BUNCOMBE, or BUNKUM (from Buncombe county, North Carolina, United States),

a term used for insincere political action or speaking to gain support or

the favour of a constituency, and so any humbug or clap-trap. The phrase

"to talk for (or to) Buncombe" arose in 1820, during the debate on the

Missouri Compromise in Congress; the member for the district containing

Buncombe county confessed that his long and much interrupted speech was

only made because his electors expected it, and that he was "speaking for

Buncombe."

BUNCRANA, a market-town and watering-place of Co. Donegal, Ireland, in the

north parliamentary division on the east shore of Lough Swilly, on the

Londonderry & Lough Swilly & Letterkenny railway. Pop. (1901) 1316. There

is a trade in agricultural produce, a salmon fishery, sea fisheries and a

manufacture of linen. The town is beautifully situated, being flanked on

the east and south by hills exceeding 1000 ft. The picturesque square keep

of an ancient castle remains, but the present Buncrana Castle is a

residence erected in 1717. The golf-links are well known.

BUNDABERG, a municipal town and river port of Cook county, Queensland,

Australia, 10 m. from the mouth of the river Burnett, and 217 m. by rail N.

by W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 5200. It lies on both sides of the river,

and connexion between the two ports is maintained by road and railway

bridges. There are saw-mills, breweries, brickfields and distilleries in

the town, and numerous sugar factories in the vicinity, notably at

Millaquin, on the river below the town. There are wharves on both sides of

the river, and the staple exports are sugar, golden-syrup and timber. The

climate is remarkably healthy.

BUNDELKHAND, a tract of country in Central India, lying between the United

and the Central Provinces. Historically it includes the five British

districts of Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur and Banda, which now form

part of the Allahabad division of the United Provinces, but politically it

is restricted to a collection of native states, under the Bundelkhand

agency. There are 9 states, 13 estates and the pargana of Alampur belonging

to Indore state, with a total area of 9851 sq. m. and a total population

(1901) of 1,308,326, showing a decrease of 13% in the decade, due to the

effects of famine. The most important of the states are Orchha, Panna,

Samthar, Charkhari, Chhatarpur, Datia, Bijawar and Ajaigarh. A branch of

the Great Indian Peninsula railway traverses the north of the country. A

garrison of all arms is stationed at Nowgong.

The surface of the country is uneven and hilly, except in the north-east

part, which forms an irregular plain cut up by ravines scooped out by

torrents during the periodical rains. The plains of Bundelkhand are

intersected by three mountain ranges, the Bindhachal, Panna and Bander

chains, the highest elevation not exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level.

Beyond these ranges the country is further diversified by isolated hills

rising abruptly from a common level, and presenting from their steep and

nearly inaccessible scarps eligible sites for castles and strongholds,

whence the mountaineers of Bundelkhand have frequently set at defiance the

most powerful of the native states of India. The general slope of the

country is towards the north-east, as indicated by the course of the rivers

which traverse or bound the territory, and finally discharge themselves

into the Jumna.

The principal rivers are the Sind, Betwa, Ken, Baighin, Paisuni, Tons,

Pahuj, Dhasan, Berma, Urmal and Chandrawal. The Sind, rising near Sironj in

Malwa, marks the frontier line of Bundelkhand on the side of Gwalior.

Parallel to this river, but more to the eastward, is the course of the

Betwa. Still farther to the east flows the Ken, followed in succession by

the Baighin, Paisuni and Tons. The Jumna and the Ken are the only two

navigable rivers. Notwithstanding the large number of streams, the

depression of their channels and height of their banks render them for the

most part unsuitable for the purposes of irrigation,--which is conducted by

means of _jhils_ and tanks. These artificial lakes are usually formed by

throwing embankments across the lower extremities of valleys, and thus

arresting and accumulating the waters flowing through them. Some of the

tanks are of great capacity; the Barwa Sagar, for instance, is 2½ m. in

diameter. Diamonds are found, particularly near the town of Panna, in a

range of hills called by the natives Band-Ahil.

The mines of Maharajpur, Rajpur, Kimera and Gadasia have been famous for

magnificent diamonds; and a very large one dug from the last was kept in

the fort of Kalinjar among the treasures of Raja Himmat Bahadur. In the

reign of the emperor Akbar the mines of Panna produced diamonds to the

amount of £100,000 annually, and were a considerable source of revenue, but

for many years they have not been so profitable.

The tree vegetation consists rather of jungle or copse than forest,

abounding in game which is preserved by the native chiefs. There are also

within these coverts several varieties of wild animals, such as the tiger,

leopard, hyena, wild boar, _nilgái_ and jackal.

The people represent various races. The Bundelas--the race who gave the

name to the country--still maintain their dignity as chieftains, by

disdaining to cultivate the soil, although by no means conspicuous for

lofty sentiments of honour or morality. An Indian proverb avers that "one

native of Bundelkhand commits as much fraud as a hundred Dandis" (weighers

of grain and notorious rogues). About Datia and Jhansi the inhabitants are

a stout and handsome race of men, well off and contented. The prevailing

religion in Bundelkhand is Hinduism.

The earliest dynasty recorded to have ruled in Bundelkhand were the

Garhwas, who were succeeded by the Parihars; but nothing is known of

either. About A.D. 800 the Parihars are said to have been ousted by the

Chandels, and Dangha Varma, chief of the Chandel Rajputs, appears to have

established the earliest paramount power in Bundelkhand towards the close

of the 10th century A.D. Under his dynasty the country attained its

greatest splendour in the early part of the 11th century, when its raja,

whose dominions extended from the Jumna to the Nerbudda, marched at the

head of 36,000 horse and 45,000 foot, with 640 elephants, to oppose the

invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni. In 1182 the Chandel dynasty was overthrown by

Prithwi Raj, the ruler of Ajmer and Delhi, after which the country remained

in ruinous anarchy until the close of the 14th century, when the Bundelas,

a spurious offshoot of the Garhwa tribe of Rajputs, established themselves

on the right bank of the Jumna. One of these took possession of Orchha by

treacherously poisoning its chief. His successor succeeded in further

aggrandizing the Bundela state, but he is represented to have been a

notorious plunderer, and his character is further stained by the

assassination of the celebrated Abul Fazl, the prime minister and historian

of Akbar. Jajhar Singh, the third Bundela chief, unsuccessfully revolted

against the court of Delhi, and his country became incorporated for a short

time with the empire. The struggles of the Bundelas for independence

resulted in the withdrawal of the royal troops, and the admission of

several petty states as feudatories of the empire on condition of military

service. The Bundelas, under Champat Rai and his son. Chhatar Sal, offered

a successful resistance to the proselytizing efforts of Aurangzeb. On the

occasion of a Mahommedan invasion in 1732, Chhatar Sal asked and obtained

the assistance of the Mahratta Peshwa, whom he adopted as his son, giving

him a third of his dominions. The Mahrattas gradually extended their

influence over Bundelkhand, [v.04 p.0798] and in 1792 the peshwa was

acknowledged as the lord paramount of the country. The Mahratta power was,

however, on the decline; the flight of the peshwa from his capital to

Bassein before the British arms changed the aspect of affairs, and by the

treaty concluded between the peshwa and the British government, the

districts of Banda and Hamirpur were transferred to the latter. Two chiefs

then held the ceded districts, Himmat Bahadur, the leader of the Sanyasis,

who promoted the views of the British, and Shamsher, who made common cause

with the Mahrattas. In September 1803, the united forces of the English and

Himmat Bahadur compelled Shamsher to retreat with his army. In 1809

Ajaigarh was besieged by a British force, and again three years later

Kalinjar was besieged and taken after a heavy loss. In 1817, by the treaty

of Poona, the British government acquired from the peshwa all his rights,

interests and pretensions, feudal, territorial or pecuniary, in

Bundelkhand. In carrying out the provisions of the treaty, an assurance was

given by the British government that the rights of those interested in the

transfer should be scrupulously respected, and the host of petty native

principalities in the province is the best proof of the sincerity and good

faith with which this clause has been carried out. During the mutiny of

1857, however, many of the chiefs rose against the British, the rani of

Jhansi being a notable example.

BUNDI, or BOONDEE, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, lying

on the north-east of the river Chambal, in a hilly tract historically known

as Haraoti, from the Hara sept of the great clan of Chauhan Rajputs, to

which the maharao raja of Bundi belongs. It has an area of 2220 sq. m. Many

parts of the state are wild and hilly, inhabited by a large Mina

population, formerly notorious as a race of robbers. Two rivers, the

Chambia and the Mej, water the state; the former is navigable by boats. In

1901 the population was 171,227, showing a decrease of 42% due to the

effects of famine. The estimated revenue is £46,000, the tribute £8000.

There is no railway, but the metalled road from Kotah to the British

cantonment of Deoli passes through the state. The town of Bundi had a

population in 1901 of 19,313. A school for the education of boys of high

rank was opened in 1897.

The state of Bundi was founded about A.D. 1342 by the Hara chief Rao Dewa,

or Deoraj, who captured the town from the Minas. Its importance, however,

dates from the time of Rao Surjan, who succeeded to the chieftainship in

1554 and by throwing in his lot with the Mahommedan emperors of Delhi

(1569) received a considerable accession of territory. From this time the

rulers of Bundi bore the title of rao raja. In the 17th century their power

was curtailed by the division of Haraoti into the two states of Kotah and

Bundi; but they continued to play a prominent part in Indian history, and

the title of maharao raja was conferred on Budh Singh for the part played

by him in securing the imperial throne for Bahadur Shah I. after the death

of Aurangzeb in 1707. In 1804 the maharao raja Bishan Singh gave valuable

assistance to Colonel Monson in his disastrous retreat before Holkar, in

revenge for which the Mahratas and Pindaris continually ravaged his state

up to 1817. On the 10th of February 1818, by a treaty concluded with Bishan

Singh, Bundi was taken under British protection. In 1821 Bishan Singh was

succeeded by his son Ram Singh, who ruled till 1889. He is described as a

grand specimen of the Rajput gentleman, and "the most conservative prince

in conservative Rajputana." His rule was popular and beneficent; and though

during the mutiny of 1857 his attitude was equivocal, he continued to enjoy

the favour of the British government, being created G.C.S.I. and a

counsellor of the empire in 1877 and C.I.E. in 1878. He was succeeded by

his son Raghubir Singh, who was made a K.C.S.I. in 1897 and a G.C.I.E. in

1901.

BUNER, a valley on the Peshawar border of the North-West Frontier Province

of India. It is a small mountain valley, dotted with villages and divided

into seven sub-divisions. The Mora Hills and the Ilam range divide it from

Swat, the Sinawar range from Yusafzai, the Guru mountains from the Chamla

valley, and the Duma range from the Puran Valley. It is inhabited by the

Iliaszai and Malizai divisions of the Pathan tribe of Yusafzais, who are

called after their country the Bunerwals. There is no finer race on the

north-west frontier of India than the Bunerwals. Simple and austere in

their habits, religious and truthful in their ways, hospitable to all who

seek shelter amongst them, free from secret assassinations, they are bright

examples of the Pathan character at its best. They are a powerful and

warlike tribe, numbering 8000 fighting men. The Umbeyla Expedition of 1863

under Sir Neville Chamberlain was occasioned by the Bunerwals siding with

the Hindostani Fanatics, who had settled down at Malka in their territory.

