(W. A. B. C.)

BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS [JOHANN LUDWIG] (1784-1817), Swiss traveller and

orientalist, was born at Lausanne on the 24th of November 1784. After

studying at Leipzig and Göttingen he visited England in the summer of 1806,

carrying a letter of introduction from the naturalist Blumenbach to Sir

Joseph Banks, who, with the other members of the African Association,

accepted his offer to explore the interior of Africa. After studying in

London and Cambridge, and inuring himself to all kinds of hardships and

privations, Burckhardt left England in March 1809 for Malta, whence he

proceeded, in the following autumn, to Aleppo. In order to obtain a better

knowledge of oriental life he disguised himself as a Mussulman, and took

the name of Sheikh Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah. After two years passed in the

Levant he had thoroughly mastered Arabic, and had acquired such accurate

knowledge of the Koran, and of the commentaries upon its religion and laws,

that after a critical examination the most learned Mussulmans entertained

no doubt of his being really what he professed to be, a learned doctor of

their law. During his residence in Syria he visited Palmyra, Damascus,

Lebanon and thence journeyed via Petra to Cairo with the intention of

joining a caravan to Fezzan, and of exploring from there the sources of the

Niger. In 1812, whilst waiting for the departure of the caravan, he

travelled up the Nile as far as Dar Mahass; and then, finding it impossible

to penetrate westward, he made a journey through the Nubian desert in the

character of a poor Syrian merchant, passing by Berber and Shendi to

Suakin, on the Red Sea, whence he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca by way

of Jidda. At Mecca he stayed three months and afterwards visited Medina.

After enduring privations and sufferings of the severest kind, he returned

to Cairo in June 1815 in a state of great exhaustion; but in the spring of

1816 he travelled to Mount Sinai, whence he returned to Cairo in June, and

there again made preparations for his intended journey to Fezzan. Several

hindrances prevented his prosecuting this intention, and finally, in April

1817, when the long-expected caravan prepared to depart, he was seized with

illness and died on the 15th of October. He had from time to time carefully

transmitted to England his journals and notes, and a very copious series of

letters, so that nothing which appeared to him to be interesting in the

various journeys he made has been lost. He bequeathed his collection of 800

vols. of oriental MSS. to the library of Cambridge University.

His works were published by the African Association in the following

order:--_Travels in Nubia_ (to which is prefixed a biographical memoir)

(1819); _Travels in Syria and the Holy Land_ (1822); _Travels in Arabia_

(1829); _Arabic Proverbs, or the Manners and Customs of the Modern

Egyptians_ (1830); _Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys_ (1831).

BURDEAU, AUGUSTE LAURENT (1851-1894), French politician, was the son of a

labourer at Lyons. Forced from childhood to earn his own living, he was

enabled to secure an education by bursarships at the Lycée at Lyons and at

the Lycée Louis Le Grand in Paris. In 1870 he was at the École Normale

Supérieure in Paris, but enlisted in the army, and was wounded and made

prisoner in 1871. In 1874 he became professor of philosophy, and translated

several works of Herbert Spencer and of Schopenhauer into French. His

extraordinary aptitude for work secured for him the position of _chef de

cabinet _under Paul Bert, the minister of education, in 1881. In 1885 he

was elected deputy for the department of the Rhone, and distinguished

himself in financial questions. He was several times minister, and became

minister of finance in the cabinet of Casimir-Périer (from the 3rd of

November 1893 to the 22nd of May 1894). On the 5th of July 1894 he was

elected president of the chamber of deputies. He died on the 12th of

December 1894, worn out with overwork.

BURDEN, or BURTHEN, (1) (A.S. _byrthen_, from _beran_, to bear), a load,

both literally and figuratively; especially the carrying capacity of a

ship; in mining and smelting, the tops or heads of stream-work which lie

over the stream of tin, and the proportion of ore and flux to fuel in the

charge of a blast-furnace. In Scots and English law the term is applied to

an encumbrance on real or personal property. (2) (From the Fr. _bourdon_, a

droning, humming sound) an accompaniment to a song, or the refrain of a

song; hence a chief or recurrent topic, as "the burden of a speech."

BURDER, GEORGE (1752-1832), English Nonconformist divine, was born in

London on the 5th of June 1752. In early manhood he was an engraver, but in

1776 he began preaching, and was minister of the Independent church at

Lancaster from 1778 to 1783. Subsequently he held charges at Coventry

(1784-1803) and at Fetter Lane, London (1803-1832). He was one of the

founders of the British and Foreign Bible Society, the Religious Tract

Society, and the London Missionary Society, and was secretary to the

last-named for several years. As editor of the _Evangelical Magazine_ and

author of _Village Sermons_, he commanded a wide influence. He died on the

29th of May 1832, and a Life (by H. Burder) appeared in 1833.

BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS (1770-1844), English politician, was the son of

Francis Burdett by his wife Eleanor, daughter of William Jones of Ramsbury

manor, Wiltshire, and grandson of [v.04 p.0810] Sir Robert Burdett, Bart.

Born on the 25th of January 1770, he was educated at Westminster school and

Oxford, and afterwards travelled in France and Switzerland. He was in Paris

during the earlier days of the French Revolution, a visit which doubtless

influenced his political opinions. Returning to England he married in 1793

Sophia, daughter of Thomas Coutts the banker, and this lady brought him a

large fortune. In 1796 he became member of parliament for Boroughbridge,

having purchased this seat from the representatives of the 4th duke of

Newcastle, and in 1797 succeeded his grandfather as fifth baronet. In

parliament he soon became prominent as an opponent of Pitt, and as an

advocate of popular rights. He denounced the war with France, the

suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, the proposed exclusion of John Horne

Tooke from parliament, and quickly became the idol of the people. He was

instrumental in securing an inquiry into the condition of Coldbath Fields

prison, but as a result of this step he was for a time prevented by the

government from visiting any prison in the kingdom. In 1797 he made the

acquaintance of Horne Tooke, whose pupil he became, not only in politics,

but also in philology. At the general election of 1802 Burdett was a

candidate for the county of Middlesex, but his return was declared void in

1804, and in the subsequent contest he was defeated. In 1805 this return

was amended in his favour, but as this was again quickly reversed, Burdett,

who had spent an immense sum of money over the affair, declared he would

not stand for parliament again.

At the general election of 1806 Burdett was a leading supporter of James

Paull, the reform candidate for the city of Westminster; but in the

following year a misunderstanding led to a duel between Burdett and Paull

in which both combatants were wounded. At the general election in 1807

Burdett, in spite of his reluctance, was nominated for Westminster, and

amid great enthusiasm was returned at the top of the poll. He took up again

the congenial work of attacking abuses and agitating for reform, and in

1810 came sharply into collision with the House of Commons. A radical named

John Gale Jones had been committed to prison by the House, a proceeding

which was denounced by Burdett, who questioned the power of the House to

take this step, and vainly attempted to secure the release of Jones. He

then issued a revised edition of his speech on this occasion, and it was

published by William Cobbett in the _Weekly Register_. The House voted this

action a breach of privilege, and the speaker issued a warrant for

Burdett's arrest. Barring himself in his house, he defied the authorities,

while the mob gathered in his defence. At length his house was entered, and

under an escort of soldiers he was conveyed to the Tower. Released when

parliament was prorogued, he caused his supporters much disappointment by

returning to Westminster by water, and so avoiding a demonstration in his

honour. He then brought actions against the speaker and the

serjeant-at-arms, but the courts upheld the action of the House. In

parliament Burdett denounced corporal punishment in the army, and supported

all attempts to check corruption, but his principal efforts were directed

towards procuring a reform of parliament, and the removal of Roman Catholic

disabilities. In 1809 he had proposed a scheme of parliamentary reform, and

returning to the subject in 1817 and 1818 he anticipated the Chartist

movement by suggesting universal male suffrage, equal electoral districts,

vote by ballot, and annual parliaments; but his motions met with very

little support. He succeeded, however, in carrying a resolution in 1825

that the House should consider the laws concerning Roman Catholics. This

was followed by a bill embodying his proposals, which passed the Commons

but was rejected by the Lords. In 1827 and 1828 he again proposed

resolutions on this subject, and saw his proposals become law in 1829. In

1820 Burdett had again come into serious conflict with the government.

Having severely censured its action with reference to the "Manchester

massacre," he was prosecuted at Leicester assizes, fined £1000, and

committed to prison for three months. After the passing of the Reform Bill

in 1832 the ardour of the veteran reformer was somewhat abated, and a

number of his constituents soon took umbrage at his changed attitude.

Consequently he resigned his seat early in 1837, but was re-elected.

However, at the general election in the same year he forsook Westminster

and was elected member for North Wiltshire, which seat he retained, acting

in general with the Conservatives, until his death on the 23rd of January

1844. He left a son, Robert, who succeeded to the baronetcy, and five

daughters, the youngest of whom became the celebrated Baroness

Burdett-Coutts. Impetuous and illogical, Burdett did good work as an

advocate of free speech, and an enemy of corruption. He was exceedingly

generous, and spent money lavishly in furthering projects of reform.

See A. Stephens, _Life of Horne Tooke_ (London, 1813); Spencer Walpole,

_History of England_ (London, 1878-1886); C. Abbot, Baron Colchester,

_Diary and Correspondence_ (London, 1861).

(A. W. H.*)

BURDETT-COUTTS, ANGELA GEORGINA BURDETT-COUTTS, BARONESS (1814-1906),

English philanthropist, youngest daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, was born

on the 21st of April 1814. When she was three-and-twenty, she inherited

practically the whole of the immense wealth of her grandfather Thomas

Coutts (approaching two millions sterling, a fabulous sum in those days),

by the will of the duchess of St Albans, who, as the actress Henrietta

Mellon, had been his second wife and had been left it on his death in 1821.

Miss Burdett then took the name of Coutts in addition to her own. "The

faymale heiress, Miss Anjaley Coutts," as the author of the _Ingoldsby

Legends_ called her in his ballad on the queen's coronation in that year

(1837), at once became a notable subject of public curiosity and private

cupidity; she received numerous offers of marriage, but remained resolutely

single, devoting herself and her riches to philanthropic work, which made

her famous for well-applied generosity. In May 1871 she was created a

peeress, as Baroness Burdett-Coutts of Highgate and Brookfield, Middlesex.

On the 18th of July 1872 she was presented at the Guildhall with the

freedom of the city of London, the first case of a woman being admitted to

that fellowship. It was not till 1881 that, when sixty-seven years old, she

married William Lehman Ashmead-Bartlett, an American by birth, and brother

of Sir E.A. Ashmead-Bartlett, the Conservative member of parliament; and he

then took his wife's name, entering the House of Commons as member for

Westminster, 1885. Full of good works, and of social interest and

influence, the baroness lived to the great age of ninety-two, dying at her

house in Stratton Street, Piccadilly, on the 30th of December 1906, of

bronchitis. She was buried in Westminster Abbey.

The extent of her benefactions during her long and active life can only be

briefly indicated; but the baroness must remain a striking figure in the

social history of Victorian England, for the thoughtful and conscientious

care with which she "held her wealth in trust" for innumerable good

objects. It was her aim to benefit the working-classes in ways involving no

loss of independence or self-respect. She carefully avoided taking any side

in party politics, but she was actively interested in phases of Imperial

extension which were calculated to improve the condition of the black

races, as in Africa, or the education and relief of the poor or suffering

in any part of the world. Though she made no special distinction of creed

in her charities, she was a notable benefactor of the Church of England,

building and endowing churches and church schools, endowing the bishoprics

of Cape Town and of Adelaide (1847), and founding the bishopric of British

Columbia (1857). Among her many educational endowments may be specified the

St Stephen's Institute in Vincent Square, Westminster (1846); she started

sewing schools in Spitalfields when the silk trade began to fail; helped to

found the shoe-black brigade; and placed hundreds of destitute boys in

training-ships for the navy and merchant service. She established Columbia

fish market (1869) in Bethnal Green, and presented it to the city, but

owing to commercial difficulties this effort, which cost her over £200,000,

proved abortive. She supported various schemes of emigration to the

colonies; and in Ireland helped to promote the fishing industry by starting

schools, and providing boats, besides [v.04 p.0811] advancing £250,000 in

1880 for supplying seed to the impoverished tenants. She was devoted to the

protection of animals and prevention of cruelty, and took up with

characteristic zeal the cause of the costermongers' donkeys, building

stables for them on her Columbia market estate, and giving prizes for the

best-kept animals. She helped to inaugurate the society for the prevention

of cruelty to children, and was a keen supporter of the ragged school

union. Missionary efforts of all sorts; hospitals and nursing; industrial

homes and refuges; relief funds, &c., found in her a generous supporter.

