LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

_Language._--The Bulgarian is at once the most ancient and the most modern

of the languages which constitute the Slavonic group. In its groundwork it

presents the nearest approach to the old ecclesiastical Slavonic, the

liturgical language common to all the Orthodox Slavs, but it has undergone

more important modifications than any of the sister dialects in the

simplification of its grammatical forms; and the analytical character of

its development may be compared with that of the neo-Latin and Germanic

languages. The introduction of the definite article, which appears in the

form of a suffix, and the almost total disappearance of the ancient

declensions, for which the use of [v.04 p.0785] prepositions has been

substituted, distinguish the Bulgarian from all the other members of the

Slavonic family. Notwithstanding these changes, which give the language an

essentially modern aspect, its close affinity with the ecclesiastical

Slavonic, the oldest written dialect, is regarded as established by several

eminent scholars, such as [vS]afa[vr]ik, Schleicher, Leskien and Brugman,

and by many Russian philologists. These authorities agree in describing the

liturgical language as "Old Bulgarian." A different view, however, is

maintained by Miklosich, Kopitar and some others, who regard it as "Old

Slovene." According to the more generally accepted theory, the dialect

spoken by the Bulgarian population in the neighbourhood of Salonica, the

birthplace of SS. Cyril and Methodius, was employed by the Slavonic

apostles in their translations from the Greek, which formed the model for

subsequent ecclesiastical literature. This view receives support from the

fact that the two nasal vowels of the Church-Slavonic (the greater and

lesser _ûs_), which have been modified in all the cognate languages except

Polish, retain their original pronunciation locally in the neighbourhood of

Salonica and Castoria; in modern literary Bulgarian the _rhinesmus_ has

disappeared, but the old nasal vowels preserve a peculiar pronunciation,

the greater _ûs_ changing to _[)u]_, as in English "but," the lesser to

_[)e]_, as in "bet," while in Servian, Russian and Slovene the greater _ûs_

becomes _[=u]_ or _[=o]_, the lesser _e_ or _ya_. The remnants of the

declensions still existing in Bulgarian (mainly in pronominal and adverbial

forms) show a close analogy to those of the old ecclesiastical language.

The Slavonic apostles wrote in the 9th century (St Cyril died in 869, St

Methodius in 885), but the original manuscripts have not been preserved.

The oldest existing copies, which date from the 10th century, already

betray the influence of the contemporary vernacular speech, but as the

alterations introduced by the copyists are neither constant nor regular, it

is possible to reconstruct the original language with tolerable certainty.

The "Old Bulgarian," or archaic Slavonic, was an inflexional language of

the synthetic type, containing few foreign elements in its vocabulary. The

Christian terminology was, of course, mainly Greek; the Latin or German

words which occasionally occur were derived from Moravia and Pannonia,

where the two saints pursued their missionary labours. In course of time it

underwent considerable modifications, both phonetic and structural, in the

various Slavonic countries in which it became the liturgical language, and

the various MSS. are consequently classified as "Servian-Slavonic,"

"Croatian-Slavonic," "Russian-Slavonic," &c., according to the different

recensions. The "Russian-Slavonic" is the liturgical language now in

general use among the Orthodox Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula owing to the

great number of ecclesiastical books introduced from Russia in the 17th and

18th centuries; until comparatively recent times it was believed to be the

genuine language of the Slavonic apostles. Among the Bulgarians the spoken

language of the 9th century underwent important changes during the next

three hundred years. The influence of these changes gradually asserts

itself in the written language; in the period extending from the 12th to

the 15th century the writers still endeavoured to follow the archaic model,

but it is evident that the vernacular had already become widely different

from the speech of SS. Cyril and Methodius. The language of the MSS. of

this period is known as the "Middle Bulgarian"; it stands midway between

the old ecclesiastical Slavonic and the modern speech.

In the first half of the 16th century the characteristic features of the

modern language became apparent in the literary monuments. These features

undoubtedly displayed themselves at a much earlier period in the oral

speech; but the progress of their development has not yet been completely

investigated. Much light may be thrown on this subject by the examination

of many hitherto little-known manuscripts and by the scientific study of

the folk-songs. In addition to the employment of the article, the loss of

the noun-declensions, and the modification of the nasal vowels above

alluded to, the disappearance in pronunciation of the final vowels

_yer-golêm_ and _yer-malúk_, the loss of the infinitive, and the increased

variety of the conjugations, distinguish the modern from the ancient

language. The suffix-article, which is derived from the demonstrative

pronoun, is a feature peculiar to the Bulgarian among Slavonic and to the

Rumanian among Latin languages. This and other points of resemblance

between these remotely related members of the Indo-European group are

shared by the Albanian, probably the representative of the old Illyrian

language, and have consequently been attributed to the influence of the

aboriginal speech of the Peninsula. A demonstrative suffix, however, is

sometimes found in Russian and Polish, and traces of the article in an

embryonic state occur in the "Old Bulgarian" MSS. of the 10th and 11th

centuries. In some Bulgarian dialects it assumes different forms according

to the proximity or remoteness of the object mentioned. Thus _zhena-ta_ is

"the woman"; _zhena-va_ or _zhena-sa_, "the woman close by"; _zhena-na_,

"the woman yonder." In the borderland between the Servian and Bulgarian

nationalities the local use of the article supplies the means of drawing an

ethnological frontier; it is nowhere more marked than in the immediate

neighbourhood of the Servian population, as, for instance, at Dibra and

Prilep. The modern Bulgarian has admitted many foreign elements. It

contains about 2000 Turkish and 1000 Greek words dispersed in the various

dialects; some Persian and Arabic words have entered through the Turkish

medium, and a few Rumanian and Albanian words are found. Most of these are

rejected by the purism of the literary language, which, however, has been

compelled to borrow the phraseology of modern civilization from the

Russian, French and other European languages. The dialects spoken in the

kingdom may be classed in two groups--the eastern and the western. The main

point of difference is the pronunciation of the letter _yedvoïno_, which in

the eastern has frequently the sound of _ya_, in the western invariably

that of _e_ in "pet." The literary language began in the western dialect

under the twofold influence of Servian literature and the Church Slavonic.