In the end the Bunerwals were subdued by a force of 9000 British troops,

and Malka was destroyed, but they made so fierce a resistance, in

particular in their attack upon the "Crag" picket, that the Indian medal

with a clasp for "Umbeyla" was granted in 1869 to the survivors of the

expedition. The government of India refrained from interfering with the

tribe again until the Buner campaign of 1897 under Sir Bindon Blood. Many

Bunerwals took part in the attack of the Swatis on the Malakand fort, and a

force of 3000 British troops was sent to punish them; but the tribe made

only a feeble resistance at the passes into their country, and speedily

handed in the arms demanded of them and made complete submission.

BUNGALOW (an Anglo-Indian word from the Hindustani _bangl[=a]_, belonging

to Bengal), a one-storeyed house with a verandah and a projecting roof, the

typical dwelling for Europeans in India; the name is also used for similar

buildings which have become common for seaside and summer residences in

America and Great Britain. Dak or dawk bungalows (from _dak_ or _dawk_, a

post, a relay of men for carrying the mails, &c.) are the government

rest-houses established at intervals for the use of travellers on the high

roads of India.

BUNGAY, a market-town in the Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk,

England; 113 m. N.E. from London on a branch from Beccles of the Great

Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 3314. It is picturesquely placed in a deep

bend of the river Waveney, the boundary with Norfolk. Of the two parish

churches that of St Mary has a fine Perpendicular tower, and that of Holy

Trinity a round tower of which the lower part is Norman. St Mary's was

attached to a Benedictine nunnery founded in 1160. The ruins of the castle

date from 1281. They are fragmentary though massive; and there are traces

of earth-works of much earlier date. The castle was a stronghold of the

powerful family of Bigod, being granted to Roger Bigod, a Norman follower

of the Conqueror, in 1075. A grammar school was founded in 1592. There are

large printing-works, and founding and malting are prosecuted. There is a

considerable carrying trade on the Waveney.

BUNION (a word usually derived from the Ital. _bugnone_, a swelling, but,

according to the _New English Dictionary_, the late and rare literary use

of the word makes an Italian derivation unlikely; there is an O. Eng. word

"bunny," also meaning a swelling, and an O. Fr. _buigne_, modern _bigne_,

showing a probable common origin now lost, cf. also "bunch"), an inflamed

swelling of the _bursa mucosa_, the sac containing synovial fluid on the

metatarsal joint of the big toe, or, more rarely, of the little toe. This

may be accompanied by corns or suppuration, leading to an ulcer or even

gangrene. The cause is usually pressure; removal of this, and general

palliative treatment by dressings, &c. are usually effective, but in severe

and obstinate cases a surgical operation may be necessary.

BUNKER HILL, the name of a small hill in Charlestown (Boston),

Massachusetts, U.S.A., famous as the scene of the first considerable

engagement in the American War of Independence (June 17, 1775). Bunker Hill

(110 ft.) was connected by a ridge with Breed's Hill (75 ft.), both being

on a narrow peninsula a short distance to the north of Boston, joined by a

causeway with the mainland. Since the affair of Lexington (April 19, 1775)

General Gage, who commanded the British forces, had remained inactive at

Boston awaiting reinforcements from England; the headquarters of the

Americans were at Cambridge, with advanced posts occupying much of the 4 m.

separating [v.04 p.0799] Cambridge from Bunker Hill. When Gage received his

reinforcements at the end of May, he determined to repair his strange

neglect by which the hills on the peninsula had been allowed to remain

unoccupied and unfortified. As soon as the Americans became aware of Gage's

intention they determined to frustrate it, and accordingly, on the night of

the 16th of June, a force of about 1200 men, under Colonel William Prescott

and Major-General Israel Putnam, with some engineers and a few field-guns,

occupied Breed's Hill--to which the name Bunker Hill is itself now

popularly applied--and when daylight disclosed their presence to the

British they had already strongly entrenched their position. Gage lost no

time in sending troops across from Boston with orders to assault. The

British force, between 2000 and 3000 strong, under (Sir) William Howe,

supported by artillery and by the guns of men-of-war and floating batteries

stationed in the anchorage on either side of the peninsula, were fresh and

well disciplined. The American force consisted for the most part of

inexperienced volunteers, numbers of whom were already wearied by the

trench work of the night. As communication was kept up with their camp the

numbers engaged on the hill fluctuated during the day, but at no time

exceeded about 1500 men. The village of Charlestown, from which a galling

musketry fire was directed against the British, was by General Howe's

orders almost totally destroyed by hot shot during the attack. Instead of

attempting to cut off the Americans by occupying the neck to the rear of

their position, Gage ordered the advance to be made up the steep and

difficult ascent facing the works on the hill. Whether or not in

obedience--as tradition asserts--to an order to reserve fire until they

could see the whites of their assailants' eyes, the American volunteers

with admirable steadiness waited till the attack was on the point of being

driven home, when they delivered a fire so sustained and deadly that the

British line broke in disorder. A second assault, made like the first, with

the precision and discipline of the parade-ground met the same fate, but

Gage's troops had still spirit enough for a third assault, and this time

they carried the position with the bayonet, capturing five pieces of

ordnance and putting the enemy to flight. The loss of the British was 1054

men killed and wounded, among whom were 89 commissioned officers; while the

American casualties amounted to 420 killed and wounded, including General

Joseph Warren, and 30 prisoners. (See AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.)

The significance of the battle of Bunker Hill is not, however, to be gauged

by the losses on either side, heavy as they were in proportion to the

numbers engaged, nor by its purely military results, but by the moral

effect which it produced; and when it is considered from this standpoint

its far-reaching consequences can hardly be over-estimated. "It roused at

once the fierce instinct of combat in America ..., and dispelled ... the

almost superstitious belief in the impossibility of encountering regular

troops with hastily levied volunteers ... No one questioned the conspicuous

gallantry with which the provincial troops had supported a long fire from

the ships and awaited the charge of the enemy, and British soldiers had

been twice driven back in disorder before their fire."[1] The pride which

Americans naturally felt in such an achievement, and the self-confidence

which it inspired, were increased when they learnt that the small force on

Bunker Hill had not been properly reinforced, and that their ammunition was

running short before they were dislodged from their position.[2] Had the

character of the fighting on that day been other than it was; had the

American volunteers been easily, and at the first assault, driven from

their fortified position by the troops of George III., it is not impossible

that the resistance to the British government would have died out in the

North American colonies through lack of confidence in their own power on

the part of the colonists. Bunker Hill, whatever it may have to teach the

student of war, taught the American colonists in 1775 that the odds against

them in the enterprise in which they had embarked were not so overwhelming

as to deny them all prospect of ultimate success.

In 1843 a monument, 221 ft. high, in the form of an obelisk, of Quincy

granite, was completed on Breed's Hill (now Bunker Hill) to commemorate the

battle, when an address was delivered by Daniel Webster, who had also

delivered the famous dedicatory oration at the laying of the corner-stone

in 1825. Bunker Hill day is a state holiday.

See R. Frothingham, _The Centennial: Battle of Bunker Hill_ (Boston, 1895),

and _Life and Times of Joseph Warren_ (Boston, 1865); Boston City Council,

_Celebration of Centen. Aniv. of Battle of Bunker Hill_ (Boston, 1875);

G.E. Ellis, _Hist. of Battle of Bunker's_ (Breed's) _Hill_ (Boston, 1875);

S. Sweet, _Who was the Commander at Bunker Hill?_ (Boston, 1850); W.E.H.

Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, vol. iii (London,

1883); Sir George O. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_ (London, 1899);

Fortescue, _History of the British Army_, vol. iii. pp. 153 seq. (London,

1902).

(R. J. M.)

[1] W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, iii. 428.

[2] General Gage's despatch. _American Remembrancer_, 1776, part 11, p.

132.

BUNN, ALFRED (1796-1860), English theatrical manager, was appointed

stage-manager of Drury Lane theatre, London, in 1823. In 1826 he was

managing the Theatre Royal, Birmingham, and in 1833 he undertook the joint

management of Drury Lane and Covent Garden, London. In this undertaking he

met with vigorous opposition. A bill for the abolition of the patent

theatres was passed in the House of Commons, but on Bunn's petition was

thrown out by the House of Lords. He had difficulties first with his

company, then with the lord chamberlain, and had to face the keen rivalry

of the other theatres. A longstanding quarrel with Macready resulted in the

tragedian assaulting the manager. In 1840 Bunn was declared a bankrupt, but

he continued to manage Drury Lane till 1848. Artistically his control of

the two chief English theatres was highly successful. Nearly every leading

English actor played under his management, and he made a courageous attempt

to establish English opera, producing the principal works of Balfe. He had

some gift for writing, and most of the libretti of these operas were

translated by himself. In _The Stage Before and Behind the Curtain_ (3

vols., 1840) he gave a full account of his managerial experiences. He died

at Boulogne on the 20th of December 1860.

BUNNER, HENRY CUYLER (1855-1896), American writer, was born in Oswego, New

York, on the 3rd of August 1855. He was educated in New York City. From

being a clerk in an importing house, he turned to journalism, and after

some work as a reporter, and on the staff of the _Arcadian_ (1873), he

became in 1877 assistant editor of the comic weekly _Puck_. He soon assumed

the editorship, which he held until his death in Nutley, N.J., on the 11th

of May 1896. He developed _Puck_ from a new struggling periodical into a

powerful social and political organ. In 1886 he published a novel, _The

Midge_, followed in 1887 by _The Story of a New York House_. But his best

efforts in fiction were his short stories and sketches--_Short Sixes_

(1891), _More Short Sixes_ (1894), _Made in France_ (1893), _Zadoc Pine and

Other Stories_ (1891), _Love in Old Cloathes and Other Stories_ (1896), and

_Jersey Street and Jersey Lane_ (1896). His verses--_Airs from Arcady and

Elsewhere_ (1884), containing the well-known poem, _The Way to Arcady;

Rowen_ (1892); and _Poems_ (1896), edited by his friend Brander

Matthews--display a light play of imagination and a delicate workmanship.

He also wrote clever _vers de société_ and parodies. Of his several plays

(usually written in collaboration), the best was _The Tower of Babel_

(1883).

BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN CHARLES JOSIAS, BARON VON (1791-1860), Prussian

diplomatist and scholar, was born on the 25th of August 1791 at Korbach, an

old town in the little German principality of Waldeck. His father was a

farmer who was driven by poverty to become a soldier. Having studied at the

Korbach grammar school and Marburg university, Bunsen went in his

nineteenth year to Göttingen, where he supported himself by teaching and

later by acting as tutor to W.B. Astor, the American merchant. He won the

university prize essay of the year 1812 by a treatise on the _Athenian Law

of Inheritance_, and a few months later the university of Jena granted him

the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. During 1813 he travelled with

Astor in South Germany, and then turned to the study of the religion, laws,

language and literature of the Teutonic [v.04 p.0800] races. He had read

Hebrew when a boy, and now worked at Arabic at Munich, Persian at Leiden,

and Norse at Copenhagen. At the close of 1815 he went to Berlin, to lay

before Niebuhr the plan of research which he had mapped out. Niebuhr was so

impressed with Bunsen's ability that, two years later, when he became

Prussian envoy to the papal court, he made the young scholar his secretary.

The intervening years Bunsen spent in assiduous labour among the libraries

and collections of Paris and Florence. In July 1817 he married Frances

Waddington, eldest daughter and co-heiress of B. Waddington of Llanover,

Monmouthshire.