She was associated with Louisa Twining and Florence Nightingale; and in

1877-1878 raised the Turkish compassionate fund for the starving peasantry

and fugitives in the Russo-Turkish War (for which she obtained the order of

the Medjidieh, a solitary case of its conference on a woman). She relieved

the distressed in far-off lands as well as at home, her helping hand being

stretched out to the Dyaks of Borneo and the aborigines of Australia. She

was a liberal patroness of the stage, literature and the arts, and

delighted in knowing all the cultured people of the day. In short, her

position in England for half a century may well be summed up in words

attributed to King Edward VII., "after my mother (Queen Victoria) the most

remarkable woman in the kingdom."

BURDON-SANDERSON, SIR JOHN SCOTT, Bart. (1828-1905), English physiologist,

was born at West Jesmand, near Newcastle, on the 21st of December 1828. A

member of a well-known Northumbrian family, he received his medical

education at the university of Edinburgh and at Paris. Settling in London,

he became medical officer of health for Paddington in 1856 and four years

later physician to the Middlesex and the Brompton Consumption hospitals.

When diphtheria appeared in England in 1858 he was sent to investigate the

disease at the different points of outbreak, and in subsequent years he

carried out a number of similar inquiries, _e.g._ into the cattle plague

and into cholera in 1866. He became first principal of the Brown

Institution at Lambeth in 1871, and in 1874 was appointed Jodrell professor

of physiology at University College, London, retaining that post till 1882.

When the Waynflete chair of physiology was established at Oxford in 1882,

he was chosen to be its first occupant, and immediately found himself the

object of a furious anti-vivisectionist agitation. The proposal that the

university should spend £10,000 in providing him with a suitable

laboratory, lecture-rooms, &c., in which to carry on his work, was strongly

opposed, by some on grounds of economy, but largely because he was an

upholder of the usefulness and necessity of experiments upon animals. It

was, however, eventually carried by a small majority (88 to 85), and in the

same year the Royal Society awarded him a royal medal in recognition of his

researches into the electrical phenomena exhibited by plants and the

relations of minute organisms to disease, and of the services he had

rendered to physiology and pathology. In 1885 the university of Oxford was

asked to vote £500 a year for three years for the purposes of the

laboratory, then approaching completion. This proposal was fought with the

utmost bitterness by Sanderson's opponents, the anti-vivisectionists

including E.A. Freeman, John Ruskin and Bishop Mackarness of Oxford.

Ultimately the money was granted by 412 to 244 votes. In 1895 Sanderson was

appointed regius professor of medicine at Oxford, resigning the post in

1904; in 1899 he was created a baronet. His attainments, both in biology

and medicine, brought him many honours. He was Croonian lecturer to the

Royal Society in 1867 and 1877 and to the Royal College of Physicians in

1891; gave the Harveian oration before the College of Physicians in 1878;

acted as president of the British Association at Nottingham in 1893; and

served on three royal commissions--Hospitals (1883), Tuberculosis, Meat and

Milk (1890), and University for London (1892). He died at Oxford on the

23rd of November 1905.

BURDWAN, or BARDWAN, a town of British India, in Bengal, which gives its

name to a district and to a division. It has a station on the East Indian

railway, 67 m. N.W. from Calcutta. Pop. (1901) 35,022. The town consists

really of numerous villages scattered over an area of 9 sq. m., and is

entirely rural in character. It contains several interesting ancient tombs,

and at Nawab Hat, some 2 m. distant, is a group of 108 Siva _lingam_

temples built in 1788. The place was formerly very unhealthy, but this has

been to a large extent remedied by the establishment of water-works, a good

supply of water being derived from the river Banka. Within the town, the

principal objects of interest are the palaces and gardens of the maharaja.

The chief educational institution is the Burdwan Raj college, which is

entirely supported out of the maharaja's estate.

The town owes its importance entirely to being the headquarters of the

maharaja of Burdwan, the premier nobleman of lower Bengal, whose rent-roll

is upwards of £300,000. The _raj_ was founded in 1657 by Abu Ra Kapur, of

the Kapur Khatri family of Kotli in Lahore, Punjab, whose descendants

served in turn the Mogul emperors and the British government. The great

prosperity of the _raj_ was due to the excellent management of Maharaja

Mahtab Chand (d. 1879), whose loyalty to the government--especially during

the Santal rebellion of 1855 and the mutiny of 1857--was rewarded with the

grant of a coat of arms in 1868 and the right to a personal salute of 13

guns in 1877. Maharaja Bijai Chand Mahtab (b. 1881), who succeeded his

adoptive father in 1888, earned great distinction by the courage with which

he risked his life to save that of Sir Andrew Fraser, the

lieutenant-governor of Bengal, on the occasion of the attempt to

assassinate him made by Bengali malcontents on the 7th of November 1908.

The DISTRICT OF BURDWAN lies along the right bank of the river Bhagirathi

or Hugli. It has an area of 2689 sq. m. It is a flat plain, and its scenery

is uninteresting. Chief rivers are the Bhagirathi, Damodar, Ajai, Banka,

Kunur and Khari, of which only the Bhagirathi is navigable by country cargo

boats throughout the year. The district was acquired by the East India

Company under the treaty with Nawab Mir Kasim in 1760, and confirmed by the

emperor Shah Alam in 1765. The land revenue was fixed in perpetuity with

the zemindar in 1793. In 1901 the population was 1,532,475, showing an

increase of 10% in the decade. There are several indigo factories. The

district suffered from drought in 1896-1897. The Eden Canal, 20 m. long,

has been constructed for irrigation. The weaving of silk is the chief

native industry. As regards European industries, Burdwan takes the first

place in Bengal. It contains the great coal-field of Raniganj, first opened

in 1874, with an output of more than three million tons. The Barrakur

ironworks produce pig-iron, which is reported to be as good as that of

Middlesbrough. Apart from Burdwan town and Raniganj, the chief places are

the river-marts of Katwa and Kalna. The East Indian railway has several

lines running through the district.

The DIVISION OF BURDWAN comprises the six districts of Burdwan, Birbhum,

Bankura, Midnapore, Hugli and Howrah, with a total area of 13,949 sq. m.,

and a population in 1901 of 8,240,076.

BUREAU (a Fr. word from _burel_ or _bureau_, a coarse cloth used for

coverings), a writing-table or desk (_q.v._), also in America a low chest

of drawers. From the meaning of "desk," the word is applied to an office or

place of business, and particularly a government department; in the United

States the term is used of certain subdivisions of the executive

departments, as the bureau of statistics, a division of the treasury

department. The term "bureaucracy" is often employed to signify the

concentration of administrative power in bureaux or departments, and the

undue interference by officials not only in the details of government, but

in matters outside the scope of state interference. The word is also

frequently used in the sense of "red-tapism."

BURFORD, a market town in the Woodstock parliamentary division of

Oxfordshire, England, 18 m. W.N.W. of Oxford. Pop. (1901) 1146. It is

pleasantly situated in the valley of the Windrush, the broad, picturesque

main street sloping upward from the stream, beside which stands the fine

church, to the summit of the ridge flanking the valley on the south, along

which runs the high road from Oxford. The church of St John the Baptist has

a nave and aisles, mainly Perpendicular in appearance owing to alterations

in that period, but actually of [v.04 p.0812] earlier construction, the

south aisle flanked by two beautiful chapels and an ornate porch; transepts

and a central tower, and choir with flanking chapels. The massive Norman

tower contrasts strongly with the delicate Perpendicular spire rising upon

it. The church contains many interesting memorials, and, in the nave, a

Perpendicular shrine dedicated to St Peter. Near the church is the

half-ruined priory house, built in the 17th century, and containing much

fine plaster ornament characteristic of the period; a curious chapel

adjoins it. William Lenthall, speaker of the Long Parliament, was granted

this mansion, died here in 1662, and is buried in the church. In the High

Street nearly every house is of some antiquity. The Tolsey or old town hall

is noteworthy among them; and under one of the houses is an Early English

crypt. Burford is mentioned as the scene of a synod in 705; in 752 Cuthred,

king of the West Saxons, fighting for independence, here defeated

Æthelbald, king of Mercia; and in 1649 the town and district were the scene

of victorious operations by Cromwell.

BURG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the river Ihle, and the

railway from Berlin to Magdeburg, 14 m. N.E. of the latter. Pop. (1900)

22,432. It is noted for its cloth manufactures and boot-making, which

afford employment to a great part of its population. The town belonged

originally to the lordship of Querfurt, passed with this into the

possession of the archbishops of Magdeburg in 1496, and was ceded in 1635

with other portions of the Magdeburg territories to Saxony; in 1687 it was

ceded to Brandenburg. It owes its prosperity to the large influx of

industrious French, Palatinate and Walloon refugees, which took place about

the end of the 17th century.

BURGAGE (from Lat. _burgus_, a borough), a form of tenure, both in England

and Scotland, applicable to the property connected with the old municipal

corporations and their privileges. In England, it was a tenure whereby

houses or tenements in an ancient borough were held of the king or other

person as lord at a certain rent. The term is of less practical importance

in the English than in the Scottish system, where it held an important

place in the practice of conveyancing, real property having been generally

divided into feudal-holding and burgage-holding. Since the Conveyancing

(Scotland) Act 1874, there is, however, not much distinction between

burgage tenure and free holding. It is usual to speak of the English

burgage-tenure as a relic of Saxon freedom resisting the shock of the

Norman conquest and its feudalism, but it is perhaps more correct to

consider it a local feature of that general exemption from feudality

enjoyed by the _municipia_ as a relic of their ancient Roman constitution.

The reason for the system preserving for so long its specifically distinct

form in Scottish conveyancing was because burgage-holding was an exception

to the system of subinfeudation which remained prevalent in Scotland when

it was suppressed in England. While other vassals might hold of a graduated

hierarchy of overlords up to the crown, the burgess always held directly of

the sovereign. It is curious that while in England the burgage-tenure was

deemed a species of socage, to distinguish it from the military holdings,

in Scotland it was strictly a military holding, by the service of watching

and warding for the defence of the burgh. In England the franchises enjoyed

by burgesses, freemen and other consuetudinary constituencies in burghs,

were dependent on the character of the burgage-tenure. Tenure by burgage

was subject to a variety of customs, the principal of which was

Borough-English (_q.v._).

See Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1898).

BURGAS (sometimes written _Burghaz_, _Bourgas_ or _Borgas_, and, in the

middle ages, _Pyrgos_), a seaport, and capital of the department of Burgas,

in Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia), on the gulf of Burgas, an inlet of the Black

Sea, in 42° 27' N. and 27° 35' E. Pop. (1906) 12,846. Burgas is built on a

low foreland, between the lagoons of Ludzha, on the north, and Kara-Yunus,

on the west; it faces towards the open sea on the east, and towards its own

harbour on the south. The principal approach is a broad isthmus on the

north-west, along which runs the railway to Philippopolis and Adrianople.

Despite its small population and the rivalry of Varna and the Turkish port

of Dedeagatch, Burgas has a considerable transit trade. Its fine harbour,

formally opened in 1904, has an average depth of five fathoms; large

vessels can load at the quays, and the outer waters of the gulf are well

lit by lighthouses on the islets of Hagios Anastasios and Megalo-Nisi. In

1904, the port accommodated over 1400 ships, of about 700,000 tons. These

included upwards of 800 Bulgarian and Turkish sailing-vessels, engaged in

the coasting trade. Fuel, machinery and miscellaneous goods are imported,

chiefly from Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom; the

exports include grain, wool, tallow, cheese, butter, attar of roses, &c.