In a short time, however, the eastern dialect prevailed, and the influence

of Russian literature became predominant. An anti-Russian reaction was

initiated by Borgoroff (1818-1892), and has been maintained by numerous

writers educated in the German and Austrian universities. Since the

foundation of the university of Sofia the literary language has taken a

middle course between the ultra-Russian models of the past generation and

the dialectic Bulgarian. Little uniformity, however, has yet been attained

in regard to diction, orthography or pronunciation.

The Bulgarians of pagan times are stated by the monk Khrabr, a contemporary

of Tsar Simeon, to have employed a peculiar writing, of which inscriptions

recently found near Kaspitchan may possibly be specimens. The earliest

manuscripts of the "Old Bulgarian" are written in one or other of the two

alphabets known as the glagolitic and Cyrillic (see SLAVS). The former was

used by Bulgarian writers concurrently with the Cyrillic down to the 12th

century. Among the orthodox Slavs the Cyrillic finally superseded the

glagolitic; as modified by Peter the Great it became the Russian alphabet,

which, with the revival of literature, was introduced into Servia and

Bulgaria. Some Russian letters which are superfluous in Bulgarian have been

abandoned by the native writers, and a few characters have been restored

from the ancient alphabet.

_Literature._--The ancient Bulgarian literature, originating in the works

of SS. Cyril and Methodius and their disciples, consisted for the most part

of theological works translated from the Greek. From the conversion of

Boris down to the Turkish conquest the religious character predominates,

and the influence of Byzantine literature is supreme. Translations of the

gospels and epistles, lives of the saints, collections of sermons, exegetic

religious works, translations of Greek chronicles, and miscellanies such as

the _Sbornik_ of St Sviatoslav, formed the staple of the national

literature. In the time of Tsar Simeon, himself an author, considerable

literary activity prevailed; among the more remarkable works of this period

was the _Shestodnev_, or Hexameron, of John the exarch, an account of the

creation. A little later the heresy of the Bogomils gave an impulse to

controversial writing. The principal champions of orthodoxy were St Kosmâs

and the monk Athanas of Jerusalem; among the Bogomils the _Questions of St

Ivan Bogosloff_, a work containing a description of the beginning and the

end of the world, was held in high esteem. Contemporaneously with the

spread of this sect a number of apocryphal works, based on the Scripture

narrative, but embellished with Oriental legends of a highly imaginative

character, obtained great popularity. Together with these religious

writings works of fiction, also of Oriental origin, made their appearance,

such as the life of Alexander the Great, the story of Troy, the tales of

_Stephanit and Ichnilat_ and _Barlaam and Josaphat_, the latter founded on

the biography of Buddha. These were for the most part reproductions or

variations of the fantastical romances which circulated through Europe in

the middle ages, and many of them have left traces in the national legends

and folk-songs. In the 13th century, under the Asên dynasty, numerous

historical works or chronicles (_lêtopisi_) were composed. State records

appear to have existed, but none of them have been preserved. With the

Ottoman conquest literature disappeared; the manuscripts became the food of

moths and worms, or fell a prey to the fanaticism of the Phanariot clergy.

The library of the patriarchs of Trnovo was committed to the flames by the

Greek metropolitan Hilarion in 1825.

The monk Païsii (born about 1720) and Bishop Sofronii (1739-1815) have

already been mentioned as the precursors of the literary [v.04 p.0786]

revival. The _Istoria Slaveno-Bolgarska_ (1762) of Païsii, written in the

solitude of Mount Athos, was a work of little historical value, but its

influence upon the Bulgarian race was immense. An ardent patriot, Païsii

recalls the glories of the Bulgarian tsars and saints, rebukes his

fellow-countrymen for allowing themselves to be called Greeks, and

denounces the arbitrary proceedings of the Phanariot prelates. The _Life

and Sufferings of sinful Sofronii_ (1804) describes in simple and touching

language the condition of Bulgaria at the beginning of the 19th century.

Both works were written in a modified form of the church Slavonic. The

first printed work in the vernacular appears to have been the

_Kyriakodromion_, a translation of sermons, also by Sofronii, published in

1806. The Servian and Greek insurrections quickened the patriotic

sentiments of the Bulgarian refugees and merchants in Rumania, Bessarabia

and southern Russia, and Bucharest became the centre of their political and

literary activity. A modest _bukvar_, or primer, published at Kronstadt by

Berovitch in 1824, was the first product of the new movement. Translations

of the Gospels, school reading-books, short histories and various

elementary treatises now appeared. With the multiplication of books came

the movement for establishing Bulgarian schools, in which the monk Neophyt

Rilski (1793-1881) played a leading part. He was the author of the first

Bulgarian grammar (1835) and other educational works, and translated the

New Testament into the modern language. Among the writers of the literary

renaissance were George Rakovski (1818-1867), a fantastic writer of the

patriotic type, whose works did much to stimulate the national zeal, Liuben

Karaveloff (1837-1879), journalist and novelist, Christo Boteff

(1847-1876), lyric poet, whose ode on the death of his friend Haji Dimitr,

an insurgent leader, is one of the best in the language, and Petko

Slaveikoff (died 1895), whose poems, patriotic, satirical and erotic,

moulded the modern poetical language and exercised a great influence over

the people. Gavril Krstovitch, formerly governor-general of eastern

Rumelia, and Marin Drinoff, a Slavist of high repute, have written

historical works. Stamboloff, the statesman, was the author of

revolutionary and satirical ballads; his friend Zacharia Stoyanoff (d.