As secretary to Niebuhr, Bunsen was brought into contact with the Vatican

movement for the establishment of the papal church in the Prussian

dominions, to provide for the largely increased Catholic population. He was

among the first to realize the importance of this new vitality on the part

of the Vatican, and he made it his duty to provide against its possible

dangers by urging upon the Prussian court the wisdom of fair and impartial

treatment of its Catholic subjects. In this object he was at first

successful, and both from the Vatican and from Frederick William III., who

put him in charge of the legation on Niebuhr's resignation, he received

unqualified approbation. Owing partly to the wise statesmanship of Count

Spiegel, archbishop of Cologne, an arrangement was made by which the thorny

question of "mixed" marriages (_i.e._ between Catholic and Protestant)

would have been happily solved; but the archbishop died in 1835, the

arrangement was never ratified, and the Prussian king was foolish enough to

appoint as Spiegel's successor the narrow-minded partisan Baron Droste. The

pope gladly accepted the appointment, and in two years the forward policy

of the Jesuits had brought about the strife which Bunsen and Spiegel had

tried to prevent. Bunsen rashly recommended that Droste should be seized,

but the _coup_ was so clumsily attempted, that the incriminating documents

were, it is said, destroyed in advance. The government, in this _impasse_,

took the safest course, refused to support Bunsen, and accepted his

resignation in April 1838.

After leaving Rome, where he had become intimate with all that was most

interesting in the cosmopolitan society of the papal capital, Bunsen went

to England, where, except for a short term as Prussian ambassador to

Switzerland (1830-1841), he was destined to pass the rest of his official

life. The accession to the throne of Prussia of Frederick William IV., on

June 7th, 1840, made a great change in Bunsen's career. Ever since their

first meeting in 1828 the two men had been close friends and had exchanged

ideas in an intimate correspondence, published under Ranke's editorship in

1873. Enthusiasm for evangelical religion and admiration for the Anglican

Church they held in common, and Bunsen was the instrument naturally

selected for realizing the king's fantastic scheme of setting up at

Jerusalem a Prusso-Anglican bishopric as a sort of advertisement of the

unity and aggressive force of Protestantism. The special mission of Bunsen

to England, from June to November 1841, was completely successful, in spite

of the opposition of English high churchmen and Lutheran extremists. The

Jerusalem bishopric, with the consent of the British government and the

active encouragement of the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of

London, was duly established, endowed with Prussian and English money, and

remained for some forty years an isolated symbol of Protestant unity and a

rock of stumbling to Anglican Catholics.

During his stay in England Bunsen had made himself very popular among all

classes of society, and he was selected by Queen Victoria, out of three

names proposed by the king of Prussia, as ambassador to the court of St

James's. In this post he remained for thirteen years. His tenure of the

office coincided with the critical period in Prussian and European affairs

which culminated in the revolutions of 1848. With the visionary schemes of

Frederick William, whether that of setting up a strict episcopal

organization in the Evangelical Church, or that of reviving the defunct

ideal of the medieval Empire, Bunsen found himself increasingly out of

sympathy. He realized the significance of the signs that heralded the

coming storm, and tried in vain to move the king to a policy which would

have placed him at the head of a Germany united and free. He felt bitterly

the humiliation of Prussia by Austria after the victory of the reaction;

and in 1852 he set his signature reluctantly to the treaty which, in his

view, surrendered the "constitutional rights of Schleswig and Holstein."

His whole influence was now directed to withdrawing Prussia from the

blighting influence of Austria and Russia, and attempting to draw closer

the ties that bound her to Great Britain. On the outbreak of the Crimean

War he urged Frederick William to throw in his lot with the western powers,

and create a diversion in the north-east which would have forced Russia at

once to terms. The rejection of his advice, and the proclamation of

Prussia's attitude of "benevolent neutrality," led him in April 1854 to

offer his resignation, which was accepted.

Bunsen's life as a public man was now practically at an end. He retired

first to a villa on the Neckar near Heidelberg and later to Bonn. He

refused to stand for a seat, in the Liberal interest, in the Lower House of

the Prussian diet, but continued to take an active interest in politics,

and in 1855 published in two volumes a work, _Die Zeichen der Zeit: Briefe,

&c._, which exercised an immense influence in reviving the Liberal movement

which the failure of the revolution had crushed. In September 1857 Bunsen

attended, as the king's guest, a meeting of the Evangelical Alliance at

Berlin; and one of the last papers signed by Frederick William, before his

mind gave way in October, was that which conferred upon him the title of

baron and a peerage for life. In 1858, at the special request of the regent

(afterwards the emperor) William, he took his seat in the Prussian Upper

House, and, though remaining silent, supported the new ministry, of which

his political and personal friends were members.

Literary work was, however, his main preoccupation during all this period.

Two discoveries of ancient MSS. made during his stay in London, the one

containing a shorter text of the _Epistles of St Ignatius_, and the other

an unknown work _On all the Heresies_, by Bishop Hippolytus, had already

led him to write his _Hippolytus and his Age: Doctrine and Practice of Rome

under Commodus and Severus_ (1852). He now concentrated all his efforts

upon a translation of the Bible with commentaries. While this was in

preparation he published his _God in History_, in which he contends that

the progress of mankind marches parallel to the conception of God formed

within each nation by the highest exponents of its thought. At the same

time he carried through the press, assisted by Samuel Birch, the concluding

volumes of his work (published in English as well as in German) _Egypt's

Place in Universal History_--containing a reconstruction of Egyptian

chronology, together with an attempt to determine the relation in which the

language and the religion of that country stand to the development of each

among the more ancient non-Aryan and Aryan races. His ideas on this subject

were most fully developed in two volumes published in London before he

quitted England--_Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History as

applied to Language and Religion_ (2 vols., 1854).

In 1858 Bunsen's health began to fail; visits to Cannes in 1858 and 1859

brought no improvement, and he died on November 28th, 1860. One of his last

requests having been that his wife would write down recollections of their

common life, she published his _Memoirs_ in 1868, which contain much of his

private correspondence. The German translation of these _Memoirs_ has added

extracts from unpublished documents, throwing a new light upon the

political events in which he played a part. Baron Humboldt's letters to

Bunsen were printed in 1869.

Bunsen's English connexion, both through his wife (d. 1876) and through his

own long residence in London, was further increased in his family. He had

ten children, including five sons, Henry (1818-1855), Ernest (1810-1903),

Karl (1821-1887), Georg (1824-1896) and Theodor (1832-1892). Of these Karl

(Charles) and Theodor had careers in the German diplomatic service; and

Georg, who for some time was an active politician in Germany, eventually

retired to live in London; Henry, who was an English clergyman, became a

naturalized Englishman, [v.04 p.0801] and Ernest, who in 1845 married an

Englishwoman, Miss Gurney, subsequently resided and died in London. The

form of "de" Bunsen was adopted for the surname in England. Ernest de

Bunsen was a scholarly writer, who published various works both in German

and in English, notably on Biblical chronology and other questions of

comparative religion. His son, Sir Maurice de Bunsen (b. 1852), entered the

English diplomatic service in 1877, and after a varied experience became

minister at Lisbon in 1905.

See also L. von Ranke, _Aus dem Briefwechsel Friedrich Wilhelms IV. mit

Bunsen_ (Berlin, 1873). The biography in the 9th edition of this

encyclopaedia, which has been drawn upon above, was by Georg von Bunsen.

BUNSEN, ROBERT WILHELM VON (1811-1899), German chemist, was born at

Göttingen on the 31st of March 1811, his father, Christian Bunsen, being

chief librarian and professor of modern philology at the university. He

himself entered the university in 1828, and in 1834 became _Privat-docent_.

In 1836 he became teacher of chemistry at the Polytechnic School of Cassel,

and in 1839 took up the appointment of professor of chemistry at Marburg,

where he remained till 1851. In 1852, after a brief period in Breslau, he

was appointed to the chair of chemistry at Heidelberg, where he spent the

rest of his life, in spite of an urgent invitation to migrate to Berlin as

successor to E. Mitscherlich. He retired from active work in 1889, and died

at Heidelberg on the 16th of August 1899. The first research by which

attention was drawn to Bunsen's abilities was concerned with the cacodyl

compounds (see ARSENIC), though he had already, in 1834, discovered the

virtues of freshly precipitated hydrated ferric oxide as an antidote to

arsenical poisoning. It was begun in 1837 at Cassel, and during the six

years he spent upon it he not only lost the sight of one eye through an

explosion, but nearly killed himself by arsenical poisoning. It represents

almost his only excursion into organic chemistry, and apart from its

accuracy and completeness it is of historical interest in the development

of that branch of the science as being the forerunner of the fruitful

investigations on the organo-metallic compounds subsequently carried out by

his English pupil, Edward Frankland. Simultaneously with his work on

cacodyl, he was studying the composition of the gases given off from blast

furnaces. He showed that in German furnaces nearly half the heat yielded by

the fuel was being allowed to escape with the waste gases, and when he came

to England, and in conjunction with Lyon Playfair investigated the

conditions obtaining in English furnaces, he found the waste to amount to

over 80%. These researches marked a stage in the application of scientific

principles to the manufacture of iron, and they led also to the elaboration

of Bunsen's famous methods of measuring gaseous volumes, &c., which form

the subject of the only book he ever published (_Gasometrische Methoden_,

1857). In 1841 he invented the carbon-zinc electric cell which is known by

his name, and which conducted him to several important achievements. He

first employed it to produce the electric arc, and showed that from 44

cells a light equal to 1171.3 candles could be obtained with the

consumption of one pound of zinc per hour. To measure this light he

designed in 1844 another instrument, which in various modifications has

come into extensive use--the grease-spot photometer. In 1852 he began to

carry out electrolytical decompositions by the aid of the battery. By means

of a very ingenious arrangement he obtained magnesium for the first time in

the metallic state, and studied its chemical and physical properties, among

other things demonstrating the brilliance and high actinic qualities of the

flame it gives when burnt in air. From 1855 to 1863 he published with

Roscoe a series of investigations on photochemical measurements, which W.

Ostwald has called the "classical example for all future researches in

physical chemistry." Perhaps the best known of the contrivances which the

world owes to him is the "Bunsen burner" which he devised in 1855 when a

simple means of burning ordinary coal gas with a hot smokeless flame was

required for the new laboratory at Heidelberg. Other appliances invented by

him were the ice-calorimeter (1870), the vapour calorimeter (1887), and the

filter pump (1868), which was worked out in the course of a research on the

separation of the platinum metals. Mention must also be made of another

piece of work of a rather different character. Travelling was one of his

favourite relaxations, and in 1846 he paid a visit to Iceland. There he

investigated the phenomena of the geysers, the composition of the gases

coming off from the fumaroles, their action on the rocks with which they

came into contact, &c., and on his observations was founded a noteworthy

contribution to geological theory. But the most far-reaching of his

achievements was the elaboration, about 1859, jointly with G.R. Kirchhoff,

of spectrum analysis, which has put a new weapon of extraordinary power

into the hands both of chemists and astronomers. It led Bunsen himself

almost immediately to the isolation of two new elements of the alkali

group, caesium and rubidium. Having noticed some unknown lines in the

spectra of certain salts he was examining, he set to work to obtain the

substance or substances to which these were due. To this end he evaporated

large quantities of the Dürkheim mineral water, and it says much both for

his perseverance and powers of manipulation that he dealt with 40 tons of

the water to get about 17 grammes of the mixed chlorides of the two

substances, and that with about one-third of that quantity of caesium

chloride was able to prepare the most important compounds of the element

and determine their characteristics, even making goniometrical measurements

of their crystals.