Pottery and pipes are manufactured from clay obtained in the neighbourhood.

BURGDORF (Fr. _Berthoud_), an industrial town in the Swiss canton of Bern.

It is built on the left bank of the Emme and is 14 m. by rail N.E. of Bern.

The lower (or modern) town is connected by a curious spiral street with the

upper (or old) town. The latter is picturesquely perched on a hill, at a

height of 1942 ft. above sea-level (or 167 ft. above the river); it is

crowned by the ancient castle and by the 15th-century parish church, in the

former of which Pestalozzi set up his educational establishment between

1798 and 1804. A large trade is carried on at Burgdorf in the cheese of the

Emmenthal, while among the industrial establishments are railway works, and

factories of cloth, white lead and tinfoil. In 1900 the population was

8404, practically all Protestants and German-speaking. A fine view of the

Bernese Alps is obtained from the castle, while a still finer one may be

enjoyed from the Lueg hill (2917 ft.), north-east of the town. The castle

dates from the days of the dukes of Zäringen (11th-12th centuries), the

last of whom (Berchtold V.) built walls round the town at its foot, and

granted it a charter of liberties. On the extinction (1218) of that dynasty

both castle and town passed to the counts of Kyburg, and from them, with

the rest of their possessions, in 1272 by marriage to the cadet line of the

Habsburgs. By that line they were sold in 1384, with Thun, to the town of

Bern, whose bailiffs ruled in the castle till 1798.

(W. A. B. C.)

BURGEE (of unknown origin), a small three-cornered or swallow-tailed flag

or pennant used by yachts or merchant vessels; also a kind of small coal

burnt in engine furnaces.

BÜRGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST (1748-1794), German poet, was born on the 1st of

January 1748 at Molmerswende near Halberstadt, of which village his father

was the Lutheran pastor. He was a backward child, and at the age of twelve

was practically adopted by his maternal grandfather, Bauer, at

Aschersleben, who sent him to the _Pädagogium_ at Halle. Hence in 1764 he

passed to the university, as a student of theology, which, however, he soon

abandoned for the study of jurisprudence. Here he fell under the influence

of C.A. Klotz (1738-1771), who directed Bürger's attention to literature,

but encouraged rather than discouraged his natural disposition to a wild

and unregulated life. In consequence of his dissipated habits, he was in

1767 recalled by his grandfather, but on promising to reform was in 1768

allowed to enter the university of Göttingen as a law student. As he

continued his wild career, however, his grandfather withdrew his support

and he was left to his own devices. Meanwhile he had made fair progress

with his legal studies, and had the good fortune to form a close friendship

with a number of young men of literary tastes. In the Göttingen

_Musenalmanach_, edited by H. Boie and F.W. Gotter, Bürger's first poems

were published, and by 1771 he had already become widely known as a poet.

In 1772, through Boie's influence, Bürger obtained the post of "_Amtmann_"

or district magistrate at Altengleichen near Göttingen. His grandfather was

now reconciled to him, paid his debts and established him in his new sphere

of activity. Meanwhile he kept in touch with his Göttingen friends, and

when the "Göttinger Bund" or "Hain" was formed, Bürger, though not himself

a member, kept in close touch with it. In 1773 the ballad _Lenore_ was

published in the _Musenalmanach_. This poem, which in dramatic force and in

its vivid realization of the weird and supernatural remains without a

rival, made his name a household word in Germany. In 1774 Bürger married

Dorette Leonhart, the [v.04 p.0813] daughter of a Hanoverian official; but

his passion for his wife's younger sister Auguste (the "Molly" of his poems

and elegies) rendered the union unhappy and unsettled his life. In 1778

Bürger became editor of the _Musenalmanach_, and in the same year published

the first collection of his poems. In 1780 he took a farm at Appenrode, but

in three years lost so much money that he had to abandon the venture.

Pecuniary troubles oppressed him, and being accused of neglecting his

official duties, and feeling his honour attacked, he gave up his official

position and removed in 1784 to Göttingen, where he established himself as

_Privat-docent_. Shortly before his removal thither his wife died (30th of

July 1784), and on the 29th of June in the next year he married his

sister-in-law "Molly." Her death on the 9th of January 1786 affected him

deeply. He appeared to lose at once all courage and all bodily and mental

vigour. He still continued to teach in Göttingen; at the jubilee of the

foundation of the university in 1787 he was made an honorary doctor of

philosophy, and in 1789 was appointed extraordinary professor in that

faculty, though without a stipend. In the following year he married a third

time, his wife being a certain Elise Hahn, who, enchanted with his poems,

had offered him her heart and hand. Only a few weeks of married life with

his "Schwabenmädchen" sufficed to prove his mistake, and after two and a

half years he divorced her. Deeply wounded by Schiller's criticism, in the

14th and 15th part of the _Allgemeine Literaturzeitung_ of 1791, of the 2nd

edition of his poems, disappointed, wrecked in fortune and health, Bürger

eked out a precarious existence as a teacher in Göttingen until his death

there on the 8th of June 1794.

Bürger's character, in spite of his utter want of moral balance, was not

lacking in noble and lovable qualities. He was honest in purpose, generous

to a fault, tender-hearted and modest. His talent for popular poetry was

very considerable, and his ballads are among the finest in the German

language. Besides _Lenore, Das Lied vom braven Manne, Die Kuh, Der Kaiser

und der Abt_ and _Der wilde Jäger_ are famous. Among his purely lyrical

poems, but few have earned a lasting reputation; but mention may be made of

_Das Blümchen Wunderhold, Lied an den lieben Mond_, and a few love songs.

His sonnets, particularly the elegies, are of great beauty.

Editions of Bürger's _Samtliche Schriften_ appeared at Göttingen, 1817

(incomplete); 1829-1833 (8 vols.), and 1835 (one vol.); also a selection by

E. Grisebach (5th ed., 1894). The _Gedichte_ have been published in

innumerable editions, the best being that by A. Sauer (2 vols., 1884).

_Briefe von und an Burger_ were edited by A. Strodtmann in 4 vols. (1874).

On Bürger's life see the biography by H. Prohle (1856), the introduction to

Sauer's edition of the poems, and W. von Wurzbach, _G.A. Burger_ (1900).

BURGERS, THOMAS FRANÇOIS (1834-1881), president of the Transvaal Republic,

was born in Cape Colony on the 15th of April 1834, and was educated at

Utrecht, Holland, where he took the degree of doctor of theology. On his

return to South Africa he was ordained minister of the Dutch Reformed

Church, and stationed at Hanover in Cape Colony, where he exercised his

ministrations for eight years. In 1862 his preaching attracted attention,

and two years later an ecclesiastical tribunal suspended him for heretical

opinions. He appealed, however, to the colonial government, which had

appointed him, and obtained judgment in his favour, which was confirmed by

the privy council of England on appeal in 1865. On the resignation of M.W.

Pretorius and the refusal of President Brand of the Orange Free State to

accept the office, Burgers was elected president of the Transvaal, taking

the oath on the 1st of July 1872. In 1873 he endeavoured to persuade

Montsioa to agree to an alteration in the boundary of the Barolong

territory as fixed by the Keate award, but failed (see BECHUANALAND). In

1875 Burgers, leaving the Transvaal in charge of Acting-President Joubert,

went to Europe mainly to promote a scheme for linking the Transvaal to the

coast by a railway from Delagoa Bay, which was that year definitely

assigned to Portugal by the MacMahon award. With the Portuguese Burgers

concluded a treaty, December 1875, providing for the construction of the

railway. After meeting with refusals of financial help in London, Burgers

managed to raise £90,000 in Holland, and bought a quantity of railway

plant, which on its arrival at Delagoa Bay was mortgaged to pay freight,

and this, so far as Burgers was concerned, was the end of the matter. In

June 1876 he induced the raad to declare war against Sikukuni (Secocoeni),

a powerful native chief in the eastern Transvaal. The campaign was

unsuccessful, and with its failure the republic fell into a condition of

lawlessness and insolvency, while a Zulu host threatened invasion. Burgers

in an address to the raad (3rd of March 1877) declared "I would rather be a

policeman under a strong government than the president of such a state. It

is you---you members of the raad and the Boers--who have lost the country,

who have sold your independence for a drink." Sir Theophilus Shepstone, who

had been sent to investigate the condition of affairs in the Transvaal,

issued on the 12th of April a proclamation annexing the Transvaal to Great

Britain. Burgers fully acquiesced in the necessity for annexation. He

accepted a pension from the British government, and settled down to farming

in Hanover, Cape Colony. He died at Richmond in that colony on the 9th of

December 1881, and in the following year a volume of short stories,

_Tooneelen uit ons dorp_, originally written by him for the Cape

_Volksblad_, was published at the Hague for the benefit of his family. A

patriot, a fluent speaker both in Dutch and in English, and possessed of

unbounded energy, the failure of Burgers was due to his fondness for large

visionary plans, which he attempted to carry out with insufficient means

(see TRANSVAAL: _History_).

For the annexation period see John Martineau, _The Life of Sir Bartle

Frere_, vol. ii. chap, xviii. (London, 1895).

BURGERSDYK, or BURGERSDICIUS, FRANCIS (1590-1629), Dutch logician, was born

at Lier, near Delft, and died at Leiden. After a brilliant career at the

university of Leiden, he studied theology at Saumur, where while still very

young he became professor of philosophy. After five years he returned to

Leiden, where he accepted the chair of logic and moral philosophy, and

afterwards that of natural philosophy. His _Logic_ was at one time widely

used, and is still valuable. He wrote also _Idea Philosophiae Moralis_

(1644).

BURGES, GEORGE (1786-1864), English classical scholar, was born in India.

He was educated at Charterhouse school and Trinity College, Cambridge,

taking his degree in 1807, and obtaining one of the members' prizes both in

1808 and 1809. He stayed up at Cambridge and became a most successful

"coach." He had a great reputation as a Greek scholar, and was a somewhat

acrimonious critic of rival scholars, especially Bishop Blomfield.

Subsequently he fell into embarrassed circumstances through injudicious

speculation, and in 1841 a civil list pension of £100 per annum was

bestowed upon him. He died at Ramsgate, on the 11th of January 1864. Burges

was a man of great learning and industry, but too fond of introducing

arbitrary emendations into the text of classical authors. His chief works

are: Euripides' _Troades_ (1807) and _Phoenissae_ (1809); Aeschylus'

_Supplices_ (1821), _Eumenides_ (1822) and _Prometheus_ (1831); Sophocles'

_Philoctetes_ (1833); E.F. Poppo's _Prolegomena to Thucydides_ (1837), an

abridged translation with critical remarks; _Hermesianactis Fragmenta_

(1839). He also edited some of the dialogues of Plato with English notes,

and translated nearly the whole of that author and the Greek anthology for

Bohn's Classical library. He was a frequent contributor to the _Classical

Journal_ and other periodicals, and dedicated to Byron a play called _The

Son of Erin_, or, _The Cause of the Greeks_ (1823).

BURGESS, DANIEL (1645-1713), English Presbyterian divine, was born at

Staines, in Middlesex, where his father was minister. He was educated under

Busby at Westminster school, and in 1660 was sent to Magdalen Hall, Oxford,

but not being able conscientiously to subscribe the necessary formulae he

quitted the university without taking his degree. In 1667, after taking

orders, he was appointed by Roger Boyle, first Lord Orrery, to the

headmastership of a school recently established by that nobleman at

Charleville, Co. Cork, and soon after he became private chaplain to Lady

Mervin, near Dublin. There he was [v.04 p.0814] ordained by the local

presbytery, and on returning to England was imprisoned for preaching at

Marlborough. He soon regained his liberty, and went to London, where he

speedily gathered a large and influential congregation, as much by the

somewhat excessive fervour of his piety as by the vivacious illustrations

which he frequently employed in his sermons. He was a master of epigram,

and theologically inclined to Calvinism. The Sacheverell mob gutted his

chapel in 1710, but the government repaired the building. Besides

preaching, he gave instruction to private pupils, of whom the most

distinguished was Henry St John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke. His son,

Daniel Burgess (d. 1747), was secretary to the princess of Wales, and in

1723 obtained a _regium donum_ or government grant of £500 half-yearly for

dissenting ministers.