1889), who began life as a shepherd, has left some interesting memoirs. The

most distinguished Bulgarian man of letters is Ivan Vazoff (b. 1850), whose

epic and lyric poems and prose works form the best specimens of the modern

literary language. His novel _Pod Igoto_ (Under the Yoke) has been

translated into several European languages. The best dramatic work is

_Ivanko_, a historical play by Archbishop Clement, who also wrote some

novels. With the exception of Zlatarski's and Boncheff's geological

treatises and contributions by Georgieff, Petkoff, Tosheff and Urumoff to

Velnovski's _Flora Bulgarica_, no original works on natural science have as

yet been produced; a like dearth is apparent in the fields of philosophy,

criticism and fine art, but it must be remembered that the literature is

still in its infancy. The ancient folk-songs have been preserved in several

valuable collections; though inferior to the Servian in poetic merit, they

deserve scientific attention. Several periodicals and reviews have been

founded in modern times. Of these the most important are the

_Perioditchesko Spisanie_, issued since 1869 by the Bulgarian Literary

Society, and the _Sbornik_, a literary and scientific miscellany, formerly

edited by Dr Shishmanoff, latterly by the Literary Society, and published

by the government at irregular intervals.

AUTHORITIES.--C.J. Jire[vc]ek, _Das Furstenthum Bulgarien_ (Prague, 1891),

and _Cesty po Bulharsku_ (Travels in Bulgaria), (Prague, 1888), both works

of the first importance; Léon Lamouche, _La Bulgarie dans le passé et le

présent_ (Paris, 1892); Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg, _Die

Volkswirthschaftliche Entwicklung Bulgarians_ (Leipzig, 1891); F. Kanitz,

_Donau-Bulgarien und der Balkan_ (Leipzig, 1882); A.G. Drander, _Événements

politiques en Bulgarie_ (Paris, 1896); and _Le Prince Alexandre de

Battenberg_ (Paris, 1884); A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipzig, 1898); A.

Tuma, _Die östliche Balkanhalbinsel_ (Vienna, 1886); A. de Gubernatis, _La

Bulgarie et les Bulgares_ (Florence, 1899); E. Blech, _Consular Report on

Bulgaria in 1889_ (London, 1890); _La Bulgarie contemporaine_ (issued by

the Bulgarian Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture), (Brussels, 1905).

Geology: F. Toula, _Reisen und geologische Untersuchungen in Bulgarien_

(Vienna, 1890); J. Cviji['c], "Die Tektonik der Balkanhalbinsel," in _C.R.

IX. Cong. géol. intern. de Vienne_, pp. 348-370, with map, 1904. History:

C.J. Jire[vc]ek, _Geschichte der Bulgaren_ (Prague, 1876); (a summary in

_The Balkans_, by William Miller, London, 1896); Sokolov, _Iz drevneì

istorii Bolgar_ (Petersburg, 1879); Uspenski, _Obrazovanïe vtorago

Bolgarskago tsarstva_ (Odessa, 1879); _Acta Bulgariae ecclesiastica_,

published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1887). Language: F.

Miklosich, _Vergleichende Grammatik_ (Vienna, 1879); and _Geschichte d.

Lautbezeichnung im Bulgarischen_ (Vienna, 1883); A. Leskien, _Handbuch d.

altbulgarischen Sprache_ (with a glossary), (Wiemar, 1886); L. Miletich,

_Staroblgarska Gramatika_ (Sofia, 1896); _Das Ostbulgarische_ (Vienna,

1903); Labrov, _Obzor zvulkovikh i formalnikh osobenostei Bolgarskago

yezika_ (Moscow, 1893); W.R. Morfill, _A Short Grammar of the Bulgarian

Language_ (London, 1897); F. Vymazal, _Die Kunst die bulgarische Sprache

leicht und schnell zu erlernen_ (Vienna, 1888). Literature: L.A.H. Dozon,

_Chansons populaires bulgares inédites_ (with French translations), (Paris,

1875); A. Strausz, _Bulgarische Volksdichtungen_ (translations with a

preface and notes), (Vienna and Leipzig, 1895); Lydia Shishmanov, _Légendes

religieuses bulgares_ (Paris, 1896); Pypin and Spasovich, _History of the

Slavonic Literature_ (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1879), (French

translation, Paris, 1881); Vazov and Velitchkov, _Bulgarian Chrestomathy_

(Philippopolis, 1884); Teodorov, _Blgarska Literatura_ (Philippopolis,

1896); Collections of folk-songs, proverbs, &c., by the brothers Miladinov

(Agram, 1861), Bezsonov (Moscow, 1855), Kachanovskiy (Petersburg, 1882),

Shapkarev (Philippopolis, 1885), Iliev (Sofia, 1889), P. Slaveïkov (Sofia,

1899). See also _The Shade of the Balkans_, by Pencho Slaveïkov, H. Bernard

and E.J. Dillon (London, 1904).

(J. D. B.)