Bunsen founded no school of chemistry; that is to say, no body of chemical

doctrine is associated with his name. Indeed, he took little or no part in

discussions of points of theory, and, although he was conversant with the

trend of the chemical thought of his day, he preferred to spend his

energies in the collection of experimental data. One fact, he used to say,

properly proved is worth all the theories that can be invented. But as a

teacher of chemistry he was almost without rival, and his success is

sufficiently attested by the scores of pupils who flocked from every part

of the globe to study under him, and by the number of those pupils who

afterwards made their mark in the chemical world. The secret of this

success lay largely in the fact that he never delegated his work to

assistants, but was constantly present with his pupils in the laboratory,

assisting each with personal direction and advice. He was also one of the

first to appreciate the value of practical work to the student, and he

instituted a regular practical course at Marburg so far back as 1840.

Though alive to the importance of applied science, he considered truth

alone to be the end of scientific research, and the example he set his

pupils was one of single-hearted devotion to the advancement of knowledge.

See Sir Henry Roscoe's "Bunsen Memorial Lecture," _Trans. Chem. Soc._,

1900, which is reprinted (in German) with other obituary notices in an

edition of Bunsen's collected works published by Ostwald and Bodenstein in

3 vols. at Leipzig in 1904.

BUNTER, the name applied by English geologists to the lower stage or

subdivision of the Triassic rocks in the United Kingdom. The name has been

adapted from the German _Buntsandstein, Der bunte Sandstein_, for it was in

Germany that this continental type of Triassic deposit was first carefully

studied. In France, the Bunter is known as the _Grès bigarré_. In northern

and central Germany, in the Harz, Thuringia and Hesse, the Bunter is

usually conformable with the underlying Permian formation; in the

south-west and west, however, it transgresses on to older rocks, on to Coal

Measures near Saarbruck, and upon the crystalline schists of Odenwald and

the Black Forest.

The German subdivisions of the Bunter are as follows:--(1) _Upper

Buntsandstein_, or _Röt_, mottled red and green marls and clays with

occasional beds of shale, sandstone, gypsum, rocksalt and dolomite. In

Hesse and Thuringia, a quartzitic sandstone prevails in the lower part. The

"Rhizocorallium Dolomite" (_R. Jenense_, probably a sponge) of the latter

district contains the only Bunter fauna of any importance. In Lorraine and

the Eifel and Saar districts there are micaceous clays and sandstones with

plant remains--the _Voltzia_ sandstone. The lower beds in the Black Forest,

Vosges, Odenwald and Lorraine very generally contain strings of dolomite

and carnelian--the so-called "Carneol bank." (2) _Middle

Buntsandstein-Hauptbuntsandstein_ (900 ft.), the bulk [v.04 p.0802] of this

subdivision is made up of weakly-cemented, coarse-grained sandstones,

oblique lamination is very prevalent, and occasional conglomeratic beds

make their appearance. The uppermost bed is usually fine-grained and bears

the footprints of _Cheirotherium_. In the Vosges district, this subdivision

of the Bunter is called the _Grès des Vosges, _or the _Grès principal_,

which comprises: (i.) red micaceous and argillaceous sandstone; (ii.) the

_conglomérat principal_; and (iii.) _Grès bigarré principal_ (=_grès des

Vosges_, properly so-called). (3) _Lower Buntsandstein_, fine-grained

clayey and micaceous sandstones, red-grey, yellow, white and mottled. The

cement of the sandstones is often felspathic; for this reason they yield

useful porcelain clays in the Thuringerwald. Clay galls are common in the

sandstones of some districts, and in the neighbourhood of the Harz an

oolitic calcareous sandstone, _Rogenstein_, occurs. In eastern Hesse, the

lowest beds are crumbly, shaly clays, _Brockelschiefern_.

The following are the subdivisions usually adopted in England:--(1) Upper

Mottled Sandstone, red variegated sandstones, soft and generally free from

pebbles. (2) Bunter Pebble Beds, harder red and brown sandstones with

quartzose pebbles, very abundant in some places. (3) Lower Mottled

Sandstone, very similar to the upper division. The Bunter beds occupy a

large area in the midland counties where they form dry, healthy ground of

moderate elevation (Cannock Chase, Trentham, Sherwood Forest, Sutton

Coldfield, &c.). Southward they may be followed through west Somerset to

the cliffs of Budleigh Salterton in Devon; while northward they pass

through north Staffordshire, Cheshire and Lancashire to the Vale of Eden

and St Bees, reappearing in Elgin and Arran. A deposit of these rocks lies

in the Vale of Clwyd and probably flanks the eastern side of the Pennine

Hills, although here it is not so readily differentiated from the Keuper

beds. The English Bunter rests with a slight unconformity upon the older

formations. It is generally absent in the south-eastern counties, but

thickens rapidly in the opposite direction, as is shown by the following

table:--

+----------------+----------------+---------------------+

| Lancashire and | | Leicestershire and |

| W. Cheshire. | Staffordshire. | Warwickshire. |

+----------------+----------------+---------------------+

|(1) 500 ft. | 50-200 ft. | Absent |

|(2) 500-750 ft. | 100-300 ft. | 0-100 ft. |

|(3) 200-500 ft. | 0-100 ft. | Absent |

+----------------+----------------+---------------------+

The material forming the Bunter beds of England came probably from the

north-west, but in Devonshire there are indications which point to an

additional source.

In the Alpine region, most of the Trias differs markedly from that of

England and northern Germany, being of distinctly marine origin; here the

Bunter is represented by the _Werfen beds_ (from Werfen in Salzburg) in the

northern Alps, a series of red and greenish-grey micaceous shales with

gypsum, rock salt and limestones in the upper part; while in the southern

Alps (S. Tirol) there is an upper series of red clays, the _Campil beds_,

and a lower series of thin sandstones, the _Seis beds_. Mojsisovics von

Mojsvar has pointed out that the Alpine Bunter belongs to the single zone

of _Natica costata_ and _Tirolites cassianus_.

Fossils in the Bunter are very scarce; in addition to the footprints of

_Cheirotherium_, direct evidence of amphibians is found in such forms as

_Trematosaurus_ and _Mastodonsaurus. Myophoria costata_ and _Gervillea

Murchisoni_ are characteristic fossils. Plants are represented by _Voltzia_

and by equisetums and ferns.

In England, the Bunter sandstones frequently act as valuable reservoirs of

underground water; sometimes they are used for building stone or for

foundry sand. In Germany some of the harder beds have yielded building

stones, which were much used in the middle ages in the construction of

cathedrals and castles in southern Germany and on the Rhine. In the

northern Eifel region, at Mechernich and elsewhere, this formation contains

lead ore in the form of spots and patches (_Knotenerz_) in the sandstone;

some of the lead ore was worked by the Romans.

For a consideration of the relationship of the Bunter beds to formations of

the like age in other parts of the world, see TRIASSIC SYSTEM.

(J. A. H.)

BUNTING, JABEZ (1779-1858), English Wesleyan divine, was born of humble

parentage at Manchester on the 13th of May 1779. He was educated at

Manchester grammar school, and at the age of nineteen began to preach,

being received into full connexion in 1803. He continued to minister for

upwards of fifty-seven years in Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, Liverpool,

London and elsewhere. In 1835 he was appointed president of the first

Wesleyan theological college (at Hoxton), and in this position he succeeded

in materially raising the standard of education among Wesleyan ministers.

He was four times chosen to be president of the conference, was repeatedly

secretary of the "Legal Hundred," and for eighteen years was secretary to

the Wesleyan Missionary Society. Under him Methodism ceased to be a society

based upon Anglican foundation, and became a distinct church. He favoured

the extension of lay power in committees, and was particularly zealous in

the cause of foreign missions. Bunting was a popular preacher, and an

effective platform speaker; in 1818 he was given the degree of M.A. by

Aberdeen University, and in 1834 that of D.D. by Wesleyan University of

Middletown, Conn., U.S.A. He died on the 16th of June 1858. His eldest son,

William Maclardie Bunting (1805-1866), was also a distinguished Wesleyan

minister; and his grandson Sir Percy William Bunting (b. 1836), son of T.P.

Bunting, became prominent as a liberal nonconformist and editor of the

_Contemporary Review_ from 1882, being knighted in 1908.

See _Lives_ of Jabez Bunting (1859) and W.M. Bunting (1870) by Thomas

Percival Bunting.

BUNTING, properly the common English name of the bird called by Linnaeus

_Emberiza miliaria_, but now used in a general sense for all members of the

family _Emberizidae_, which are closely allied to the finches

(_Fringillidae_), though, in Professor W.K. Parker's opinion, to be easily

distinguished therefrom--the _Emberizidae_ possessing what none of the

_Fringillidae_ do, an additional pair of palatal bones,

"palato-maxillaries." It will probably follow from this diagnosis that some

forms of birds, particularly those of the New World, which have hitherto

been commonly assigned to the latter, really belong to the former, and

among them the genera _Cardinalis_ and _Phrygilus_. The additional palatal

bones just named are also found in several other peculiarly American

families, namely, _Tanagridae_, _Icteridae_ and _Mniotiltidae_--whence it

may be perhaps inferred that the _Emberizidae_ are of Transatlantic origin.

The buntings generally may be also outwardly distinguished from the finches

by their angular gape, the posterior portion of which is greatly deflected;

and most of the Old-World forms, together with some of those of the New

World, have a bony knob on the palate--a swollen outgrowth of the dentary

edges of the bill. Correlated with this peculiarity the maxilla usually has

the tomia sinuated, and is generally concave, and smaller and narrower than

the mandible, which is also concave to receive the palatal knob. In most

other respects the buntings greatly resemble the finches, but their eggs

are generally distinguishable by the irregular hair-like markings on the

shell. In the British Islands by far the commonest species of bunting is

the yellow-hammer (_E. citrinella_), but the true bunting (or corn-bunting,

or bunting-lark, as it is called in some districts) is a very well-known

bird, while the reed-bunting (_E. schoeniclus_) frequents marshy soils

almost to the exclusion of the two former. In certain localities in the

south of England the cirl-bunting (_E. cirlus_) is also a resident; and in

winter vast flocks of the snow-bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_), at once

recognizable by its pointed wings and elongated hind-claws, resort to our

shores and open grounds. This last is believed to breed sparingly on the

highest mountains of Scotland, but the majority of the examples which visit

us come from northern regions, for it is a species which in summer inhabits

the whole circumpolar area. The ortolan (_E. hortulana_), so highly prized

for its delicate flavour, occasionally appears in England, but the British

Islands seem to lie outside its proper range. On the continent of Europe,

in Africa and throughout Asia, many other species are found, while in

America the number belonging to the family cannot at present be computed.

The beautiful and melodious cardinal (_Cardinalis virginianus_), commonly

called the Virginian nightingale, must be included in this family.

(A. N.)

BUNTING (a word of doubtful origin, possibly connected with _bunt_, to

sift, or with the Ger. _bunt_, of varied colour), a loosely woven woollen

cloth for making flags; the term is also used of a collection of flags, and

particularly those of a ship.

[v.04 p.0803] BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688), English religious writer, was born

at Elstow, about a mile from Bedford, in November 1628. His father, Thomas

Bunyan,[1] was a tinker, or, as he described himself, a "brasier." The

tinkers then formed a hereditary caste, which was held in no high

estimation. Bunyan's father had a fixed residence, and was able to send his

son to a village school where reading and writing were taught.