BURGESS, THOMAS (1756-1837), English divine, was born at Odiham, in

Hampshire. He was educated at Winchester, and at Corpus Christi College,

Oxford. Before graduating, he edited a reprint of John Burton's

_Pentalogia_. In 1781 he brought out an annotated edition of Richard

Dawes's _Miscellanea Critica_ (reprinted, Leipzig, 1800). In 1783 he became

a fellow of his college, and in 1785 was appointed chaplain to Shute

Barrington, bishop of Salisbury, through whose influence he obtained a

prebendal stall, which he held till 1803. In 1788 he published his

_Considerations on the Abolition of Slavery_, in which he advocated the

principle of gradual emancipation. In 1791 he accompanied Barrington to

Durham, where he did evangelistic work among the poorer classes. In 1803 he

was appointed to the vacant bishopric of St David's, which he held for

twenty years with great success. He founded the Society for Promoting

Christian Knowledge in the diocese, and also St David's College at

Lampeter, which he liberally endowed. In 1820 he was appointed first

president of the recently founded Royal Society of Literature; and three

years later he was promoted to the see of Salisbury, over which he presided

for twelve years, prosecuting his benevolent designs with unwearied

industry. As at St David's, so at Salisbury, he founded a Church Union

Society for the assistance of infirm and distressed clergymen. He

strenuously opposed both Unitarianism and Catholic emancipation. He died on

the 19th of February 1837.

A list of his works, which are very numerous, will be found in his

biography by J.S. Harford (2nd ed., 1841). In addition to those already

referred to may be mentioned his _Essay on the Study of Antiquities_, _The

First Principles of Christian Knowledge_; _Reflections on the Controversial

Writings of Dr Priestley_, _Emendationes in Suidam et Hesychium et alios

Lexicographos Graecos_; _The Bible, and nothing but the Bible, the Religion

of the Church of England_.

BURGESS (Med. Lat. _burgensis_, from _burgus_, a borough, a town), a term,

in its earliest sense, meaning an inhabitant of a borough, one who occupied

a tenement therein, but now applied solely to a registered parliamentary,

or more strictly, municipal voter. An early use of the word was to denote a

member elected to parliament by his fellow citizens in a borough. In some

of the American colonies (_e.g._ Virginia), a "burgess" was a member of the

legislative body, which was termed the "House of Burgesses." Previously to

the Municipal Reform Act 1835, burgess was an official title in some

English boroughs, and in this sense is still used in some of the states of

the United States, as in Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. _The

Burgess-roll_ is the register or official list of burgesses in a borough.

BURGH [BOURKE, BURKE], the name of an historic Irish house, associated with

Connaught for more than seven centuries. It was founded by William de

Burgh, brother of Hubert de Burgh (_q.v._). Before the death of Henry II.

(1189) he received a grant of lands from John as lord of Ireland. At John's

accession (1199) he was installed in Thomond and was governor of Limerick.

In 1199-1201 he was supporting in turn Cathal Carrach and Cathal Crovderg

for the native throne, but he was expelled from Limerick in 1203, and,

losing his Connaught, though not his Munster estates, died in 1205. His son

Richard, in 1227, received the land of "Connok" [Connaught], as forfeited

by its king, whom he helped to fight. From 1228 to 1232 he held the high

office of justiciar of Ireland. In 1234 he sided with the crown against

Richard, earl marshal, who fell in battle against him. Dying in 1243, he

was succeeded as lord of Connaught by his son Richard, and then (1248) by

his younger son Walter, who carried on the family warfare against the

native chieftains, and added greatly to his vast domains by obtaining (c.

1255) from Prince Edward a grant of "the county of Ulster," in consequence

of which he was styled later earl of Ulster. At his death in 1271, he was

succeeded by his son Richard as 2nd earl. In 1286 Richard ravaged and

subdued Connaught, and deposed Bryan O'Neill as chief native king,

substituting a nominee of his own. The native king of Connaught was also

attacked by him, in favour of that branch of the O'Conors whom his own

family supported. He led his forces from Ireland to support Edward I. in

his Scottish campaigns, and on Edward Bruce's invasion of Ulster in 1315

Richard marched against him, but he had given his daughter Elizabeth in

marriage to Robert Bruce, afterwards king of Scotland, about 1304.

Occasionally summoned to English parliaments, he spent most of his forty

years of activity in Ireland, where he was the greatest noble of his day,

usually fighting the natives or his Anglo-Norman rivals. The patent roll of

1290 shows that in addition to his lands in Ulster, Connaught and Munster,

he had held the Isle of Man, but had surrendered it to the king.

His grandson and successor William, the 3rd earl (1326-1333), was the son

of John de Burgh by Elizabeth, lady of Clare, sister and co-heir of the

last Clare earl of Hertford (d. 1314). He married a daughter of Henry, earl

of Lancaster, and was appointed lieutenant of Ireland in 1331, but was

murdered in his 21st year, leaving a daughter, the sole heiress, not only

of the de Burgh possessions, but of vast Clare estates. She was married in

childhood to Lionel, son of Edward III., who was recognized in her right as

earl of Ulster, and their direct representative, the duke of York, ascended

the throne in 1461 as Edward IV., since when the earldom of Ulster has been

only held by members of the royal family.

On the murder of the 3rd earl (1333), his male kinsmen, who had a better

right, by native Irish ideas, to the succession than his daughter, adopted

Irish names and customs, and becoming virtually native chieftains succeeded

in holding the bulk of the de Burgh territories. Their two main branches

were those of "MacWilliam Eighter" in southern Connaught, and "MacWilliam

Oughter" to the north of them, in what is now Mayo. The former held the

territory of Clanricarde, lying in the neighbourhood of Galway, and in 1543

their chief, as Ulick "Bourck, _alias_ Makwilliam," surrendered it to Henry

VIII., receiving it back to hold, by English custom, as earl of Clanricarde

and Lord Dunkellin. The 4th earl (1601-1635) distinguished himself on the

English side in O'Neill's rebellion and afterwards, and obtained the

English earldom of St Albans in 1628, his son Ulick receiving further the

Irish marquessate of Clanricarde (1646). His cousin and heir, the 6th earl

(1657-1666) was uncle of the 8th and 9th earls (1687-1722), both of whom

fought for James II. and paid the penalty for doing so in 1691, but the 9th

earl was restored in 1702, and his great-grandson, the 12th earl, was

created marquess of Clanricarde in 1789. He left no son, but the

marquessate was again revived in 1825, for his nephew the 14th earl, whose

heir is the present marquess. The family, which changed its name from

Bourke to de Burgh in 1752, and added that of Canning in 1862, still own a

vast estate in County Galway.

In 1603 "the MacWilliam Oughter," Theobald Bourke, similarly resigned his

territory in Mayo, and received it back to hold by English tenure. In 1627

he was created Viscount Mayo. The 2nd and 3rd viscounts (1629-1663)

suffered at Cromwell's hands, but the 4th was restored to his estates (some

50,000 acres) in 1666. The peerage became extinct or dormant on the death

of the 8th viscount in 1767. In 1781 John Bourke, a Mayo man, believed to

be descended from the line of "MacWilliam Oughter," was created Viscount

Mayo, and four years later earl of Mayo, a peerage still extant. In 1872

the 6th earl was murdered in the Andaman Islands when viceroy of India.

The baronies of Bourke of Connell (1580) and Bourke of Brittas (1618), both

forfeited in 1691, were bestowed on branches [v.04 p.0815] of the family

which has also still representatives in the baronetage and landed gentry of

Ireland.

The lords Burgh or Borough of Gainsborough (1487-1599) were a Lincolnshire

family believed to be descended from a younger son of Hubert de Burgh. The

5th baron was lord deputy of Ireland in 1597, and his younger brother, Sir

John (d. 1594), a distinguished soldier and sailor.

(J. H. R.)

BURGH, HUBERT DE (d. 1243), chief justiciar of England in the reign of John

and Henry III., entered the royal service in the reign of Richard I. He

traced his descent from Robert of Mortain, half brother of the Conqueror

and first earl of Cornwall; he married about 1200 the daughter of William

de Vernon, earl of Devon; and thus, from the beginning of his career, he

stood within the circle of the great ruling families. But he owed his high

advancement to exceptional ability as an administrator and a soldier.

Already in 1201 he was chamberlain to King John, the sheriff of three

shires, the constable of Dover and Windsor castles, the warden of the

Cinque Ports and of the Welsh Marches. He served with John in the

continental wars which led up to the loss of Normandy. It was to his

keeping that the king first entrusted the captive Arthur of Brittany.

Coggeshall is our authority for the tale, which Shakespeare has

immortalized, of Hubert's refusal to permit the mutilation of his prisoner;

but Hubert's loyalty was not shaken by the crime to which Arthur

subsequently fell a victim. In 1204 Hubert distinguished himself by a long

and obstinate defence of Chinon, at a time when nearly the whole of Poitou

had passed into French hands. In 1213 he was appointed seneschal of Poitou,

with a view to the invasion of France which ended disastrously for John in

the next year.

Both before and after the issue of the Great Charter Hubert adhered loyally

to the king; he was rewarded, in June 1215, with the office of chief

justiciar. This office he retained after the death of John and the election

of William, the earl marshal, as regent. But, until the expulsion of the

French from England, Hubert was entirely engaged with military affairs. He

held Dover successfully through the darkest hour of John's fortunes; he

brought back Kent to the allegiance of Henry III.; he completed the

discomfiture of the French and their allies by the naval victory which he

gained over Eustace the Monk, the noted privateer and admiral of Louis, in

the Straits of Dover (Aug. 1217). The inferiority of the English fleet has

been much exaggerated, for the greater part of the French vessels were

transports carrying reinforcements and supplies. But Hubert owed his

success to the skill with which he manoeuvred for the weather-gage, and his

victory was not less brilliant than momentous. It compelled Louis to accept

the treaty of Lambeth, under which he renounced his claims to the crown and

evacuated England. As the saviour of the national cause the justiciar

naturally assumed after the death of William Marshal (1219) the leadership

of the English loyalists. He was opposed by the legate Pandulf (1218-1221),

who claimed the guardianship of the kingdom for the Holy See; by the

Poitevin Peter des Roches, bishop of Winchester, who was the young king's

tutor; by the foreign mercenaries of John, among whom Falkes de Bréauté

took the lead; and by the feudal party under the earls of Chester and

Albemarle. On Pandulf's departure the pope was induced to promise that no

other legate should be appointed in the lifetime of Archbishop Stephen

Langton. Other opponents were weakened by the audacious stroke of 1223,

when the justiciar suddenly announced the resumption of all the castles,

sheriffdoms and other grants which had been made since the king's

accession. A plausible excuse was found in the next year for issuing a

sentence of confiscation and banishment against Falkes de Bréauté. Finally

in 1227, Hubert having proclaimed the king of age, dismissed the bishop of

Winchester from his tutorship.