BULGARIA, EASTERN, formerly a powerful kingdom which existed from the 5th

to the 15th century on the middle Volga, in the present territory of the

provinces of Samara, Simbirsk, Saratov and N. Astrakhan, perhaps extending

also into Perm. The village Bolgari near Kanzañ, surrounded by numerous

graves in which most interesting archaeological finds have been made,

occupies the site of one of the cities--perhaps the capital--of that

extinct kingdom. The history, _Tarikh Bulgar_, said to have been written in

the 12th century by an Arabian cadi of the city Bolgari, has not yet been

discovered; but the Arabian historians, Ibn Foslan, Ibn Haukal, Abul Hamid

Andalusi, Abu Abdallah Harnati, and several others, who had visited the

kingdom, beginning with the 10th century, have left descriptions of it. The

Bulgars of the Volga were of Turkish origin, but may have assimilated

Finnish and, later, Slavonian elements. In the 5th century they attacked

the Russians in the Black Sea prairies, and afterwards made raids upon the

Greeks. In 922, when they were converted to Islam, Ibn Foslan found them

not quite nomadic, and already having some permanent settlements and houses

in wood. Stone houses were built soon after that by Arabian architects. Ibn

Dasta found amongst them agriculture besides cattle breeding. Trade with

Persia and India, as also with the Khazars and the Russians, and

undoubtedly with Biarmia (Urals), was, however, their chief occupation,

their main riches being furs, leather, wool, nuts, wax and so on. After

their conversion to Islam they began building forts, several of which are

mentioned in Russian annals. Their chief town, Bolgari or Velikij Gorod

(Great Town) of the Russian annals, was often raided by the Russians. In

the 13th century it was conquered by the Mongols, and became for a time the

seat of the khans of the Golden Horde. In the second half of the 15th

century Bolgari became part of the Kazañ kingdom, lost its commercial and

political importance, and was annexed to Russia after the fall of Kazañ.

(P. A. K.)

BULGARUS, an Italian jurist of the 12th century, born at Bologna, sometimes

erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was properly the name of a jurist of

the 15th century. He was the most celebrated of the famous "Four Doctors"

of the law school of that university, and was regarded as the Chrysostom of

the Gloss-writers, being frequently designated by the title of the "Golden

Mouth" (_os aureum_). He died in 1166 A.D., at a very advanced age. Popular

tradition represents all the Four Doctors (Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, Hugo

de Porta Ravennate and Jacobus de Boragine) as pupils of Irnerius (_q.v._),

but while there is no insuperable difficulty in point of time in accepting

this tradition as far as regards Bulgarus, Savigny considers the general

tradition inadmissible as regards the others. Martinus Gosia and Bulgarus

were the chiefs of two opposite schools at Bologna, corresponding in many

respects to the Proculians and Sabinians of Imperial Rome, Martinus being

at the head of a school which accommodated the law to what his opponents

styled the equity of "the purse" (_aequitas bursalis_), whilst Bulgarus

adhered more closely to the letter of the law. The school of Bulgarus

ultimately prevailed, and it numbered amongst its adherents Joannes

Bassianus, Azo and Accursius, each of whom in his turn exercised a

commanding influence over the course of legal studies at Bologna. Bulgarus

took the leading part amongst the Four Doctors at the diet of Roncaglia in

1158, and was one of the most trusted advisers of the emperor Frederick I.

His most celebrated work is his commentary _De Regulis Juris_, which was at

one time printed amongst the writings of Placentius, but has been properly

reassigned to its true author by Cujacius, upon the internal evidence

contained in the additions annexed to it, which are undoubtedly from the

pen of Placentinus. This [v.04 p.0787] _Commentary_, which is the earliest

extant work of its kind emanating from the school of the Gloss-writers, is,

according to Savigny, a model specimen of the excellence of the method

introduced by Irnerius, and a striking example of the brilliant results

which had been obtained in a short space of time by a constant and

exclusive study of the sources of law.

BULL, GEORGE (1634-1710), English divine, was born at Wells on the 25th of

March 1634, and educated at Tiverton school, Devonshire. He entered Exeter

College, Oxford, in 1647, but had to leave in 1649 in consequence of his

refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth. He was ordained

privately by Bishop Skinner in 1655. His first benefice held was that of St

George's near Bristol, from which he rose successively to be rector of

Suddington in Gloucestershire (1658), prebendary of Gloucester (1678),

archdeacon of Llandaff (1686), and in 1705 bishop of St David's. He died on

the 17th of February 1710. During the time of the Commonwealth he adhered

to the forms of the Church of England, and under James II. preached

strenuously against Roman Catholicism. His works display great erudition

and powerful thinking. The _Harmonia Apostolica_ (1670) is an attempt to

show the fundamental agreement between the doctrines of Paul and James with

regard to justification. The _Defensio Fidei Nicenae_ (1685), his greatest

work, tries to show that the doctrine of the Trinity was held by the

ante-Nicene fathers of the church, and retains its value as a

thorough-going examination of all the pertinent passages in early church

literature. The _Judicium Ecclesiae Catholicae_ (1694) and _Primitiva et

Apostolica Traditio_ (1710) won high praise from Bossuet and other French

divines. Following on Bossuet's criticisms of the _Judicium_, Bull wrote a

treatise on _The Corruptions of the Church of Rome_, which became very

popular.

The best edition of Bull's works is that in 7 vols., published at Oxford by

the Clarendon Press, under the superintendence of E. Burton, in 1827. This

edition contains the _Life_ by Robert Nelson. The _Harmonia, Defensio_ and

_Judicium_ are translated in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology

(Oxford, 1842-1855).

BULL, JOHN (c. 1562-1628), English composer and organist, was born in

Somersetshire about 1562. After being organist in Hereford cathedral, he

joined the Chapel Royal in 1585, and in the next year became a Mus. Bac. of

Oxford. In 1591 he was appointed organist in Queen Elizabeth's chapel in

succession to Blitheman, from whom he had received his musical education.

In 1592 he received the degree of doctor of music at Cambridge University;

and in 1596 he was made music professor at Gresham College, London. As he

was unable to lecture in Latin according to the foundation-rules of that

college, the executors of Sir Thomas Gresham made a dispensation in his

favour by permitting him to lecture in English. He gave his first lecture

on the 6th of October 1597. In 1601 Bull went abroad. He visited France and

Germany, and was everywhere received with the respect due to his talents.