The years of John's boyhood were those during which the Puritan spirit was

in the highest vigour all over England; and nowhere had that spirit more

influence than in Bedfordshire. It is not wonderful, therefore, that a lad

to whom nature had given a powerful imagination and sensibility which

amounted to a disease, should have been early haunted by religious terrors.

Before he was ten his sports were interrupted by fits of remorse and

despair; and his sleep was disturbed by dreams of fiends trying to fly away

with him. As he grew older his mental conflicts became still more violent.

The strong language in which he described them strangely misled all his

earlier biographers except Southey. It was long an ordinary practice with

pious writers to cite Bunyan as an instance of the supernatural power of

divine grace to rescue the human soul from the lowest depths of wickedness.

He is called in one book the most notorious of profligates; in another, the

brand plucked from the burning. Many excellent persons, whose moral

character from boyhood to old age has been free from any stain discernible

to their fellow-creatures, have, in their autobiographies and diaries,

applied to themselves, and doubtless with sincerity, epithets as severe as

could be applied to Titus Oates or Mrs Brownrigg. It is quite certain that

Bunyan was, at eighteen, what, in any but the most austerely puritanical

circles, would have been considered as a young man of singular gravity and

innocence. Indeed, it may be remarked that he, like many other penitents

who, in general terms, acknowledge themselves to have been the worst of

mankind, fired up, and stood vigorously on his defence, whenever any

particular charge was brought against him by others. He declares, it is

true, that he had let loose the reins on the neck of his lusts, that he had

delighted in all transgressions against the divine law, and that he had

been the ringleader of the youth of Elstow in all manner of vice. But when

those who wished him ill accused him of licentious amours, he called on God

and the angels to attest his purity. No woman, he said, in heaven, earth or

hell, could charge him with having ever made any improper advances to her.

Not only had he been strictly faithful to his wife; but he had, even before

his marriage, been perfectly spotless. It does not appear from his own

confessions, or from the railings of his enemies, that he ever was drunk in

his life. One bad habit he contracted, that of using profane language; but

he tells us that a single reproof cured him so effectually that he never

offended again. The worst that can be laid to his charge is that he had a

great liking for some diversions, quite harmless in themselves, but

condemned by the rigid precisians among whom he lived, and for whose

opinion he had a great respect. The four chief sins of which he was guilty

were dancing, ringing the bells of the parish church, playing at tipcat and

reading the history of Sir Bevis of Southampton. A rector of the school of

Laud would have held such a young man up to the whole parish as a model.

But Bunyan's notions of good and evil had been learned in a very different

school; and he was made miserable by the conflict between his tastes and

his scruples.

When he was about seventeen the ordinary course of his life was interrupted

by an event which gave a lasting colour to his thoughts. He enlisted in the

Parliamentary army,[2] and served during the Decisive campaign of 1645. All

that we know of his military career is, that, at the siege of some town,[3]

one of his comrades, who had marched with the besieging army instead of

him, was killed by a shot. Bunyan ever after considered himself as having

been saved from death by the special interference of Providence. It may be

observed that his imagination was strongly impressed by the glimpse which

he had caught of the pomp of war. To the last he loved to draw his

illustrations of sacred things from camps and fortresses, from guns, drums,

trumpets, flags of truce, and regiments arrayed each under its own banner.

His Greatheart, his Captain Boanerges and his Captain Credence are

evidently portraits, of which the originals were among those martial saints

who fought and expounded in Fairfax's army.

In 1646 Bunyan returned home and married about two years later. His wife

had some pious relations, and brought him as her only portion some pious

books. His mind, excitable by nature, very imperfectly disciplined by

education, and exposed to the enthusiasm which was then epidemic in

England, began to be fearfully disordered. The story of the struggle is

told in Bunyan's _Grace Abounding_.

In outward things he soon became a strict Pharisee. He was constant in

attendance at prayers and sermons. His favourite amusements were, one after

another, relinquished, though not without many painful struggles. In the

middle of a game at tipcat he paused, and stood staring wildly upwards with

his stick in his hand. He had heard a voice asking him whether he would

leave his sins and go to heaven, or keep his sins and go to hell; and he

had seen an awful countenance frowning on him from the sky. The odious vice

of bell-ringing he renounced; but he still for a time ventured to go to the

church tower and look on while others pulled the ropes. But soon the

thought struck him that, if he persisted in such wickedness, the steeple

would fall on his head; and he fled in terror from the accursed place. To

give up dancing on the village green was still harder; and some months

elapsed before he had the fortitude to part with his darling sin. When this

last sacrifice had been made, he was, even when tried by the maxims of that

austere time, faultless. All Elstow talked of him as an eminently pious

youth. But his own mind was more unquiet than ever. Having nothing more to

do in the way of visible reformation, yet finding in religion no pleasures

to supply the place of the juvenile amusements which he had relinquished,

he began to apprehend that he lay under some special malediction; and he

was tormented by a succession of fantasies which seemed likely to drive him

to suicide or to Bedlam. At one time he took it into his head that all

persons of Israelite blood would be saved, and tried to make out that he

partook of that blood; but his hopes were speedily destroyed by his father,

who seems to have had no ambition to be regarded as a Jew. At another time

Bunyan was disturbed by a strange dilemma: "If I have not faith, I am lost;

if I have faith, I can work miracles." He was tempted to cry to the puddles

between Elstow and Bedford, "Be ye dry," and to stake his eternal hopes on

the event. Then he took up a notion that the day of grace for Bedford and

the neighbouring villages was past; that all who were to be saved in that

part of England were already converted; and that he had begun to pray and

strive some months too late. Then he was harassed by doubts whether the

Turks were not in the right and the Christians in the wrong. Then he was

troubled by a maniacal impulse which prompted him to pray to the trees, to

a broomstick, to the parish bull.

As yet, however, he was only entering the valley of the shadow of death.

Soon the darkness grew thicker. Hideous forms floated before him. Sounds of

cursing and wailing were in his ears. His way ran through stench and fire,

close to the mouth of the bottomless pit. He began to be haunted by a

strange curiosity about the unpardonable sin, and by a morbid longing to

commit it. But the most frightful of all the forms which [v.04 p.0804] his

disease took was a propensity to utter blasphemy, and especially to

renounce his share in the benefits of the redemption. Night and day, in

bed, at table, at work, evil spirits, as he imagined, were repeating close

to his ear the words, "Sell him, sell him." He struck at the hobgoblins; he

pushed them from him; but still they were ever at his side. He cried out in

answer to them, hour after hour, "Never, never; not for thousands of

worlds; not for thousands." At length, worn out by this long agony, he

suffered the fatal words to escape him, "Let him go if he will." Then his

misery became more fearful than ever. He had done what could not be

forgiven. He had forfeited his part of the great sacrifice. Like Esau, he

had sold his birthright; and there was no longer any place for repentance.

"None," he afterwards wrote, "knows the terrors of those days but myself."

He has described his sufferings with singular energy, simplicity and

pathos. He envied the brutes; he envied the very stones on the street, and

the tiles on the houses. The sun seemed to withhold its light and warmth

from him. His body, though cast in a sturdy mould, and though still in the

highest vigour of youth, trembled whole days together with the fear of

death and judgment. He fancied that this trembling was the sign set on the

worst reprobates, the sign which God had put on Cain. The unhappy man's

emotion destroyed his power of digestion. He had such pains that he

expected to burst asunder like Judas, whom he regarded as his prototype.

Neither the books which Bunyan read, nor the advisers whom he consulted,

were likely to do much good in a case like his. His small library had

received a most unseasonable addition, the account of the lamentable end of

Francis Spira. One ancient man of high repute for piety, whom the sufferer

consulted, gave an opinion which might well have produced fatal

consequences. "I am afraid," said Bunyan, "that I have committed the sin

against the Holy Ghost." "Indeed," said the old fanatic, "I am afraid that

you have."

At length the clouds broke; the light became clearer and clearer; and the

enthusiast who had imagined that he was branded with the mark of the first

murderer, and destined to the end of the arch-traitor, enjoyed peace and a

cheerful confidence in the mercy of God. Years elapsed, however, before his

nerves, which had been so perilously overstrained, recovered their tone.

When he had joined a Baptist society at Bedford, and was for the first time

admitted to partake of the eucharist, it was with difficulty that he could

refrain from imprecating destruction on his brethren while the cup was

passing from hand to hand. After he had been some time a member of the

congregation he began to preach; and his sermons produced a powerful

effect. He was indeed illiterate; but he spoke to illiterate men. The

severe training through which he had passed had given him such an

experimental knowledge of all the modes of religious melancholy as he could

never have gathered from books; and his vigorous genius, animated by a

fervent spirit of devotion, enabled him not only to exercise a great

influence over the vulgar, but even to extort the half-contemptuous

admiration of scholars. Yet it was long before he ceased to be tormented by

an impulse which urged him to utter words of horrible impiety in the

pulpit.[4] Bunyan was finally relieved from the internal sufferings which

had embittered his life by sharp persecution from without. He had been five

years a preacher when the Restoration put it in the power of the Cavalier

gentlemen and clergymen all over the country to oppress the dissenters. In

November 1660 he was flung into Bedford gaol; and there he remained, with

some intervals of partial and precarious liberty, during twelve years. The

authorities tried to extort from him a promise that he would abstain from

preaching; but he was convinced that he was divinely set apart and

commissioned to be a teacher of righteousness, and he was fully determined

to obey God rather than man. He was brought before several tribunals,

laughed at, caressed, reviled, menaced, but in vain. He was facetiously

told that he was quite right in thinking that he ought not to hide his

gift; but that his real gift was skill in repairing old kettles. He was

compared to Alexander the coppersmith. He was told that if he would give up

preaching he should be instantly liberated. He was warned that if he

persisted in disobeying the law he would be liable to banishment, and that

if he were found in England after a certain time his neck would be

stretched. His answer was, "If you let me out to-day, I will preach again

to-morrow." Year after year he lay patiently in a dungeon, compared with

which the worst prison now to be found in the island is a palace.[5] His

fortitude is the more extraordinary because his domestic feelings were

unusually strong. Indeed, he was considered by his stern brethren as

somewhat too fond and indulgent a parent. He had four small children, and

among them a daughter who was blind, and whom he loved with peculiar

tenderness. He could not, he said, bear even to let the wind blow on her;

and now she must suffer cold and hunger; she must beg; she must be beaten;

"yet," he added, "I must, I must do it."

His second wife, whom he had married just before his arrest, tried in vain

for his release; she even petitioned the House of Lords on his behalf.

While he lay in prison he could do nothing in the way of his old trade for

the support of his family. He determined, therefore, to take up a new

trade. He learned to make long-tagged thread laces; and many thousands of

these articles were furnished by him to the hawkers. While his hands were

thus busied he had other employments for his mind and his lips. He gave

religious instruction to his fellow-captives, and formed from among them a

little flock, of which he was himself the pastor. He studied indefatigably

the few books which he possessed. His two chief companions were the Bible

and Fox's _Book of Martyrs_. His knowledge of the Bible was such that he

might have been called a living concordance; and on the margin of his copy

of the _Book of Martyrs_ are still legible the ill-spelt lines of doggerel

in which he expressed his reverence for the brave sufferers, and his

implacable enmity to the mystical Babylon.