Hubert now stood at the height of his power. His possessions had been

enlarged by four successive marriages, particularly by that which he

contracted in 1221 with Margaret, the sister of Alexander II. of Scotland;

in 1227 he received the earldom of Kent, which had been dormant since the

disgrace of Odo of Bayeux. But the favour of Henry III. was a precarious

foundation on which to build. The king chafed against the objections with

which his minister opposed wild plans of foreign conquest and inconsiderate

concessions to the papacy. They quarrelled violently in 1229, at

Portsmouth, when the king was with difficulty prevented from stabbing

Hubert, because a sufficient supply of ships was not forthcoming for an

expedition to France. In 1231 Henry lent an ear to those who asserted that

the justiciar had secretly encouraged armed attacks upon the aliens to whom

the pope had given English benefices. Hubert was suddenly disgraced and

required to render an account of his long administration. The blow fell

suddenly, a few weeks after his appointment as justiciar of Ireland. It was

precipitated by one of those fits of passion to which the king was prone;

but the influence of Hubert had been for some time waning before that of

Peter des Roches and his nephew Peter des Rievaux. Some colour was given to

their attacks by Hubert's injudicious plea that he held a charter from King

John which exempted him from any liability to produce accounts. But the

other charges, far less plausible than that of embezzlement, which were

heaped upon the head of the fallen favourite, are evidence of an intention

to crush him at all costs. He was dragged from the sanctuary at Bury St

Edmunds, in which he had taken refuge, and was kept in strait confinement

until Richard of Cornwall, the king's brother, and three other earls

offered to be his sureties. Under their protection he remained in

honourable detention at Devizes Castle. On the outbreak of Richard

Marshal's rebellion (1233), he was carried off by the rebels to the Marshal

stronghold of Striguil, in the hope that his name would add popularity to

their cause. In 1234 he was admitted, along with the other supporters of

the fallen Marshal, to the benefit of a full pardon. He regained his

earldom and held it till his death, although he was once in serious danger

from the avarice of the king (1239), who was tempted by Hubert's enormous

wealth to revive the charge of treason.

In his lifetime Hubert was a popular hero; Matthew Paris relates how, at

the time of his disgrace, a common smith refused with an oath to put

fetters on the man "who restored England to the English." Hubert's ambition

of founding a great family was not realized. His earldom died with him,

though he left two sons. In constitutional history he is remembered as the

last of the great justiciars. The office, as having become too great for a

subject, was now shorn of its most important powers and became politically

insignificant.

See Roger of Wendover's _Flores Historiarum_, edited for the English

Historical Society by H.O. Coxe (4 vols., 1841-1844); the _Chronica Majora_

of Matthew Paris, edited by H.R. Luard for the Rolls Series (7 vols.,

1872-1883); the _Histoire des ducs de Normandie_, edited by F. Michel for

the Soc. de l'Hist. de France (Paris, 1840); the _Histoire de Guillaume le

Marechal_, edited by Paul Meyer for the same society (3 vols., Paris, 1891,

&c.); J.E. Doyle's _Official Baronage of England_, ii. pp. 271-274; R.

Pauli's _Geschichte von England_, vol. iii.; W. Stubbs's _Constitutional

History of England_, vol. ii.

(H. W. C. D.)

BURGHERSH, HENRY (1292-1340), English bishop and chancellor, was a younger

son of Robert, Baron Burghersh (d. 1305), and a nephew of Bartholomew, Lord

Badlesmere, and was educated in France. In 1320 owing to Badlesmere's

influence Pope John XXII. appointed him bishop of Lincoln in spite of the

fact that the chapter had already made an election to the vacant bishopric,

and he secured the position without delay. After the execution of

Badlesmere in 1322 Burghersh's lands were seized by Edward II., and the

pope was urged to deprive him; about 1326, however, his possessions were

restored, a proceeding which did not prevent him from joining Edward's

queen, Isabella, and taking part in the movement which led to the

deposition and murder of the king. Enjoying the favour of the new king,

Edward III., the bishop became chancellor of England in 1328; but he failed

to secure the archbishopric of Canterbury which became vacant about the

same time, and was deprived of his office of chancellor and imprisoned when

Isabella lost her power in 1330. But he was soon released and again in a

position of influence. He was treasurer of England from 1334 to 1337, and

high in the favour and often in the company of Edward III.; he was sent on

several important [v.04 p.0816] errands, and entrusted with important

commissions. He died at Ghent on the 4th of December 1340.

The bishop's brother, Bartholomew Burghersh (d. 1355), became Baron

Burghersh on the death of his brother Stephen in 1310. He acted as

assistant to Badlesmere until the execution of the latter; and then,

trusted by Edward III., was constable of Dover Castle and warden of the

Cinque Ports. He filled other important positions, served Edward III. both

as a diplomatist and a soldier, being present at the battle of Crecy in

1346; and retaining to the last the royal confidence, died in August 1355.

His son and successor, Bartholomew (d. 1369), was one of the first knights

of the order of the Garter, and earned a great reputation as a soldier,

specially distinguishing himself at the battle of Poitiers in 1356.

BURGHLEY, WILLIAM CECIL, BARON (1521-1508), was born, according to his own

statement, on the 13th of September 1521 at the house of his mother's

father at Bourne, Lincolnshire. Pedigrees, elaborated by Cecil himself with

the help of Camden, the antiquary, associated him with the Cecils or

Sitsyllts of Altyrennes in Herefordshire, and traced his descent from an

Owen of the time of King Harold and a Sitsyllt of the reign of Rufus. The

connexion with the Herefordshire family is not so impossible as the descent

from Sitsyllt; but the earliest authentic ancestor of the lord treasurer is

his grandfather, David, who, according to Burghley's enemies, "kept the

best inn" in Stamford. David somehow secured the favour of Henry VII., to

whom he seems to have been yeoman of the guard. He was serjeant-at-arms to

Henry VIII. in 1526, sheriff of Northamptonshire in 1532, and a justice of

the peace for Rutland. His eldest son, Richard, yeoman of the wardrobe (d.

1554), married Jane, daughter of William Heckington of Bourne, and was

father of three daughters and Lord Burghley.

William, the only son, was put to school first at Grantham and then at

Stamford. In May 1535, at the age of fourteen, he went up to St John's

College, Cambridge, where he was brought into contact with the foremost

educationists of the time, Roger Ascham and John Cheke, and acquired an

unusual knowledge of Greek. He also acquired the affections of Cheke's

sister, Mary, and was in 1541 removed by his father to Gray's Inn, without,

after six years' residence at Cambridge, having taken a degree. The

precaution proved useless, and four months later Cecil committed one of the

rare rash acts of his life in marrying Mary Cheke. The only child of this

marriage, Thomas, the future earl of Exeter, was born in May 1542, and in

February 1543 Cecil's first wife died. Three years later he married (21st

of December 1546) Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, who was ranked by

Ascham with Lady Jane Grey as one of the two most learned ladies in the

kingdom, and whose sister, Anne, became the wife of Sir Nicholas, and the

mother of Sir Francis, Bacon.

Cecil, meanwhile, had obtained the reversion to the office of _custos

rotulorum brevium_, and, according to his autobiographical notes, sat in

parliament in 1543; but his name does not occur in the imperfect

parliamentary returns until 1547, when he was elected for the family

borough of Stamford. Earlier in that year he had accompanied Protector

Somerset on his Pinkie campaign, being one of the two "judges of the

Marshalsea," _i.e._ in the courts-martial. The other was William Patten,

who states that both he and Cecil began to write independent accounts of

the campaign, and that Cecil generously communicated his notes for Patten's

narrative, which has been reprinted more than once.

In 1548 he is described as the protector's master of requests, which

apparently means that he was clerk or registrar of the court of requests

which the protector, possibly at Latimer's instigation, illegally set up in

Somerset House "to hear poor men's complaints." He also seems to have acted

as private secretary to the protector, and was in some danger at the time

of the protector's fall (October 1549). The lords opposed to Somerset

ordered his detention on the 10th of October, and in November he was in the

Tower. On the 25th of January 1550 he was bound over in recognizances to

the value of a thousand marks. However, he soon ingratiated himself with

Warwick, and on the 15th of September 1550 he was sworn one of the king's

two secretaries. He was knighted on the 11th of October 1551, on the eve of

Somerset's second fall, and was congratulated on his success in escaping

his benefactor's fate. In April he became chancellor of the order of the

Garter. But service under Northumberland was no bed of roses, and in his

diary Cecil recorded his release in the phrase _ex misero aulico factus

liber et mei juris_. His responsibility for Edward's illegal "devise" of

the crown has been studiously minimized by Cecil himself and by his

biographers. Years afterwards, he pretended that he had only signed the

"devise" as a witness, but in his apology to Queen Mary he did not venture

to allege so flimsy an excuse; he preferred to lay stress on the extent to

which he succeeded in shifting the responsibility on to the shoulders of

his brother-in-law, Sir John Cheke, and other friends, and on his intrigues

to frustrate the queen to whom he had sworn allegiance. There is no doubt

that he saw which way the wind was blowing, and disliked Northumberland's

scheme; but he had not the courage to resist the duke to his face. As soon,

however, as the duke had set out to meet Mary, Cecil became the most active

intriguer against him, and to these efforts, of which he laid a full

account before Queen Mary, he mainly owed his immunity. He had, moreover,

had no part in the divorce of Catherine or in the humiliation of Mary in

Henry's reign, and he made no scruple about conforming to the religious

reaction. He went to mass, confessed, and out of sheer zeal and in no

official capacity went to meet Cardinal Pole on his pious mission to

England in December 1554, again accompanying him to Calais in May 1555. It

was rumoured in December 1554 that Cecil would succeed Sir William Petre as

secretary, an office which, with his chancellorship of the Garter, he had

lost on Mary's accession. Probably the queen had more to do with the

falsification of this rumour than Cecil, though he is said to have opposed

in the parliament of 1555--in which he represented Lincolnshire--a bill for

the confiscation of the estates of the Protestant refugees. But the story,

even as told by his biographer (Peck, _Desiderata Curiosa_, i. 11), does

not represent Cecil's conduct as having been very courageous; and it is

more to his credit that he found no seat in the parliament of 1558, for

which Mary had directed the return of "discreet and good Catholic members."

By that time Cecil had begun to trim his sails to a different breeze. He

was in secret communication with Elizabeth before Mary died, and from the

first the new queen relied on Cecil as she relied on no one else. Her

confidence was not misplaced; Cecil was exactly the kind of minister

England then required. Personal experience had ripened his rare natural

gift for avoiding dangers. It was no time for brilliant initiative or

adventurous politics; the need was to avoid Scylla and Charybdis, and a

_via media_ had to be found in church and state, at home and abroad. Cecil

was not a political genius; no great ideas emanated from his brain. But he

was eminently a safe man, not an original thinker, but a counsellor of

unrivalled wisdom. Caution was his supreme characteristic; he saw that

above all things England required time. Like Fabius, he restored the

fortunes of his country by deliberation. He averted open rupture until

England was strong enough to stand the shock. There was nothing heroic

about Cecil or his policy; it involved a callous attitude towards

struggling Protestants abroad. Huguenots and Dutch Were aided just enough

to keep them going in the struggles which warded danger off from England's

shores. But Cecil never developed that passionate aversion from decided

measures which became a second nature to his mistress. His intervention in

Scotland in 1559-1560 showed that he could strike on occasion; and his

action over the execution of Mary, queen of Scots, proved that he was

willing to take responsibility from which Elizabeth shrank. Generally he

was in favour of more decided intervention on behalf of continental

Protestants than Elizabeth would admit, but it is not always easy to

ascertain the advice he gave. He has left endless memoranda lucidly setting

forth the pros and cons of every course of action; but there are few

indications of the line which he actually recommended when it came to a

decision. How far he was personally responsible for the Anglican

Settlement, the Poor Laws, and the foreign policy of the reign, how far he

was [v.04 p.0817] thwarted by the baleful influence of Leicester and the

caprices of the queen, remains to a large extent a matter of conjecture.

His share in the settlement of 1559 was considerable, and it coincided

fairly with his own somewhat indeterminate religious views. Like the mass

of the nation, he grew more Protestant as time wore on; he was readier to

persecute Papists than Puritans; he had no love for ecclesiastical

jurisdiction, and he warmly remonstrated with Whitgift over his persecuting

Articles of 1583. The finest encomium was passed on him by the queen

herself, when she said, "This judgment I have of you, that you will not be

corrupted with any manner of gifts, and that you will be faithful to the

state."

From 1558 for forty years the biography of Cecil is almost

indistinguishable from that of Elizabeth and from the history of England.