Anthony Wood tells an impossible story of how at St Omer Dr Bull performed

the feat of adding, within a few hours, forty parts to a composition

already written in forty parts. Honourable employments were offered to him

by various continental princes; but he declined them, and returned to

England, where he was given the freedom of the Merchant Taylors' Company in

1606. He played upon a small pair of organs before King James I. on the

16th of July 1607, in the hall of the Company, and he seems to have been

appointed one of the king's organists in that year. In the same year he

resigned his Gresham professorship and married Elizabeth Walter. In 1613 he

again went to the continent on account of his health, obtaining a post as

one of the organists in the arch-duke's chapel at Brussels. In 1617 he was

appointed organist to the cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp, and he died

in that city on the 12th or 13th of March 1628. Little of his music has

been published, and the opinions of critics differ much as to its merits

(see Dr Willibald Nagel's _Geschichte der Musik in England_, ii. (1897), p.

155, &c.; and Dr Seiffert's _Geschichte der Klaviermusik_ (1899), p. 54,

&c.). Contemporary writers speak in the highest terms of Bull's skill as a

performer on the organ and the virginals, and there is no doubt that he

contributed much to the development of harpsichord music. Jan Swielinck

(1562-1621), the great organist of Amsterdam, did not regard his work on

composition as complete without placing in it a canon by John Bull, and the

latter wrote a fantasia upon a fugue of Swielinck. For the ascription to

Bull of the composition of the British national anthem, see NATIONAL

ANTHEMS. Good modern reprints, _e.g._ of the Fitzwilliam _Virginal-Book_,

"The King's Hunting Jig," and one or two other pieces, are in the

repertories of modern pianists from Rubinstein onwards.

BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (1810-1880), Norwegian violinist, was born in Bergen,

Norway, on the 5th of February 1810. At first a pupil of the violinist

Paulsen, and subsequently self-taught, he was intended for the church, but

failed in his examinations in 1828 and became a musician, directing the

philharmonic and dramatic societies at Bergen. In 1829 he went to Cassel,

on a visit to Spohr, who gave him no encouragement. He now began to study

law, but on going to Paris he came under the influence of Paganini, and

definitely adopted the career of a violin virtuoso. He made his first

appearance in company with Ernst and Chopin at a concert of his own in

Paris in 1832. Successful tours in Italy and England followed soon

afterwards, and he was not long in obtaining European celebrity by his

brilliant playing of his own pieces and arrangements. His first visit to

the United States lasted from 1843 to 1845, and on his return to Norway he

formed a scheme for the establishment of a Norse theatre in Bergen; this

became an accomplished fact in 1850; but in consequence of harassing

business complications he went again to America. During this visit

(1852-1857) he bought 125,000 acres in Potter county, Pennsylvania, for a

Norwegian colony, which was to have been called Oleana after his name; but

his title turned out to be fraudulent, and the troubles he went through in

connexion with the undertaking were enough to affect his health very

seriously, though not to hinder him for long from the exercise of his

profession. Another attempt to found an academy of music in Christiania had

no permanent result. In 1836 he had married Alexandrine Félicie Villeminot,

the grand-daughter of a lady to whom he owed much at the beginning of his

musical career in Paris; she died in 1862. In 1870 he married Sara C.

Thorpe of Wisconsin; henceforth he confined himself to the career of a

violinist. He died at Lysö, near Bergen, on the 17th of August 1880. Ole

Bull's "polacca guerriera" and many of his other violin pieces, among them

two concertos, are interesting to the virtuoso, and his fame rests upon his

prodigious technique. The memoir published by his widow in 1886 contains

many illustrations of a career that was exceptionally brilliant; it gives a

picture of a strong individuality, which often found expression in a

somewhat boisterous form of practical humour.

There is a fountain and portrait statue to his memory in the Ole Bulls

Plads in Bergen.

BULL, (1) The male of animals belonging to the section _Bovina_ of the

family _Bovidae_ (_q.v._), particularly the uncastrated male of the

domestic ox (_Bos taurus_). (See CATTLE.) The word, which is found in M.E.

as _bole, bolle_ (cf. Ger. _Bulle_, and Dutch _bul_ or _bol_), is also used

of the males of other animals of large size, _e.g._ the elephant, whale,

&c. The O.E. diminutive form _bulluc_, meaning originally a young bull, or

bull calf, survives in bullock, now confined to a young castrated male ox

kept for slaughter for beef.

On the London and New York stock exchanges "bull" and "bear" are

correlative technical slang terms. A "bull" is one who "buys for a rise,"

_i.e._ he buys stocks or securities, grain or other commodities (which,

however, he never intends to take up), in the hope that before the date on

which he must take delivery he will be able to sell the stocks, &c., at a

higher price, taking as a profit the difference between the buying and

selling price. A "bear" is the reverse of a "bull." He is one who "sells

for a fall," _i.e._ he sells stock, &c., which he does not actually

possess, in the hope of buying it at a lower price before the time at which

he has contracted to deliver (see ACCOUNT; STOCK EXCHANGE). The word

"bull," according to the _New English Dictionary_, was used in this sense

as early as the beginning of the 18th century. The origin of the use is not

known, though it is tempting to connect it with the fable of the frog and

the bull.

[v.04 p.0788] The term "bull's eye" is applied to many circular objects,

and particularly to the boss or protuberance left in the centre of a sheet

of blown glass. This when cut off was formerly used for windows in small

leaded panes. The French term _oeil de boeuf_ is used of a circular window.

Other circular objects to which the word is applied are the centre of a

target or a shot that hits the central division of the target, a

plano-convex lens in a microscope, a lantern with a convex glass in it, a

thick circular piece of glass let into the deck or side of a ship, &c., for

lighting the interior, a ring-shaped block grooved round the outer edge,

and with a hole through the centre through which a rope can be passed, and

also a small lurid cloud which in certain latitudes presages a hurricane.