Prison life gave him leisure to write, and during his first imprisonment he

wrote, in addition to several tracts and some verse, _Grace Abounding to

the Chief of Sinners_, the narrative of his own religious experience. The

book was published in 1666. A short period of freedom was followed by a

second offence and a further imprisonment. Bunyan's works were coarse,

indeed, but they showed a keen mother wit, a great command of the homely

mother tongue, an intimate knowledge of the English Bible, and a vast and

dearly bought spiritual experience. They therefore, when the corrector of

the press had improved the syntax and the spelling, were well received.

Much of Bunyan's time was spent in controversy. He wrote sharply against

the Quakers, whom he seems always to have held in utter abhorrence. He

wrote against the liturgy of the Church of England. No two things,

according to him, had less affinity than the form of prayer and the spirit

of prayer. Those, he said with much point, who have most of the spirit of

prayer are all to be found in gaol; and those who have most zeal for the

form of prayer are all to be found at the alehouse. The doctrinal Articles,

on the other hand, he warmly praised and defended. The most acrimonious of

all his works is his _Defence of Justification by Faith_, an answer to what

Bunyan calls "the brutish and beastly latitudinarianism" of Edward Fowler,

afterwards bishop of Gloucester, an excellent man, but not free from the

taint of Pelagianism.

Bunyan had also a dispute with some of the chiefs of the sect to which he

belonged. He doubtless held with perfect sincerity [v.04 p.0805] the

distinguishing tenet of that sect, but he did not consider that tenet as

one of high importance, and willingly joined in communion with pious

Presbyterians and Independents. The sterner Baptists, therefore, loudly

pronounced him a false brother. A controversy arose which long survived the

original combatants. The cause which Bunyan had defended with rude logic

and rhetoric against Kiffin and Danvers has since been pleaded by Robert

Hall with an ingenuity and eloquence such as no polemical writer has ever

surpassed.

During the years which immediately followed the Restoration, Bunyan's

confinement seems to have been strict. But as the passions of 1660 cooled,

as the hatred with which the Puritans had been regarded while their reign

was recent gave place to pity, he was less and less harshly treated. The

distress of his family, and his own patience, courage and piety, softened

the hearts of his judges. Like his own Christian in the cage, he found

protectors even among the crowd at Vanity Fair. The bishop of the diocese,

Dr Barlow, is said to have interceded for him. At length the prisoner was

suffered to pass most of his time beyond the walls of the gaol, on

condition, as it should seem, that he remained within the town of Bedford.

He owed his complete liberation to one of the worst acts of one of the

worst governments that England has ever seen. In 1671 the Cabal was in

power. Charles II. had concluded the treaty by which he bound himself to

set up the Roman Catholic religion in England. The first step which he took

towards that end was to annul, by an unconstitutional exercise of his

prerogative, all the penal statutes against the Roman Catholics; and in

order to disguise his real design, he annulled at the same time the penal

statutes against Protestant nonconformists. Bunyan was consequently set at

large.[6] In the first warmth of his gratitude he published a tract, in

which he compared Charles to that humane and generous Persian king, who,

though not himself blest with the light of the true religion, favoured the

chosen people, and permitted them, after years of captivity, to rebuild

their beloved temple.

Before he left his prison he had begun the book which has made his name

immortal.[7] The history of that book is remarkable. The author was, as he

tells us, writing a treatise, in which he had occasion to speak of the

stages of the Christian progress. He compared that progress, as many others

had compared it, to a pilgrimage. Soon his quick wit discovered innumerable

points of similarity which had escaped his predecessors. Images came

crowding on his mind faster than he could put them into words, quagmires

and pits, steep hills, dark and horrible glens, soft vales, sunny pastures,

a gloomy castle, of which the courtyard was strewn with the skulls and

bones of murdered prisoners, a town all bustle and splendour, like London

on the Lord Mayor's Day, and the narrow path, straight as a rule could make

it, running on up hill and down hill, through city and through wilderness,

to the Black River and the Shining Gate. He had found out, as most people

would have said, by accident, as he would doubtless have said, by the

guidance of Providence, where his powers lay. He had no suspicion, indeed,

that he was producing a masterpiece. He could not guess what place his

allegory would occupy in English literature; for of English literature he

knew nothing. Those who suppose him to have studied the _Faery Queen_ might

easily be confuted, if this were the proper place for a detailed

examination of the passages in which the two allegories have been thought

to resemble each other. The only work of fiction, in all probability, with

which he could compare his _Pilgrim_ was his old favourite, the legend of

Sir Bevis of Southampton. He would have thought it a sin to borrow any time

from the serious business of his life, from his expositions, his

controversies and his lace tags, for the purpose of amusing himself with

what he considered merely as a trifle. It was only, he assures us, at spare

moments that he returned to the House Beautiful, the Delectable Mountains

and the Enchanted Ground. He had no assistance. Nobody but himself saw a

line till the whole was complete. He then consulted his pious friends. Some

were pleased. Others were much scandalized. It was a vain story, a mere

romance, about giants, and lions, and goblins, and warriors, sometimes

fighting with monsters, and sometimes regaled by fair ladies in stately

palaces. The loose atheistical wits at Will's might write such stuff to

divert the painted Jezebels of the court; but did it become a minister of

the gospel to copy the evil fashions of the world? There had been a time

when the cant of such fools would have made Bunyan miserable. But that time

was past; and his mind was now in a firm and healthy state. He saw that in

employing fiction to make truth clear and goodness attractive, he was only

following the example which every Christian ought to propose to himself;

and he determined to print.

The _Pilgrim's Progress_ was published in February 1678. Soon the

irresistible charm of a book which gratified the imagination of the reader

with all the action and scenery of a fairy tale, which exercised his

ingenuity by setting him to discover a multitude of curious analogies,

which interested his feelings for human beings, frail like himself, and

struggling with temptations from within and from without, which every

moment drew a smile from him by some stroke of quaint yet simple

pleasantry, and nevertheless left on his mind a sentiment of reverence for

God and of sympathy for man, began to produce its effect. In puritanical

circles, from which plays and novels were strictly excluded, that effect

was such as no work of genius, though it were superior to the _Iliad_, to

_Don Quixote_ or to _Othello_, can ever produce on a mind accustomed to

indulge in literary luxury. A second edition came out in the autumn with

additions; and the demand became immense. The eighth edition, which

contains the last improvements made by the author, was published in 1682,

the ninth in 1684, the tenth in 1685. The help of the engraver had early

been called in; and tens of thousands of children looked with terror and

delight on execrable copperplates, which represented Christian thrusting

his sword into Apollyon, or writhing in the grasp of Giant Despair. In

Scotland, and in some of the colonies, the _Pilgrim_ was even more popular

than in his native country. Bunyan has told us, with very pardonable

vanity, that in New England his dream was the daily subject of the

conversation of thousands, and was thought worthy to appear in the most

superb binding. He had numerous admirers in Holland, and amongst the

Huguenots of France.

He continued to work the gold-field which he had discovered, and to draw

from it new treasures, not indeed with quite such ease and in quite such

abundance as when the precious soil was still virgin, but yet with success,

which left all competition far behind. In 1680 appeared the _Life and Death

of Mr Badman_; in 1684 the second part of the _Pilgrim's Progress_. In 1682

appeared the _Holy War_, which if the _Pilgrim's Progress_ did not exist,

would be the best allegory that ever was written.

Bunyan's place in society was now very different from what it had been.

There had been a time when many dissenting ministers, who could talk Latin

and read Greek, had affected to treat him with scorn. But his fame and

influence now far exceeded theirs. He had so great an authority among the

Baptists that he was popularly called Bishop Bunyan. His episcopal

visitations were annual. From Bedford he rode every year to London, and

preached there to large and attentive congregations. From London he went

his circuit through the country, animating the zeal of his brethren,

collecting and distributing alms and making up quarrels. The magistrates

seem in general to have given him little trouble. But there is reason to

believe that, in the year 1685, he was in some danger of again occupying

his old quarters in Bedford gaol. In that year the rash and wicked

enterprise of Monmouth gave the government a pretext for prosecuting the

nonconformists; and scarcely one eminent divine of the Presbyterian.

Independent [v.04 p.0806] or Baptist persuasion remained unmolested. Baxter

was in prison: Howe was driven into exile: Henry was arrested.

Two eminent Baptists, with whom Bunyan had been engaged in controversy,

were in great peril and distress. Danvers was in danger of being hanged;

and Kiffin's grandsons were actually hanged. The tradition is that, during

those evil days, Bunyan was forced to disguise himself as a wagoner, and

that he preached to his congregation at Bedford in a smock-frock, with a

cart-whip in his hand. But soon a great change took place. James II. was at

open war with the church, and found it necessary to court the dissenters.

Some of the creatures of the government tried to secure the aid of Bunyan.

They probably knew that he had written in praise of the indulgence of 1672,

and therefore hoped that he might be equally pleased with the indulgence of

1687. But fifteen years of thought, observation and commerce with the world

had made him wiser. Nor were the cases exactly parallel. Charles was a

professed Protestant; James was a professed Papist. The object of Charles's

indulgence was disguised; the object of James's indulgence was patent.

Bunyan was not deceived. He exhorted his hearers to prepare themselves by

fasting and prayer for the danger which menaced their civil and religious

liberties, and refused even to speak to the courtier who came down to

remodel the corporation of Bedford, and who, as was supposed, had it in

charge to offer some municipal dignity to the bishop of the Baptists.

Bunyan did not live to see the Revolution.[8] In the summer of 1688 he

undertook to plead the cause of a son with an angry father, and at length

prevailed on the old man not to disinherit the young one. This good work

cost the benevolent intercessor his life. He had to ride through heavy

rain. He came drenched to his lodgings on Snow Hill, was seized with a

violent fever, and died in a few days (August 31). He was buried in Bunhill

Fields; and many Puritans, to whom the respect paid by Roman Catholics to

the reliques and tombs of saints seemed childish or sinful, are said to

have begged with their dying breath that their coffins might be placed as

near as possible to the coffin of the author of the _Pilgrim's Progress_.

The fame of Bunyan during his life, and during the century which followed

his death, was indeed great, but was almost entirely confined to religious

families of the middle and lower classes. Very seldom was he during that

time mentioned with respect by any writer of great literary eminence. Young

coupled his prose with the poetry of the wretched D'Urfey. In the

_Spiritual Quixote_, the adventures of Christian are ranked with those of

Jack the Giant-Killer and John Hickathrift. Cowper ventured to praise the

great allegorist, but did not venture to name him. It is a significant

circumstance that, for a long time all the numerous editions of the

_Pilgrim's Progress_ were evidently meant for the cottage and the servants'

hall. The paper, the printing, the plates, were all of the meanest

description. In general, when the educated minority and the common people

differ about the merit of a book, the opinion of the educated minority

finally prevails. The _Pilgrim's Progress_ is perhaps the only book about

which the educated minority has come over to the opinion of the common

people.