Of personal incident, apart from his mission to Scotland in 1560, there is

little. He represented Lincolnshire in the parliament of 1559, and

Northamptonshire in that of 1563, and he took an active part in the

proceedings of the House of Commons until his elevation to the peerage; but

there seems no good evidence for the story that he was proposed as speaker

in 1563. In January 1561 he was given the lucrative office of master of the

court of wards in succession to Sir Thomas Parry, and he did something to

reform that instrument of tyranny and abuse. In February 1559 he was

elected chancellor of Cambridge University in succession to Cardinal Pole;

he was created M.A. of that university on the occasion of Elizabeth's visit

in 1564, and M.A. of Oxford on a similar occasion in 1566. On the 25th of

February 1571 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Burghley of Burghley[1]

(or Burleigh); the fact that he continued to act as secretary after his

elevation illustrates the growing importance of that office, which under

his son became a secretaryship of state. In 1572, however, the marquess of

Winchester, who had been lord high treasurer under Edward, Mary and

Elizabeth, died, and Burghley succeeded to his post. It was a signal

triumph over Leicester; and, although Burghley had still to reckon with

cabals in the council and at court, his hold over the queen strengthened

with the lapse of years. Before he died, Robert, his only surviving son by

his second wife, was ready to step into his shoes as the queen's principal

adviser. Having survived all his rivals, and all his children except Robert

and the worthless Thomas, Burghley died at his London house on the 4th of

August 1598, and was buried in St Martin's, Stamford.

Burghley's private life was singularly virtuous; he was a faithful husband,

a careful father and a considerate master. A book-lover and antiquary, he

made a special hobby of heraldry and genealogy. It was the conscious and

unconscious aim of the age to reconstruct a new landed aristocracy on the

ruins of the old, and Burghley was a great builder and planter. All the

arts of architecture and horticulture were lavished on Burghley House and

Theobalds, which his son exchanged for Hatfield. His public conduct does

not present itself in quite so amiable a light. As the marquess of

Winchester said of himself, he was sprung from the willow rather than the

oak, and he was not the man to suffer for convictions. The interest of the

state was the supreme consideration, and to it he had no hesitation in

sacrificing individual consciences. He frankly disbelieved in toleration;

"that state," he said, "could never be in safety where there was a

toleration of two religions. For there is no enmity so great as that for

religion; and therefore they that differ in the service of their God can

never agree in the service of their country." With a maxim such as this, it

was easy for him to maintain that Elizabeth's coercive measures were

political and not religious. To say that he was Machiavellian is

meaningless, for every statesman is so more or less; especially in the 16th

century men preferred efficiency to principle. On the other hand,

principles are valueless without law and order; and Burghley's craft and

subtlety prepared a security in which principles might find some scope.

The sources and authorities for Burghley's life are endless. The most

important collection of documents is at Hatfield, where there are some ten

thousand papers covering the period down to Burghley's death; these have

been calendared in 8 volumes by the Hist. MSS. Comm. At least as many

others are in the Record Office and British Museum, the Lansdowne MSS.

especially containing a vast mass of his correspondence; see the catalogues

of Cotton, Harleian, Royal, Sloane, Egerton and Additional MSS. in the

British Museum, and the Calendars of Domestic, Foreign, Spanish, Venetian,

Scottish and Irish State Papers.

Other official sources are the _Acts of the Privy Council_ (vols.

i.-xxix.); Lords' and Commons' Journals, D'Ewes' Journals, Off. Ret.

M.P.'s; Rymer's _Foedera_; Collins's _Sydney State Papers_; Nichols's

_Progresses of Elizabeth_. See also Strype's Works (26 vols.), Parker, Soc.

Publ. (56 vols.); Camden's _Annales_; Holinshed, Stow and Speed's _Chron._;

Hayward's _Annals_; Machyn's _Diary_, Leycester Corr., Egerton Papers

(Camden Soc.). For Burghley's early life, see Cooper's _Athenae Cantab._;

Baker's _St John's Coll., Camb._, ed. Mayor; _Letters and. Papers of Henry

VIII._; Tytler's _Edward VI._; Nichols's _Lit. Remains of Edward VI._;

Leadam's _Court of Requests, Chron. of Queen Jane_ (Camden Soc.) and

throughout Froude's _Hist._ No satisfactory life of Burghley has yet

appeared; some valuable anonymous notes, probably by Burghley's servant

Francis Alford, were printed in Peck's _Desiderata Curiosa_ (1732), i.

1-66; other notes are in Naunton's _Fragmenta Regalia_. Lives by Collins

(1732), Charlton and Melvil (1738), were followed by Nares's biography in

three of the most ponderous volumes (1828-1831) in the language; this

provoked Macaulay's brilliant but misleading essay. M.A.S. Hume's _Great

Lord Burghley_ (1898) is largely a piecing together of the references to

Burghley in the same author's _Calendar of Simancas MSS._ The life by Dr

Jessopp (1904) is an expansion of his article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._; it

is still only a sketch, though the volume contains a mass of genealogical

and other incidental information by other hands.

(A. F. P.)

[1] This was the form always used by Cecil himself.

BURGKMAIR, HANS or JOHN (1473-? 1531), German painter and engraver on wood,

believed to have been a pupil of Albrecht Dürer, was born at Augsburg.

Professor Christ ascribes to him about 700 woodcuts, most of them

distinguished by that spirit and freedom which we admire in the works of

his supposed master. His principal work is the series of 135 prints

representing the triumphs of the emperor Maximilian I. They are of large

size, executed in chiaroscuro, from two blocks, and convey a high idea of

his powers. Burgkmair was also an excellent painter in fresco and in

distemper, specimens of which are in the galleries of Munich and Vienna,

carefully and solidly finished in the style of the old German school.

BURGLARY (_burgi latrocinium_; in ancient English law, _hamesucken_[1]), at

common law, the offence of breaking and entering the dwelling-house of

another with intent to commit a felony. The offence and its punishment are

regulated in England by the Larceny Act 1861. The four important points to

be considered in connexion with the offence of burglary are (1) the time,

(2) the place, (3) the manner and (4) the intent. The _time_, which is now

the essence of the offence, was not considered originally to have been very

material, the gravity of the crime lying principally in the invasion of the

sanctity of a man's domicile. But at some period before the reign of Edward

VI. it had become settled that time was essential to the offence, and it

was not adjudged burglary unless committed by night. The day was then

accounted as beginning at sunrise, and ending immediately after sunset, but

it was afterwards decided that if there were left sufficient daylight or

twilight to discern the countenance of a person, it was no burglary. This,

again, was superseded by the Larceny Act 1861, for the purpose of which

night is deemed to commence at nine o'clock in the evening of each day, and

to conclude at six o'clock in the morning of the next succeeding day.

The _place_ must, according to Sir E. Coke's definition, be a

mansion-house, _i.e._ a man's dwelling-house or private residence. No

building, although within the same curtilage as the dwelling-house, is

deemed to be a part of the dwelling-house for the purposes of burglary,

unless there is a communication between such building and dwelling-house

either immediate or by means of a covered and enclosed passage leading from

the one to the other. Chambers in a college or in an inn of court are the

dwelling-house of the owner; so also are rooms or lodgings in a private

house, provided the owner dwells elsewhere, or enters by a different outer

door from his lodger, otherwise the lodger is merely an inmate and his

apartment a parcel of the one dwelling-house.

[v.04 p.0818] As to the _manner_, there must be both a breaking and an

entry. Both must be at night, but not necessarily on the same night,

provided that in the breaking and in the entry there is an intent to commit

a felony. The breaking may be either an actual breaking of any external

part of a building; or opening or lifting any closed door, window, shutter

or lock; or entry by means of a threat, artifice or collusion with persons

inside; or by means of such a necessary opening as a chimney. If an entry

is obtained through an open window, it will not be burglary, but if an

inner door is afterwards opened, it immediately becomes so. Entry includes

the insertion through an open door or window, or any aperture, of any part

of the body or of any instrument in the hand to draw out goods. The entry

may be before the breaking, for the Larceny Act 1861 has extended the

definition of burglary to cases in which a person enters another's dwelling

with intent to commit felony, or being in such house commits felony

therein, and in either case _breaks out_ of such dwelling-house by night.

Breaking and entry must be with the _intent_ to commit a felony, otherwise

it is only trespass. The felony need not be a larceny, it may be either

murder or rape. The punishment is penal servitude for life, or any term not

less than three years, or imprisonment not exceeding two years, with or

without hard labour.

_Housebreaking_ in English law is to be distinguished from burglary, in

that it is not essential that it should be committed at night, nor in a

dwelling-house. It may, according to the Larceny Act 1861, be committed in

a school-house, shop, warehouse or counting-house. Every burglary involves

housebreaking, but every housebreaking does not amount to burglary. The

punishment for housebreaking is penal servitude for any term not exceeding

fourteen years and not less than three years, or imprisonment for any term

not exceeding two years, with or without hard labour.

In the United States the common-law definition of burglary has been

modified by statute in many states, so as to cover what is defined in

England as housebreaking; the maximum punishment nowhere exceeds

imprisonment for twenty years.

AUTHORITIES.--Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_; Stephen,

_History of Criminal Law_; Archbold, _Pleading and Evidence in Criminal

Cases_; Russell, _On Crimes and Misdemeanours_; Stephen, _Commentaries_.

[1] In Scots law, the word _hamesucken_ meant the feloniously beating or

assaulting a man in his own house.

BURGON, JOHN WILLIAM (1813-1888), English divine, was born at Smyrna on the

21st of August 1813, the son of a Turkey merchant, who was a skilled

numismatist and afterwards became an assistant in the antiquities

department of the British Museum. His mother was a Greek. After a few years

of business life, Burgon went to Worcester College, Oxford, in 1841, gained

the Newdigate prize, took his degree in 1845, and won an Oriel fellowship

in 1846. He was much influenced by his brother-in-law, the scholar and

theologian Henry John Rose (1800-1873), a churchman of the old conservative

type, with whom he used to spend his long vacations. Burgon made Oxford his

headquarters, while holding a living at some distance. In 1863 he was made

vicar of St Mary's, having attracted attention by his vehement sermons

against _Essays and Reviews_. In 1867 he was appointed Gresham professor of

divinity. In 1871 he published a defence of the genuineness of the twelve

last verses of St Mark's Gospel. He now began an attack on the proposal for

a new lectionary for the Church of England, based largely upon his

objections to the principles for determining the authority of MS. readings

adopted by Westcott and Hort, which he assailed in a memorable article in

the _Quarterly Review_ for 1881. This, with his other articles, was

reprinted in 1884 under the title of _The Revision Revised_. His

biographical essays on H.L. Mansel and others were also collected, and

published under the title of _Twelve Good Men_ (1888). Protests against the

inclusion of Dr Vance Smith among the revisers, against the nomination of

Dean Stanley to be select preacher in the university of Oxford, and against

the address in favour of toleration in the matter of ritual, followed in

succession. In 1876 Burgon was made dean of Chichester. He died on the 4th

of August 1888. His life was written by Dean E.M. Goulburn (1892). Vehement

and almost passionate in his convictions, Burgon nevertheless possessed a

warm and kindly heart. He may be described as a high churchman of the type

prevalent before the rise of the Tractarian school. His extensive

collection of transcripts from the Greek Fathers, illustrating the text of

the New Testament, was bequeathed to the British Museum.

BURGONET, or BURGANET (from Fr. _bourguignote_, Burgundian helmet), a form

of light helmet or head-piece, which was in vogue in the 16th and 17th

centuries. In its normal form the burgonet was a large roomy cap with a

brim shading the eyes, cheek-pieces or flaps, a comb, and a guard for the

back of the neck. In many cases a vizor, or other face protection, and a

chin-piece are found in addition, so that this piece of armour is sometimes

mistaken for an armet (_q.v._), but it can always be distinguished by the

projecting brim in front. The morion and cabasset have no face, cheek or

neck protection. The typical head-piece of the 17th-century soldier in

England and elsewhere is a burgonet skull-cap with a straight brim,

neck-guard and often, in addition, a fixed vizor of three thin iron bars

which are screwed into, and hang down from, the brim in front of the eyes.