(2) The use of the word "bull," for a verbal blunder, involving a

contradiction in terms, is of doubtful origin. In this sense it is used

with a possible punning reference to papal bulls in Milton's _True

Religion_, "and whereas the Papist boasts himself to be a Roman Catholick,

it is a mere contradiction, one of the Pope's Bulls, as if he should say a

universal particular, a Catholick schismatick." Probably this use may be

traced to a M.E. word _bul_, first found in the _Cursor Mundi_, c. 1300, in

the sense of falsehood, trickery, deceit; the _New English Dictionary_

compares an O.Fr. _boul_, _boule_ or _bole_, in the same sense. Although

modern associations connect this type of blunder with the Irish, possibly

owing to the many famous "bulls" attributed to Sir Boyle Roche (_q.v._),

the early quotations show that in the 17th century, when the meaning now

attached to the word begins, no special country was credited with them.

(3) _Bulla_ (Lat for "bubble"), which gives us another "bull" in English,

was the term used by the Romans for any boss or stud, such as those on

doors, sword-belts, shields and boxes. It was applied, however, more

particularly to an ornament, generally of gold, a round or heart-shaped box

containing an amulet, worn suspended from the neck by children of noble

birth until they assumed the _toga virilis_, when it was hung up and

dedicated to the household gods. The custom of wearing the bulla, which was

regarded as a charm against sickness and the evil eye, was of Etruscan

origin. After the Second Punic War all children of free birth were

permitted to wear it; but those who did not belong to a noble or wealthy

family were satisfied with a bulla of leather. Its use was only permitted

to grown-up men in the case of generals who celebrated a triumph. Young

girls (probably till the time of their marriage), and even favourite

animals, also wore it (see Ficoroni, _La Bolla d' Oro_, 1732; Yates,

_Archaeological Journal_, vi., 1849; viii., 1851). In ecclesiastical and

medieval Latin, _bulla_ denotes the seal of oval or circular form, bearing

the name and generally the image of its owner, which was attached to

official documents. A metal was used instead of wax in the warm countries

of southern Europe. The best-known instances are the papal _bullae_, which

have given their name to the documents (bulls) to which they are attached.

(See DIPLOMATIC; SEALS; CURIA ROMANA; GOLDEN BULL.)

BULLER, CHARLES (1806-1848), English politician, son of Charles Buller (d.

1848), a member of a well-known Cornish family (see below), was born in

Calcutta on the 6th of August 1806; his mother, a daughter of General

William Kirkpatrick, was an exceptionally talented woman. He was educated

at Harrow, then privately in Edinburgh by Thomas Carlyle, and afterwards at

Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a barrister in 1831. Before this date,

however, he had succeeded his father as member of parliament for West Looe;

after the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832 and the consequent

disenfranchisement of this borough, he was returned to parliament by the

voters of Liskeard. He retained this seat until he died in London on the

29th of November 1848, leaving behind him, so Charles Greville says, "a

memory cherished for his delightful social qualities and a vast credit for

undeveloped powers." An eager reformer and a friend of John Stuart Mill,

Buller voted for the great Reform Bill, favoured other progressive

measures, and presided over the committee on the state of the records and

the one appointed to inquire into the state of election law in Ireland in

1836. In 1838 he went to Canada with Lord Durham as private secretary, and

after rendering conspicuous service to his chief, returned with him to

England in the same year. After practising as a barrister, Buller was made

judge-advocate-general in 1846, and became chief commissioner of the poor

law about a year before his death. For a long time it was believed that

Buller wrote Lord Durham's famous "Report on the affairs of British North

America." However, this is now denied by several authorities, among them

being Durham's biographer, Stuart J. Reid, who mentions that Buller

described this statement as a "groundless assertion" in an article which he

wrote for the _Edinburgh Review_. Nevertheless it is quite possible that

the "Report" was largely drafted by Buller, and it almost certainly bears

traces of his influence. Buller was a very talented man, witty, popular and

generous, and is described by Carlyle as "the genialest radical I have ever

met." Among his intimate friends were Grote, Thackeray, Monckton Milnes and

Lady Ashburton. A bust of Buller is in Westminster Abbey, and another was

unveiled at Liskeard in 1905. He wrote "A Sketch of Lord Durham's mission

to Canada," which has not been printed.

See T. Carlyle, _Reminiscences_ (1881); and S.J. Reid, _Life and Letters of

the 1st earl of Durham_ (1906).

BULLER, SIR REDVERS HENRY (1839-1908), British general, son of James

Wentworth Buller, M.P., of Crediton, Devonshire, and the descendant of an

old Cornish family, long established in Devonshire, tracing its ancestry in

the female line to Edward I., was born in 1839, and educated at Eton. He

entered the army in 1858, and served with the 60th (King's Royal Rifles) in

the China campaign of 1860. In 1870 he became captain, and went on the Red

River expedition, where he was first associated with Colonel (afterwards

Lord) Wolseley. In 1873-74 he accompanied the latter in the Ashantee

campaign as head of the Intelligence Department, and was slightly wounded

at the battle of Ordabai; he was mentioned in despatches, made a C.B., and

raised to the rank of major. In 1874 he inherited the family estates. In

the Kaffir War of 1878-79 and the Zulu War of 1879 he was conspicuous as an

intrepid and popular leader, and acquired a reputation for courage and

dogged determination. In particular his conduct of the retreat at Inhlobane

(March 28, 1879) drew attention to these qualities, and on that occasion he

earned the V.C.; he was also created C.M.G. and made lieutenant-colonel and

A.D.C. to the queen. In the Boer War of 1881 he was Sir Evelyn Wood's chief

of staff; and thus added to his experience of South African conditions of

warfare. In 1882 he was head of the field intelligence department in the

Egyptian campaign, and was knighted for his services. Two years later he

commanded an infantry brigade in the Sudan under Sir Gerald Graham, and was

at the battles of El Teb and Tamai, being promoted major-general for

distinguished service. In the Sudan campaign of 1884-85 he was Lord

Wolseley's chief of staff, and he was given command of the desert column

when Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. He distinguished himself by his