The attempts which have been made to improve and to imitate this book are

not to be numbered. It has been done into verse; it has been done into

modern English. The Pilgrimage of Tender Conscience, the Pilgrimage of Good

Intent, the Pilgrimage of Seek Truth, the Pilgrimage of Theophilus, the

Infant Pilgrim, the Hindoo Pilgrim, are among the many feeble copies of the

great original. But the peculiar glory of Bunyan is that those who most

hated his doctrines have tried to borrow the help of his genius. A Catholic

version of his parable may be seen with the head of the virgin in the

title-page. On the other hand, those Antinomians for whom his Calvinism is

not strong enough, may study the Pilgrimage of Hephzibah, in which nothing

will be found which can be construed into an admission of free agency and

universal redemption. But the most extraordinary of all the acts of

Vandalism by which a fine work of art was ever defaced was committed in the

year 1853. It was determined to transform the _Pilgrim's Progress_ into a

Tractarian book. The task was not easy; for it was necessary to make two

sacraments the most prominent objects in the allegory, and of all Christian

theologians, avowed Quakers excepted, Bunyan was the one in whose system

the sacraments held the least prominent place. However, the Wicket Gate

became a type of baptism, and the House Beautiful of the eucharist. The

effect of this change is such as assuredly the ingenious person who made it

never contemplated. For, as not a single pilgrim passes through the Wicket

Gate in infancy, and as Faithful hurries past the House Beautiful without

stopping, the lesson which the fable in its altered shape teaches, is that

none but adults ought to be baptized, and that the eucharist may safely be

neglected. Nobody would have discovered from the original _Pilgrim's

Progress_ that the author was not a Paedobaptist. To turn his book into a

book against Paedobaptism, was an achievement reserved for an

Anglo-Catholic divine. Such blunders must necessarily be committed by every

man who mutilates parts of a great work, without taking a comprehensive

view of the whole.

(M.)

The above article has been slightly corrected as to facts, as compared with

its form in the 9th edition. Bunyan's works were first partially collected

in a folio volume (1692) by his friend Charles Doe. A larger edition (2

vols., 1736-1737) was edited by Samuel Wilson of the Barbican. In 1853 a

good edition (3 vols., Glasgow) was produced by George Offer. Southey's

edition (1830) of the _Pilgrim's Progress_ contained his _Life_ of Bunyan.

Since then various editions of the _Pilgrim's Progress_, many illustrated

(by Cruikshank, Byam Shaw, W. Strang and others), have appeared. An

interesting life by "the author of _Mark Rutherford_" (W. Hale White) was

published in 1904. Other lives are by J.A. Froude (1880) in the "English

Men of Letters" series, and E. Venables (1888); but the standard work on

the subject is _John Bunyan; his Life, Times and Work_ (1885), by the Rev.

J. Brown of Bedford. A bronze statue, by Boehm, was presented to the town

by the duke of Bedford in 1874.

[1] The name, in various forms as Buignon, Buniun, Bonyon or Binyan,

appears in the local records of Elstow and the neighbouring parishes at

intervals from as far back as 1199. They were small freeholders, but all

the property except the cottage had been lost in the time of Bunyan's

grandfather. Bunyan's own account of his family as the "meanest and most

despised of all the families of the land" must be put down to his habitual

self-depreciation. Thomas Bunyan had a forge and workshop at Elstow.

[2] There is no direct evidence to show on which side he fought, but the

balance of probability justifies this view.

[3] There is no means of identifying the place besieged. It has been

assumed to be Leicester, which was captured by the Royalists in May 1645,

and recovered by Fairfax in the next month.

[4] Bunyan had joined, in 1653, the nonconformist community which met under

a certain Mr Gifford at St John's church, Bedford. This congregation was

not Baptist, properly so called, as the question of baptism, with other

doctrinal points, was left open. When Bunyan removed to Bedford in 1655, he

became a deacon of this church, and two years later he was formally

recognized as a preacher, his fame soon spreading through the neighbouring

counties. His wife died soon after their removal to Bedford, and he also

lost his friend and pastor, Mr Gifford. His earliest work was directed

against Quaker mysticism and appeared in 1656. It was entitled _Some Gospel

Truths Opened_; it was followed in the same year by a second tract in the

same sense, _A Vindication of Gospel Truths_.

[5] He was not, however, as has often been stated, confined in the old gaol

which stood on the bridge over the Ouse, but in the county gaol.

[6] His formal pardon is dated the 13th of September 1672; but five months

earlier he had received a royal licence to preach, and acted for the next

three years as pastor of the nonconformist body to which he belonged, in a

barn on the site of which stands the present Bunyan Meeting.

[7] It is now generally supposed that Bunyan wrote his _Pilgrim's

Progress_, not during his twelve years' imprisonment, but during a short

period of incarceration in 1675, probably in the old gaol on the bridge.

[8] He had resumed his pastorate in Bedford after his imprisonment of 1675,

and, although he frequently preached in London to crowded congregations,

and is said in the last year of his life to have been, of course

unofficially, chaplain to Sir John Shorter, lord mayor of London, he

remained faithful to his own congregation.

BUNZLAU, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, on the right bank of the

Bober, 27 m. from Liegnitz on the Berlin-Breslau railway, which crosses the

river by a great viaduct. Pop. (1900) 14,590. It has a handsome market

square, an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and monuments to the

Russian field marshal Kutusov, who died here, and to the poet Martin Opitz

von Boberfeld. The Bunzlau pottery is famous; woollen and linen cloth are

manufactured, and there is a considerable trade in grain and cattle.

Bunzlau (Boleslavia) received its name in the 12th century from Duke

Boleslav, who separated it from the duchy of Glogau. Its importance was

increased by numerous privileges and the possession of extensive mining

works. It was frequently captured and recaptured in the wars of the 17th

century, and in 1739 was completely destroyed by fire. On the 30th of

August 1813 the French were here defeated on the retreat from the Katzbach

by the Silesian army of the allies.

BUONAFEDE, APPIANO (1716-1793), Italian philosopher, was born at Comachio,

in Ferrara, and died in Rome. He became professor of theology at Naples in

1740, and, entering the religious body of the Celestines, rose to be

general of the order. His principal works, generally published under the

assumed name of "Agatopisto Cromazione," are on the history of

philosophy:--_Della Istoria e delle Indole di ogni Filosofia_, 7 vols.,

1772 seq.; and _Della Restaurazione di ogni Filosofia ne' Secoli_, xvi.,

xvii., xviii., 3 vols., 1789 (German trans. by C. Heydenreich). The latter

gives a valuable account of 16th-century Italian philosophy. His other

works are _Istoria critica e filosofica del suicidio_ (1761); _Delle

conquiste celebri esaminate col naturale diritto delle genti_ (1763);

_Storia critica del moderno diritto di natura e delle genti_ (1789); and a

few poems and philosophic comedies.

BUOY (15th century "boye"; through O.Fr. or Dutch, from Lat. _boia_,

fetter; the word is now usually pronounced as "boy," and it has been spelt

in that form; but Hakluyt's [v.04 p.0807] _Voyages_ spells it "bwoy," and

this seems to indicate a different pronunciation, which is also given in

some modern dictionaries), a floating body employed to mark the navigable

limits of channels, their fairways, sunken dangers or isolated rocks, mined

or torpedo grounds, telegraph cables, or the position of a ship's anchor

after letting go; buoys are also used for securing a ship to instead of

anchoring. They vary in size and construction from a log of wood to steel

mooring buoys for battleships or a steel gas buoy.

In 1882 a conference was held upon a proposal to establish a uniform system

of buoyage. It was under the presidency of the then duke of Edinburgh, and

consisted of representatives from the various bodies interested. The

questions of colour, visibility, shape and size were considered, and any

modifications necessary owing to locality. The committee proposed the

following uniform system of buoyage, and it is now adopted by the general

lighthouse authorities of the United Kingdom:--

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

(1) The mariner when approaching the coast must determine his position on

the chart, and note the direction of flood tide. (2) The term

"starboard-hand" shall denote that side which would be on the right hand of

the mariner either going with the main stream of the flood, or entering a

harbour, river or estuary from seaward; the term "port-hand" shall denote

the left hand of the mariner in the same circumstances. (3)[1] Buoys

showing the pointed top of a cone above water shall be called conical (fig.

1) and shall always be starboard-hand buoys, as above defined. (4)[1] Buoys

showing a flat top above water shall be called can (fig. 2) and shall

always be port-hand buoys, as above defined. (5) Buoys showing a domed top

above water shall be called spherical (fig. 3) and shall mark the ends of

middle grounds. (6) Buoys having a tall central structure on a broad face

shall be called pillar buoys (fig. 4), and like all other special buoys,

such as bell buoys, gas buoys, and automatic sounding buoys, shall be

placed to mark special positions either on the coast or in the approaches

to harbours. (7) Buoys showing only a mast above water shall be called

spar-buoys (fig. 5).[2] (8) Starboard-hand buoys shall always be painted in

one colour only. (9) Port-hand buoys shall be painted of another

characteristic colour, either single or parti-colour. (10) Spherical buoys

(fig. 3) at the ends of middle grounds shall always be distinguished by

horizontal stripes of white colour, (11) Surmounting beacons, such as staff

and globe and others,[3] shall always be painted of one dark colour. (12)

Staff and globe (fig. 1) shall only be used on starboard-hand buoys, staff

and cage (fig. 2) on port hand; diamonds (fig. 7) at the outer ends of

middle grounds; and triangles (fig. 3) at the inner ends. (13) Buoys on the

same side of a channel, estuary or tideway may be distinguished from each

other by names, numbers or letters, and where necessary by a staff

surmounted with the appropriate beacon. (14) Buoys intended for moorings

(fig. 6) may be of shape and colour according to the discretion of the

authority within whose jurisdiction they are laid, but for marking

submarine telegraph cables the colour shall be green with the word

"Telegraph" painted thereon in white letters.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.]

[Illustration: FIG. 7.]

_Buoying and Marking of Wrecks._--(15) Wreck buoys in the open sea, or in

the approaches to a harbour or estuary, shall be coloured green, with the

word "Wreck" painted in white letters on them. (16) When possible, the buoy

should be laid near to the side of the wreck next to mid-channel. (17) When

a wreck-marking vessel is used, it shall, if possible, have its top sides

coloured green, with the word "Wreck" in white letters thereon, and shall

exhibit by day, three balls on a yard 20 ft. above the sea, two placed

vertically at one end and one at the other, the single ball being on the

side nearer to the wreck; in fog a gong or bell is rung in quick succession

at intervals not exceeding one minute (wherever practicable); by night,

three white fixed lights are similarly arranged as the balls in daytime,

but the ordinary riding lights are not shown. (18) In narrow waters or in

rivers and harbours under the jurisdiction of local authorities, the same

rules may be adopted, or at discretion, varied as follows:--When a

wreck-marking vessel is used she shall carry a cross-yard on a mast with

two balls by day, placed horizontally not less than 6 nor more than 12 ft.

apart, and by night two lights similarly placed. When a barge or open boat

only is used, a flag or ball may be shown in the daytime. (19) The position

in which the marking vessel is placed with reference to the wreck shall be

at the discretion of the local authority having jurisdiction. A uniform

system by shape has been adopted by the Mersey Dock and Harbour Board, to

assist a mariner by night, and, in addition, where practicable, a uniform

colour; the fairway buoys are specially marked by letter, shape and colour.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.]

[Illustration: FIG. 9.]

[Illustration: FIG. 10.]

[Illustration: FIG. 11.]

British India has practically adopted the British system, United States and

Canada have the same uniform system; in the majority of European maritime

countries and China various uniform systems have been adopted. In Norway

and Russia the compass system is used, the shape, colour and surmountings

of the buoys indicating the compass bearing of the danger from the buoy;

this method is followed in the open sea by Sweden. An international uniform

system of buoyage, although desirable, appears impracticable. Germany

employs yellow buoys to mark boundaries of quarantine stations. The

question of shape versus colour, irrespective of size, is a disputed one;

the shape is a better guide at night and colour in the daytime. All

markings (figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11) should be subordinate to the main colour

of the buoy; the varying backgrounds and atmospheric conditions render the

question a complex one.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.]