BURGOS, a province of northern Spain; bounded on the N.E. by Biscay and

Álava, E. by Logroño, S.E. by Soria, S. by Segovia, S.W. by Valladolid, W.

by Palencia, and N.W. by Santander. Pop. (1900) 338,828; area, 5480 sq. m.

Burgos includes the isolated county of Treviño, which is shut in on all

sides by territory belonging to Álava. The northern and north-eastern

districts of the province are mountainous, and the central and southern

form part of the vast and elevated plateau of Old Castile. The extreme

northern region is traversed by part of the great Cantabrian chain.

Eastwards are the highest peaks of the province in the Sierra de la Demanda

(with the Cerro de San Millan, 6995 ft. high) and in the Sierra de Neila.

On the eastern frontier, midway between these highlands and the Cantabrian

chain, two comparatively low ranges, running east and west of Pancorbo,

kave a gap through which run the railway and roads connecting Castile with

the valley of the Ebro. This Pancorbo Pass has often been called the "Iron

Gates of Castile," as a handful of men could hold it against an army. South

and west of this spot begins the plateau, generally covered with snow in

winter, and swept by such cold winds that Burgos is considered, with Soria

and Segovia, one of the coldest regions of the peninsula. The Ebro runs

eastwards through the northern half of the province, but is not navigable.

The Douro, or Duero, crosses the southern half, running west-north-west; it

also is unnavigable in its upper valley. The other important streams are

the Pisuerga, flowing south towards Palencia and Valladolid, and the

Arlanzón, which flows through Burgos for over 75m.

The variations of temperature are great, as from 9° to 20° of frost have

frequently been recorded in winter, while the mean summer temperature is

64° (Fahr.). As but little rain falls in summer, and the soil is poor,

agriculture thrives only in the valleys, especially that of the Ebro. In

live-stock, however, Burgos is one of the richest of Spanish provinces.

Horses, mules, asses, goats, cattle and pigs are bred in considerable

numbers, but the mainstay of the peasantry is sheep-farming. Vast ranges of

almost uninhabited upland are reserved as pasture for the flocks, which at

the beginning of the 20th century contained more than 500,000 head of

sheep. Coal, china-clay and salt are obtained in small quantities, but, out

of more than 150 mines registered, only 4 were worked in 1903. The other

industries of the province are likewise undeveloped, although there are

many small potteries, stone quarries, tanneries and factories for the

manufacture of linen and cotton of the coarsest description. The ancient

cloth and woollen industries, for which Burgos was famous in the past, have

almost disappeared. Trade is greatly hindered by the lack of adequate

railway communication, and even of good roads. The Northern railways from

Madrid to the French frontier cross the province in the central districts;

the Valladolid-Bilbao line traverses the Cantabrian mountains, in the

north; and the Valladolid-Saragossa line skirts the Douro valley, in the

south. The only [v.04 p.0819] important town in the province is Burgos, the

capital (pop. 30,167). Few parts of Spain are poorer; education makes

little progress, and least of all in the thinly peopled rural districts,

with their widely scattered hamlets. The peasantry have thus every

inducement to migrate to the Basque Provinces, Catalonia and other

relatively prosperous regions; and consequently the population does not

increase, despite the excess of births over deaths.

BURGOS, the capital formerly of Old Castile, and since 1833 of the Spanish

province of Burgos, on the river Arlanzón, and on the Northern railways

from Madrid to the French frontier. Pop. (1900) 30,167. Burgos, in the form

of an amphitheatre, occupies the lower slopes of a hill crowned by the

ruins of an ancient citadel. It faces the Arlanzón, a broad and swift

stream, with several islands in mid-channel. Three stone bridges lead to

the suburb of La Vega, on the opposite bank. On all sides, except up the

castle hill, fine avenues and public gardens are laid out, notably the

Paseo de la Isla, extending along the river to the west. Burgos itself was

originally surrounded by a wall, of which few fragments remain; but

although its streets and broad squares, such as the central Plaza Mayór, or

Plaza de la Constitucion, have often quite a modern appearance, the city

retains much of its picturesque character, owing to the number and beauty

of its churches, convents and palaces. Unaffected by the industrial

activity of the neighbouring Basque Provinces, it has little trade apart

from the sale of agricultural produce and the manufacture of paper and

leathern goods.

But it is rich in architectural and antiquarian interest. The citadel was

founded in 884 by Diego Rodriguez Porcelos, count of Castile; in the 10th

century it was held against the kings of Leon by Count Fernan Gonzalez, a

mighty warrior; and even in 1812 it was successfully defended by a French

garrison against Lord Wellington and his British troops. Within its walls

the Spanish national hero, the Cid Campeador, was wedded to Ximena of

Oviedo in 1074; and Prince Edward of England (afterwards King Edward I.) to

Eleanor of Castile in 1254. Statues of Porcelos, Gonzalez and the Cid, of

Nuño Rasura and Lain Calvo, the first elected magistrates of Burgos, during

its brief period of republican rule in the 10th century, and of the emperor

Charles V., adorn the massive Arco de Santa Maria, which was erected

between 1536 and 1562, and commemorates the return of the citizens to their

allegiance, after the rebellion against Charles V. had been crushed in

1522. The interior of this arch serves as a museum. Tradition still points

to the site of the Cid's birthplace; and a reliquary preserved in the town

hall contains his bones, and those of Ximena, brought hither after many

changes, including a partial transference to Sigmaringen in Germany.

Other noteworthy buildings in Burgos are the late 15th century Casa del

Cordón, occupied by the captain-general of Old Castile; the Casa de

Miranda, which worthily represents the best domestic architecture of Spain

in the 16th century; and the barracks, hospitals and schools. Burgos is the

see of an archbishop, whose province comprises the diocese of Palencia,

Pamplona, Santander and Tudela. The cathedral, founded in 1221 by Ferdinand

III. of Castile and the English bishop Maurice of Burgos, is a fine example

of florid Gothic, built of white limestone (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate II.

fig. 65). It was not completed until 1567, and the architects principally

responsible for its construction were a Frenchman in the 13th century and a

German in the 15th. Its cruciform design is almost hidden by the fifteen

chapels added at all angles to the aisles and transepts, by the beautiful

14th-century cloister on the north-west and the archiepiscopal palace on

the south-west. Over the three central doorways of the main or western

façade rise two lofty and graceful towers. Many of the monuments within the

cathedral are of considerable artistic and historical interest. The chapel

of Corpus Christi contains the chest which the Cid is said to have filled

with sand and subsequently pawned for a large sum to the credulous Jews of

Burgos. The legend adds that he redeemed his pledge. In the aisleless

Gothic church of Santa Agueda, or Santa Gadéa, tradition relates that the

Cid compelled Alphonso VI. of Leon, before his accession to the throne of

Castile in 1072, to swear that he was innocent of the murder of Sancho his

brother and predecessor on the throne. San Estéban, completed between 1280

and 1350, and San Nicolás, dating from 1505, are small Gothic churches,

each with a fine sculptured doorway. Many of the convents of Burgos have

been destroyed, and those which survive lie chiefly outside the city. At

the end of the Paseo de la Isla stands the nunnery of Santa Maria la Real

de las Huelgas, originally a summer palace (_huelga_, "pleasure-ground") of

the kings of Castile. In 1187 it was transformed into a Cistercian convent

by Alphonso VIII., who invested the abbess with almost royal prerogatives,

including the power of life and death, and absolute rule over more than

fifty villages. Alphonso and his wife Eleanor, daughter of Henry II. of

England, are buried here. The Cartuja de Miraflores, a Carthusian convent,

founded by John II. of Castile (1406-1454), lies 2 m. south-east of Burgos.

Its church contains a monument of exceptional beauty, carved by Gil de

Siloë in the 15th century, for the tomb of John and his second wife,

Isabella of Portugal. The convent of San Pedro de Cardeña, 7 m. south-east

of Burgos, was the original burial-place of the Cid, in 1099, and of

Ximena, in 1104. About 50 m. from the city is the abbey of Silos, which

appears to have been founded under the Visigothic kings, as early as the

6th century. It was restored in 919 by Fernan Gonzalez, and in the 11th

century became celebrated throughout Europe, under the rule of St Dominic

or Domingo. It was reoccupied in 1880 by French Benedictine monks.

The known history of Burgos begins in 884 with the foundation of the

citadel. From that time forward it steadily increased in importance,

reaching the height of its prosperity in the 15th century, when,

alternately with Toledo, it was occupied as a royal residence, but rapidly

declining when the court was finally removed to Madrid in 1560. Being on

one of the principal military roads of the kingdom, it suffered severely

during the Peninsular War. In 1808 it was the scene of the defeat of the

Spanish army by the French under Marshal Soult. It was unsuccessfully

besieged by Wellington in 1812, but was surrendered to him at the opening

of the campaign of the following year.

Of the extensive literature relating to Burgos, much remains unedited and

in manuscript. A general description of the city and its monuments is given

by A. Llacayo y Santa Maria in _Burgos, &c._ (Burgos, 1889). See also

_Architectural, Sculptural and Picturesque Studies in Burgos and its

Neighbourhood_, a valuable series of architectural drawings in folio, by

J.B. Waring (London, 1852). The following are monographs on particular

buildings:--_Historia de la Catedral de Burgos, &c._, by P. Orcajo (Burgos,

1856); _El Castillo de Burgos_, by E. de Oliver-Copons (Barcelona, 1893);

_La Real Cartuja de Miraflores_, by F. Tarin y Juaneda (Burgos, 1896). For

the history of the city see _En Burgos_, by V. Balaguér (Burgos, 1895);

_Burgos en las comunidades de Castilla_ and _Cosas de la vieja Burgos_,

both by A. Salvá (Burgos, 1895 and 1892). The following relate both to the

city and to the province of Burgos:--_Burgos, &c._, by R. Amador de los

Ríos, in the series entitled _España_ (Barcelona, 1888); _Burgos y su

provincia_, anon. (Vitoria, 1898); _Intento de un diccionario biográfico y

bibliográfico de autores de la prov. de Burgos_, by M. Anibarro and M.

Rives (Madrid, 1890).

BURGOYNE, JOHN (1722-1792), English general and dramatist, entered the army

at an early age. In 1743 he made a runaway marriage with a daughter of the

earl of Derby, but soon had to sell his commission to meet his debts, after

which he lived abroad for seven years. By Lord Derby's interest Burgoyne

was then reinstated at the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, and in 1758 he

became captain and lieutenant-colonel in the foot guards. In 1758-1759 he

participated in expeditions made against the French coast, and in the

latter year he was instrumental in introducing light cavalry into the

British army. The two regiments then formed were commanded by Eliott

(afterwards Lord Heathfield) and Burgoyne. In 1761 he sat in parliament for

Midhurst, and in the following year he served as brigadier-general in

Portugal, winning particular distinction by his capture of Valencia

d'Alcantara and of Villa Velha. In 1768 he became M.P. for Preston, and for

the next few years he occupied himself chiefly with his parliamentary

duties, in which he was remarkable for his general outspokenness [v.04

p.0820] and, in particular, for his attacks on Lord Clive. At the same time

he devoted much attention to art and drama (his first play, _The Maid of

the Oaks_, being produced by Garrick in 1775), and gambled recklessly. In

the army he had by this time become a major-general, and on the outbreak of

the American War of Independence he was appointed to a command. In 1777 he

was at the head of the British reinforcements designed for the invasion of

the colonies from Canada. In this disastrous expedition he gained

possession of Ticonderoga (for which he was made a lieutenant-general) and

Fort Edward; but, pushing on, was detached from his communications with

Canada, and hemmed in by a superior force at Saratoga (_q.v._). On the 17th

of October his troops, about 3500 in number, laid down their arms. The

success was the greatest the colonists had yet gained, and it proved the

turning-point in the war. The indignation in England against Burgoyne was

great, but perhaps unjust. He returned at once, with the leave of the

American general, to defend his conduct, and demanded, but never obtained,

a trial. He was deprived of his regiment and a governorship which he held.