conduct of the retreat from Gubat to Gakdul, and by his victory at Abu Klea

(February 16-17), and he was created K.C.B. In 1886 he was sent to Ireland

to inquire into the "moonlighting" outrages, and for a short time he acted

as under-secretary for Ireland; but in 1887 he was appointed

quartermaster-general at the war office. From 1890 to 1897 he held the

office of adjutant-general, attaining the rank of lieutenant-general in

1891. At the war office his energy and ability inspired the belief that he

was fitted for the highest command, and in 1895, when the duke of Cambridge

was about to retire, it was well known that Lord Rosebery's cabinet

intended to appoint Sir Redvers as chief of the staff under a scheme of

reorganization recommended by Lord Hartington's commission. On the eve of

this change, however, the government was defeated, and its successors

appointed Lord Wolseley to the command under the old title of

commander-in-chief. In 1896 he was made a full general.

In 1898 he took command of the troops at Aldershot, and when the Boer War

broke out in 1899 he was selected to command the South African Field Force

(see TRANSVAAL), and landed [v.04 p.0789] at Cape Town on the 31st of

October. Owing to the Boer investment of Ladysmith and the consequent

gravity of the military situation in Natal, he unexpectedly hurried thither

in order to supervise personally the operations, but on the 15th of

December his first attempt to cross the Tugela at Colenso (see LADYSMITH)

was repulsed. The government, alarmed at the situation and the pessimistic

tone of Buller's messages, sent out Lord Roberts to supersede him in the

chief command, Sir Redvers being left in subordinate command of the Natal

force. His second attempt to relieve Ladysmith (January 10-27) proved

another failure, the result of the operations at Spion Kop (January 24)

causing consternation in England. A third attempt (Vaalkrantz, February

5-7) was unsuccessful, but the Natal army finally accomplished its task in

the series of actions which culminated in the victory of Pieter's Hill and

the relief of Ladysmith on the 27th of February. Sir Redvers Buller

remained in command of the Natal army till October 1900, when he returned

to England (being created G.C.M.G.), having in the meanwhile slowly done a

great deal of hard work in driving the Boers from the Biggarsberg (May 15),

forcing Lang's Nek (June 12), and occupying Lydenburg (September 6). But

though these latter operations had done much to re-establish his reputation

for dogged determination, and he had never lost the confidence of his own

men, his capacity for an important command in delicate and difficult

operations was now seriously questioned. The continuance, therefore, in

1901 of his appointment to the important Aldershot command met with a

vigorous press criticism, in which the detailed objections taken to his

conduct of the operations before Ladysmith (and particularly to a message

to Sir George White in which he seriously contemplated and provided for the

contingency of surrender) were given new prominence. On the 10th of October

1901, at a luncheon in London, Sir Redvers Buller made a speech in answer

to these criticisms in terms which were held to be a breach of discipline,

and he was placed on half-pay a few days later. For the remaining years of

his life he played an active part as a country gentleman, accepting in

dignified silence the prolonged attacks on his failures in South Africa;

among the public generally, and particularly in his own county, he never

lost his popularity. He died on the 2nd of June 1908. He had married in

1882 Lady Audrey, daughter of the 4th Marquess Townshend, who survived him

with one daughter.

A _Memoir_, by Lewis Butler, was published in 1909.

BULLET (Fr. _boulet_, diminutive of _boule_, ball). The original meaning (a

"small ball") has, since the end of the 16th century, been narrowed down to

the special case of the projectile used with small arms of all kinds,

irrespective of its size or shape. (For details see AMMUNITION; GUN; RIFLE,

&c.)

BULL-FIGHTING, the national Spanish sport. The Spanish name is

_tauromaquia_ (Gr. [Greek: tauros], bull, and [Greek: machê], combat).

Combats with bulls were common in ancient Thessaly as well as in the

amphitheatres of imperial Rome, but probably partook more of the nature of

worrying than fighting, like the bull-baiting formerly common in England.

The Moors of Africa also possessed a sport of this kind, and it is probable

that they introduced it into Andalusia when they conquered that province.

It is certain that they held bull-fights in the half-ruined Roman

amphitheatres of Merida, Cordova, Tarragona, Toledo and other places, and

that these constituted the favourite sport of the Moorish chieftains.

Although patriotic tradition names the great Cid himself as the original

Spanish bull-fighter, it is probable that the first Spaniard to kill a bull

in the arena was Don Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, who about 1040, employing the

lance, which remained for centuries the chief weapon used in the sport,

proved himself superior to the flower of the Moorish knights. A spirited

rivalry in the art between the Christian and Moorish warriors resulted, in

which even the kings of Castile and other Spanish princes took an ardent

interest. After the Moors were driven from Spain by Ferdinand II.,

bull-fighting continued to be the favourite sport of the aristocracy, the

method of fighting being on horseback with the lance. At the time of the

accession of the house of Austria it had become an indispensable accessory

of every court function, and Charles V. ensured his popularity with the

people by killing a bull with his own lance on the birthday of his son,

Philip II. Philip IV. is also known to have taken a personal part in

bull-fights. During this period the lance was discarded in favour of the

short spear (_rejoncillo_), and the leg armour still worn by the

_picadores_ was introduced. The accession of the house of Bourbon witnessed

a radical transformation in the character of the bullfight, which the

aristocracy began gradually to neglect, admitting to the combats

professional subordinates who, by the end of the 17th century, had become

the only active participants in the bull-ring. The first great professional

_espada_ (_i.e._ swordsman, the chief bull-fighter, who actually kills the

bull) was Francisco Romero, of Ronda in Andalusia (about 1700), who

introduced the _estoque_, the sword still used to kill the bull, and the

_muleta_, the red flag carried by the _espada_ (see below), the spear

falling into complete disuse.

