accessible place. He must maintain a

strictly impartial attitude of body and mind, accept no presents from the

people of his district, and render judgment only when he is in a normal

condition mentally and physically. He may not engage in any business. He

shall ride to the place where he holds court, greeting the people on both

sides. He shall visit the sick and those returned from a journey, and

attend funerals. On some of these points the codes differ, and the whole is

to be regarded as the ideal qualification, built up theoretically by the

canonists.