In 1782, however, when his political friends came into office, he was

restored to his rank, given a colonelcy, and made commander-in-chief in

Ireland and a privy councillor. After the fall of the Rockingham government

in 1783, Burgoyne withdrew more and more into private life, his last public

service being his participation in the impeachment of Warren Hastings. In

his latter years he was principally occupied in literary and dramatic work.

His comedy, _The Heiress_, which appeared in 1786, ran through ten editions

within a year, and was translated into several foreign tongues. He died

suddenly on the 4th of June 1792. General Burgoyne, whose wife died in June

1776 during his absence in Canada, had several natural children (born

between 1782 and 1788) by Susan Caulfield, an opera singer, one of whom

became Field Marshal Sir J.F. Burgoyne. His _Dramatic and Poetical Works_

appeared in two vols., 1808.

See E.B. de Fonblanque, _Political and Military Episodes from the Life and

Correspondence of Right Hon. J. Burgoyne_ (1876); and W.L. Stone, _Campaign

of Lieut.-Gen. J. Burgoyne, &c._ (Albany, N.Y., 1877).

BURGOYNE, SIR JOHN FOX, Bart. (1782-1871), British field marshal, was an

illegitimate son of General John Burgoyne (_q.v._). He was educated at Eton

and Woolwich, obtained his commission in 1798, and served in 1800 in the

Mediterranean. In 1805, when serving on the staff of General Fox in Sicily,

he was promoted second captain. He accompanied the unfortunate Egyptian

expedition of 1807, and was with Sir John Moore in Sweden in 1808 and in

Portugal in 1808-9. In the Corunna campaign Burgoyne held the very

responsible position of chief of engineers with the rear-guard of the

British army (see PENINSULAR WAR). He was with Wellesley at the Douro in

1809, and was promoted captain in the same year, after which he was engaged

in the construction of the lines of Torres Vedras in 1810. He blew up Fort

Concepcion on the river Turones, and was present at Busaco and Torres

Vedras. In 1811 he was employed in the unsuccessful siege of Badajoz, and

in 1812 he won successively the brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel,

for his skilful performance of engineer duties at the historic sieges of

Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. He was present in the same year (1812) at the

siege and battle of Salamanca, and after the battle of Vittoria in 1813 he

became commanding engineer on Lord Wellington's staff. At the close of the

war he received the C.B., a reward which, he justly considered, was not

commensurate with his services. In 1814-1815 he served at New Orleans and

Mobile. Burgoyne was largely employed, during the long peace which followed

Waterloo, in other public duties as well as military work. He sat on

numerous commissions, and served for fifteen years as chairman of the Irish

board of public works. He became a major-general and K.C.B. in 1838, and

inspector-general of fortifications in 1845. In 1851 he was promoted

lieutenant-general, and in the following year received the G.C.B. When the

Crimean War broke out he accompanied Lord Raglan's headquarters to the

East, superintended the disembarkation at Old Fort, and was in effect the

principal engineer adviser to the English commander during the first part

of the siege of Sevastopol. He was recalled early in 1855, and though he

was at first bitterly criticized by the public for his part in the earlier

and unsuccessful operations against the fortress the wisdom of his advice

was ultimately recognized. In 1856 he was created a baronet, and promoted

to the full rank of general. In 1858 he was present at the second funeral

of Napoleon I. as Queen Victoria's representative, and in 1865 he was made

constable of the Tower of London. Three years later, on resigning his post

as inspector-general of fortifications, he was made a field marshal.

Parliament granted him, at the same time, a pension of £1500. He died on

the 7th of October 1871, a year after the tragic death of his only son,

Captain Hugh Talbot Burgoyne, V.C. (1833-1870), who was in command of

H.M.S. "Captain" when that vessel went down in the Bay of Biscay (September

7, 1870).

See _Life and Correspondence of F.M. Sir John Fox Burgoyne_ (edited by

Lt.-Col. Hon. G. Wrottesley, R.E., London, 1873); Sir Francis Head, _A

Sketch of the Life and Death of F.M. Sir John Burgoyne_ (London, 1872);

_Military Opinions of General Sir John Burgoyne_ (ed. Wrottesley, London,

1859), a collection of the most important of Burgoyne's contributions to

military literature.

BURGRAVE, the Eng. form, derived through the Fr., of the Ger. _Burggraf_

and Flem. _burg_ or _burch-graeve_ (med. Lat. _burcgravius_ or

_burgicomes_), _i.e._ count of a castle or fortified town. The title is

equivalent to that of castellan (Lat. _castellanus_) or _châtelain_

(_q.v._). In Germany, owing to the peculiar conditions of the Empire,

though the office of burgrave had become a sinecure by the end of the 13th

century, the title, as borne by feudal nobles having the status of princes

of the Empire, obtained a quasi-royal significance. It is still included

among the subsidiary titles of several sovereign princes; and the king of

Prussia, whose ancestors were burgraves of Nuremberg for over 200 years, is

still styled burgrave of Nuremberg.

BURGRED, king of Mercia, succeeded to the throne in 852, and in 852 or 853

called upon Æthelwulf of Wessex to aid him in subduing the North Welsh. The

request was granted and the campaign proved successful, the alliance being

sealed by the marriage of Burgred to Æthelswith, daughter of Æthelwulf. In

868 the Mercian king appealed to Æthelred and Alfred for assistance against

the Danes, who were in possession of Nottingham. The armies of Wessex and

Mercia did no serious fighting, and the Danes were allowed to remain

through the winter. In 874 the march of the Danes from Lindsey to Repton

drove Burgred from his kingdom. He retired to Rome and died there.

See _Saxon Chronicle_ (Earle and Plummer), years 852-853, 868, 874.

BURGUNDIO, sometimes erroneously styled BURGUNDIUS, an Italian jurist of

the 12th century. He was a professor at the university of Paris, and

assisted at the Lateran Council in 1179, dying at a very advanced age in

1194. He was a distinguished Greek scholar, and is believed on the

authority of Odofredus to have translated into Latin, soon after the

Pandects were brought to Bologna, the various Greek fragments which occur

in them, with the exception of those in the 27th book, the translation of

which has been attributed to Modestinus. The Latin translations ascribed to

Burgundio were received at Bologna as an integral part of the text of the

Pandects, and form part of that known as _The Vulgate_ in distinction from

the Florentine text.

BURGUNDY. The name of Burgundy (Fr. _Bourgogne_, Lat. _Burgundia_) has

denoted very diverse political and geographical areas at different periods

of history and as used by different writers. The name is derived from the

Burgundians (_Burgundi, Burgondiones_), a people of Germanic origin, who at

first settled between the Oder and the Vistula. In consequence of wars

against the Alamanni, in which the latter had the advantage, the

Burgundians, after having taken part in the great invasion of Radagaisus in

407, were obliged in 411 to take refuge in Gaul, under the leadership of

their chief Gundicar. Under the title of allies of the Romans, they

established themselves in certain cantons of the Sequani and of upper

Germany, receiving a part of the lands, houses and serfs that belonged to

the inhabitants. Thus was founded the first kingdom of Burgundy, the

boundaries of which were widened at different times by Gundicar and his son

[v.04 p.0821] Gunderic; its chief towns being Vienne, Lyons, Besançon,

Geneva, Autun and Mâcon. Gundibald (d. 516), grandson of Gunderic, is

famous for his codification of the Burgundian law, known consequently as

_Lex Gundobada, _in French _Loi Gombette_. His son Sigismund, who was

canonized by the church, founded the abbey of St Maurice at Agaunum. But,

incited thereto by Clotilda, the daughter of Chilperic (a brother of

Gundibald, and assassinated by him), the Merovingian kings attacked

Burgundy. An attempt made in 524 by Clodomer was unsuccessful; but in 534

Clotaire (Chlothachar) and his brothers possessed themselves of the lands

of Gundimar, brother and successor of Sigismund, and divided them between

them. In 561 the kingdom of Burgundy was reconstructed by Guntram, son of

Clotaire I., and until 613 it formed a separate state under the government

of a prince of the Merovingian family.

After 613 Burgundy was one of the provinces of the Frankish kingdom, but in

the redistributions that followed the reign of Charlemagne the various

parts of the ancient kingdom had different fortunes. In 843, by the treaty

of Verdun, Autun, Chalon, Mâcon, Langres, &c., were apportioned to Charles

the Bald, and Lyons with the country beyond the Saône to Lothair I. On the

death of the latter the duchy of Lyons (Lyonnais and Viennois) was given to

Charles of Provence, and the diocese of Besançon with the country beyond

the Jura to Lothair, king of Lorraine. In 879 Boso founded the kingdom of

Provence, wrongly called the kingdom of Cisjuran Burgundy, which extended

to Lyons, and for a short time as far as Mâcon (see PROVENCE).

In 888 the kingdom of Juran Burgundy was founded by Rudolph I., son of

Conrad, count of Auxerre, and the German king Arnulf could not succeed in

expelling the usurper, whose authority was recognized in the diocese of

Besançon, Basel, Lausanne, Geneva and Sion. For a short time his son and

successor Rudolph II. (912-937) disputed the crown of Italy with Hugh of

Provence, but finally abandoned his claims in exchange for the ancient

kingdom of Provence, _i.e._ the country bounded by the Rhône, the Alps and

the Mediterranean. His successor, Conrad the Peaceful (93 7-993), whose

sister Adelaide married Otto the Great, was hardly more than a vassal of

the German kings. The last king of Burgundy, Rudolph III. (993-1032), being

deprived of all but a shadow of power by the development of the secular and

ecclesiastical aristocracy--especially by that of the powerful feudal

houses of the counts of Burgundy (see FRANCHE-COMTÉ), Savoy and

Provence--died without issue, bequeathing his lands to the emperor Conrad

II. Such was the origin of the imperial rights over the kingdom designated

after the 13th century as the kingdom of Arles, which extended over a part

of what is now Switzerland (from the Jura to the Aar), and included

Franche-Comté, Lyonnais, Dauphiné, Savoy and Provence.

The name of Burgundy now gradually became restricted to the countship of

that name, which included the district between the Jura and the Saône, in

later times called Franche-Comté, and to the _duchy_ which had been created

by the Carolingian kings in the portion of Burgundy that had remained

French, with the object of resisting Boso. This duchy had been granted to

Boso's brother, Richard the Justiciary, count of Autun. It comprised at

first the countships of Autun, Mâcon, Chalon-sur-Saône, Langres, Nevers,

Auxerre and Sens, but its boundaries and designations changed many times in

the course of the 10th century. Duke Henry died in 1002; and in 1015, after

a war which lasted thirteen years, the French king Robert II. reunited the

duchy to his kingdom, despite the opposition of Otto William, count of

Burgundy, and gave it to his son Henry, afterwards King Henry I. As king of

France, the latter in 1032 bestowed the duchy upon his brother Robert, from

whom sprang that first ducal house of Burgundy which flourished until 1361.

A grandson of this Robert, who went to Spain to fight the Arabs, became the

founder of the kingdom of Portugal; but in general the first Capet dukes of

Burgundy were pacific princes who took little part in the political events

of their time, or in that religious movement which was so marked in

Burgundy, at Cluny to begin with, afterwards among the disciples of William

of St Bénigne of Dijon, and later still among the monks of Cîteaux. In the

12th and 13th centuries we may mention Duke Hugh III. (1162-1193), who

played an active part in the wars that marked the beginning of Philip

Augustus's reign; Odo (Eudes) III. (1193-1218), one of Philip Augustus's

principal supporters in his struggle with King John of England; Hugh IV.

(1218-1272), who acquired the countships of Châlon and Auxonne, Robert II.

(1272-1309), one of whose daughters, Margaret, married Louis X. of France,

and another, Jeanne, Philip of Valois; Odo (Eudes) IV. (1315-1350), who

gained the countship of Artois in right of his wife, Jeanne of France,

daughter of Philip V. the Tall and of Jeanne, countess of Burgundy.