[Illustration: FIG. 13.]

[Illustration: FIG. 14.]

London Trinity House buoys are divided into five classes, their use

depending on whether the spot to be marked is in the open sea or otherwise

exposed position, or in a sheltered harbour, or according to the depth of

water and weight of moorings, or the importance of the danger. Buoys are

moored with specially tested cables; the eye at the base of the buoy is of

wrought iron to prevent it becoming "reedy" and the cable is secured to

blocks (see ANCHOR) or mushroom anchors according to the nature of the

ground. London Trinity House buoys are [v.04 p.0808] built of steel, with

bulkheads to lessen the risk of their sinking by collision, and, with the

exception of bell buoys, do not contain water ballast. In 1878 gas buoys,

with fixed and occulting lights of 10-candle power, were introduced. In

1896 Mr T. Matthews, engineer-in-chief in the London Trinity Corporation,

developed the present design (fig. 12). It is of steel, the lower plates

being 5/8 in. and the upper 7/16 in. in thickness, thus adding to the

stability. The buoy holds 380 cub. ft. of gas, and exhibits an occulting

light for 2533 hours. This light is placed 10 ft. above the sea, and, with

an intensity of 50 candles, is visible 8 m. It occults every ten seconds,

and there is seven seconds' visibility, with three seconds' obscuration.

The occultations are actuated by a double valve arrangement. In the body of

the apparatus there is a gas chamber having sufficient capacity, in the

case of an occulting light, for maintaining the flame in action for seven

seconds, and by means of a by-pass a jet remains alight in the centre of

the burner. During the period of three seconds' darkness the gas chamber is

re-charged, and at the end of that period is again opened to the main

burner by a tripping arrangement of the valve, and remains in action seven

seconds. The gas chamber of the buoy, charged to five atmospheres, is

replenished from a steamer fitted with a pump and transport receivers

carrying indicating valves, the receivers being charged to ten atmospheres.

Practically no inconvenience has resulted from saline or other deposits,

the glazing (glass) of the lantern being thoroughly cleaned when

re-charging the buoy. Acetylene, generated from calcium carbide inside the

buoy, is also used. Electric light is exhibited from some buoys in the

United States. In England an automatic electric buoy has been suggested,

worked by the motion of the waves, which cause a stream of water to act on

a turbine connected with a dynamo generating electricity. Boat-shaped buoys

are also used (river Humber) for carrying a light and bell. The Courtenay

whistling buoy (fig. 13) is actuated by the undulating movement of the

waves. A hollow cylinder extends from the lower part of the buoy to still

water below the movement of the waves, ensuring that the water inside keeps

at mean level, whilst the buoy follows the movements of the waves. By a

special apparatus the compressed air is forced through the whistle at the

top of the buoy, and the air is replenished by two tubes at the upper part

of the buoy. It is fitted with a rudder and secured in the usual manner.

Automatic buoys cannot be relied on in calm days with a smooth sea. The nun

buoy (fig. 14) for indicating the position of an anchor after letting go,

is secured to the crown of the anchor by a buoy rope. It is usually made of

galvanized iron, and consists of two cones joined together at the base. It

is painted red for the port anchor and green for the starboard.

Mooring buoys (fig. 6) for battleships are built of steel in four

watertight compartments, and have sufficient buoyancy to keep afloat should

a compartment be pierced; they are 13 ft. long with a diameter of 6½ ft.

The mooring cable (bridle) passes through a watertight 16-in. trunk pipe,

built vertically in the centre of the buoy, and is secured to a "rocking

shackle" on the upper surface of the buoy. Large mooring buoys are usually

protected by horizontal wooden battens and are fitted with life chains.

(J. W. D.)

[1] In carrying out the above system the Northern Lights Commissioners have

adopted a red colour for conical or starboard-hand buoys, and black colour

for can or port-hand buoys, and this system is applicable to the whole of

Scotland.

[2] Useful where floating ice is encountered.

[3] St George and St Andrew crosses are principally employed to surmount

shore beacons.

BUPALUS AND ATHENIS, sons of Archermus, and members of the celebrated

school of sculpture in marble which flourished in Chios in the 6th century

B.C. They were contemporaries of the poet Hipponax (about 540 B.C.), whom

they were said to have caricatured. Their works consisted almost entirely

of draped female figures, Artemis, Fortune, the Graces, whence the Chian

school has been well called a school of Madonnas. Augustus brought many of

the works of Bupalus and Athenis to Rome, and placed them on the gable of

the temple of Apollo Palatinus.

BUPHONIA, in Greek antiquities, a sacrificial ceremony, forming part of the

Diipolia, a religious festival held on the 14th of the month Skirophorion

(June-July) at Athens, when a labouring ox was sacrificed to Zeus Polieus

as protector of the city in accordance with a very ancient custom. The ox

was driven forward to the altar, on which grain was spread, by members of

the family of the Kentriadae (from [Greek: kentron], a goad), on whom this

duty devolved hereditarily. When it began to eat, one of the family of the

Thaulonidae advanced with an axe, slew the ox, then immediately threw away

the axe and fled. The axe, as being polluted by murder, was now carried

before the court of the Prytaneum (which tried inanimate objects for

homicide) and there charged with having caused the death of the ox, for

which it was thrown into the sea. Apparently this is an early instance

analogous to deodand (_q.v._). Although the slaughter of a labouring ox was

forbidden, it was considered excusable in the exceptional circumstances;

none the less it was regarded as a murder.

Porphyrius, _De Abstinentia_, ii. 29; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ viii. 3; Schol.

Aristoph. _Nubes_, 485; Pausanias, i. 24, 28; see also Band, _De

Diipoliorum Sacro Atheniensium_ (1873).

BUR, or BURR (apparently the same word as Danish _borre_, burdock, cf.

Swed. _kard-boore_), a prickly fruit or head of fruits, as of the burdock.

In the sense of a woody outgrowth on the trunk of a tree, or "gnaur," the

effect of a crowded bud-development, the word is probably adapted from the

Fr. _bourre_, a vine-bud.

BURANO, a town of Venetia, in the province of Venice, on an island in the

lagoons, 6 m. N.E. of Venice by sea. Pop. (1901) 8169. It is a fishing

town, with a large royal school of lace-making employing some 500 girls. It

was founded, like all the towns in the lagoons, by fugitives from the

mainland cities at the time of the barbarian invasions. Torcello is a part

of the commune of Burano.

BURAUEN, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine

Islands, on the Dagitan river, 21 m. S. by W. of Tacloban, the capital.

Pop. (1903) 18,197. Burauen is situated in a rich hemp-growing region, and

hemp is its only important product. The language is Visayan.

BURBAGE, JAMES (d. 1597), English actor, is said to have been born at

Stratford-on-Avon. He was a member of the earl of Leicester's players,

probably for several years before he is first mentioned (1574) as being at

the head of the company. In 1576, having secured the lease of land at

Shoreditch, Burbage erected there the successful house which was known for

twenty years as _The_ Theatre from the fact that it was the first ever

erected in London. He seems also to have been concerned in the erection of

a second theatre in the same locality, the Curtain, and later, in spite of

all difficulties and a great deal of local opposition, he started what

became the most celebrated home of the rising drama,--the Blackfriars

theatre, built in 1596 near the old Dominican friary.

His son RICHARD BURBAGE (c. 1567-1619), more celebrated than his father,

was the Garrick of the Elizabethan stage, and acted all the great parts in

Shakespeare's plays. He, too, is said to have been born at

Stratford-on-Avon, and made his first appearance at an early age at one of

his father's theatres. He had established a reputation by the time he was

twenty, and in the next dozen years was the most popular English actor, the

"Roscius" of his day. At the time of his father's death, a lawsuit was in

progress against the lessor from whom James Burbage held the land on which

The Theatre stood. This suit was continued by Richard and his brother

Cuthbert, and in 1569 they pulled down the Shoreditch house and used the

materials to erect the Globe theatre, famous for its connexion with

Shakespeare. They occupied it as a summer playhouse, retaining the

Blackfriars, which was roofed in, for winter performances. In this venture

Richard Burbage had Shakespeare and others [v.04 p.0809] as his partners,

and it was in one or the other of these houses that he gained his greatest

triumphs, taking the leading part in almost every new play. He was

specially famous for his impersonation of Richard III. and other

Shakespearian characters, and it was in tragedy that he especially

excelled. Every playwright of his day endeavoured to secure his services.

He died on the 13th of March 1619. Richard Burbage was a painter as well as

an actor. The Felton portrait of Shakespeare is attributed to him, and

there is a portrait of a woman, undoubtedly by him, preserved at Dulwich

College.

BURBOT, or EEL-POUT (_Lota vulgaris_), a fish of the family Gadidae, which

differs from the ling in the dorsal and anal fins reaching the caudal, and

in the small size of all the teeth. It exceeds a length of 3 ft. and is a

freshwater fish, although examples are exceptionally taken in British

estuaries and in the Baltic; some specimens are handsomely marbled with

dark brown, with black blotches on the back and dorsal fins. It is very

locally distributed in central and northern Europe, and an uncommon fish in

England. Its flesh is excellent. The American burbot (_Lota maculosa_) is

coarser, and not favoured for the table.

BURCKHARDT, JAKOB (1818-1897), Swiss writer on art, was born at Basel on

the 25th of May 1818; he was educated there and at Neuchâtel, and till 1839

was intended to be a pastor. In 1838 he made his first journey to Italy,

and also published his first important articles _Bemerkungen über

schweizerische Kathedralen_. In 1839 he went to the university of Berlin,

where he studied till 1843, spending part of 1841 at Bonn, where he was a

pupil of Franz Kugler, the art historian, to whom his first book, _Die

Kunstwerke D. belgischen Städte_ (1842), was dedicated. He was professor of

history at the university of Basel (1845-1847, 1849-1855 and 1858-1893) and

at the federal polytechnic school at Zurich (1855-1858). In 1847 he brought

out new editions of Kugler's two great works, _Geschichte der Malerei_ and

_Kunstgeschichte_, and in 1853 published his own work, _Die Zeit

Constantins des Grossen_. He spent the greater part of the years 1853-1854

in Italy, where he collected the materials for one of his most famous

works, _Der Cicerone: eine Anleitung sum Genuss der Kunstwerke Italiens_,

which was dedicated to Kugler and appeared in 1855 (7th German edition,

1899; English translation of the sections relating to paintings, by Mrs

A.H. Clough, London, 1873). This work, which includes sculpture and

architecture, as well as painting, has become indispensable to the art

traveller in Italy. About half of the original edition was devoted to the

art of the Renaissance, so that Burckhardt was naturally led on to the

preparation of his two other celebrated works, _Die Cultur der Renaissance

in Italien_ (1860, 5th German edition 1896, and English translation, by

S.G.C. Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878), and the _Geschichte der

Renaissance in Italien_ (1867, 3rd German edition 1891). In 1867 he refused

a professorship at Tübingen, and in 1872 another (that left vacant by

Ranke) at Berlin, remaining faithful to Basel. He died in 1897.

See Life by Hans Trog in the _Basler Jahrbuch_ for 1898, pp. 1-172.