For the past two centuries the art of bull-fighting has developed gradually

into the spectacle of to-day. Imitations of the Spanish bull-fights have

been repeatedly introduced into France and Italy, but the cruelty of the

sport has prevented its taking firm root. In Portugal a kind of

bull-baiting is practised, in which neither man nor beast is much hurt, the

bulls having their horns truncated and padded and never being killed. In

Spain many vain attempts have been made to abolish the sport, by Ferdinand

II. himself, instigated by his wife Isabella, by Charles III., by Ferdinand

VI., and by Charles IV.; and several popes placed its devotees under the

ban of excommunication with no perceptible effect upon its popularity.

Before the introduction of railways there were comparatively few bull-rings

(_plazas de toros_) in Spain, but these have largely multiplied in recent

years, in both Spain and Spanish America. At the present day nearly every

larger town and city in Spain has its _plaza de toros_ (about 225

altogether), built in the form of the Roman circuses with an oval open

arena covered with sand, surrounded by a stout fence about 6 ft. high.

Between this and the seats of the spectators is a narrow passage-way, where

those bull-fighters who are not at the moment engaged take their stations.

The _plazas de toros_ are of all sizes, from that of Madrid, which holds

more than 12,000 spectators, down to those seating only two or three

thousand. Every bull-ring has its hospital for the wounded, and its chapel

where the _toreros_ (bull-fighters) receive the Holy Eucharist.

The bulls used for fighting are invariably of well-known lineage and are

reared in special establishments (_vacádas_), the most celebrated of which

is now that of the duke of Veragua in Andalusia. When quite young they are

branded with the emblems of their owners, and later are put to a test of

their courage, only those that show a fighting spirit being trained

further. When full grown, the health, colour, weight, character of horns,

and action in attack are all objects of the keenest observation and study.

The best bulls are worth from £40 to £60. About 1300 bulls are killed

annually in Spain. Bull-fighters proper, most of whom are Andalusians,

consist of _espadas_ (or _matadores_), _banderilleros_ and _picadores_, in

addition to whom there are numbers of assistants (_chulos_), drivers and

other servants. For each bull-fight two or three _espadas_ are engaged,

each providing his own quadrille (_cuadrilla_), composed of several

_banderilleros_ and _picadores_. Six bulls are usually killed during one

_corrida_ (bull-fight), the _espadas_ engaged taking them in turn. The

_espada_ must have passed through a trying novitiate in the art at the

royal school of bull-fighting, after which he is given his _alternativa_,

or licence.

The bull-fight begins with a grand entry of all the bull-fighters with

_alguaciles_, municipal officers in ancient costume, at the head, followed,

in three rows, by the _espadas, banderilleros, picadores, chulos_ and the

richly caparisoned triple mule-team used to drag from the arena the

carcasses of the slain bulls and horses. The greatest possible brilliance

of costume and accoutrements is aimed at, and the picture presented is one

of dazzling colour. The _espadas_ and _banderilleros_ wear short jackets

and small-clothes of satin richly embroidered in gold and silver, with

[v.04 p.0790] light silk stockings and heelless shoes; the _picadores_

(pikemen on horseback) usually wear yellow, and their legs are enclosed in

steel armour covered with leather as a protection against the horns of the

bull.

The fight is divided into three divisions (_suertes_). When the opening

procession has passed round the arena the president of the _corrida_,

usually some person of rank, throws down to one of the _alguaciles_ the key

to the _toril_, or bull-cells. As soon as the supernumeraries have left the

ring, and the _picadores_, mounted upon blindfolded horses in wretched

condition, have taken their places against the barrier, the door of the

_toril_ is opened, and the bull, which has been goaded into fury by the

affixing to his shoulder of an iron pin with streamers of the colours of

his breeder attached, enters the ring. Then begins the _suerte de picar_,

or division of lancing. The bull at once attacks the mounted _picadores_,

ripping up and wounding the horses, often to the point of complete

disembowelment. As the bull attacks the horse, the _picador_, who is armed

with a short-pointed, stout pike (_garrocha_), thrusts this into the bull's

back with all his force, with the usual result that the bull turns its

attention to another _picador_. Not infrequently, however, the rush of the

bull and the blow dealt to the horse is of such force as to overthrow both

animal and rider, but the latter is usually rescued from danger by the

_chulos_ and _banderilleros_, who, by means of their red cloaks (_capas_),

divert the bull from the fallen _picador_, who either escapes from the ring

or mounts a fresh horse. The number of horses killed in this manner is one

of the chief features of the fight, a bull's prowess being reckoned

accordingly. About 6000 horses are killed every year in Spain. At the sound

of a trumpet the _picadores_ retire from the ring, the dead horses are

dragged out, and the second division of the fight, the _suerte de

banderillear_, or planting the darts, begins. The _banderillas_ are barbed

darts about 18 in. long, ornamented with coloured paper, one being held in

each hand of the bull-fighter, who, standing 20 or 30 yds. from the bull,

draws its attention to him by means of violent gestures. As the bull

charges, the _banderillero_ steps towards him, dexterously plants both

darts in the beast's neck, and draws aside in the nick of time to avoid its

horns. Four pairs of _banderillas_ are planted in this way, rendering the

bull mad with rage and pain. Should the animal prove of a cowardly nature

and refuse to attack repeatedly, _banderillas de fuego_ (fire) are used.

These are furnished with fulminating crackers, which explode with terrific

noise as the bull careers about the ring. During this division numerous

manoeuvres are sometimes indulged in for the purpose of tiring the bull

out, such as leaping between his horns, vaulting over his back with the

_garrocha_ as he charges, and inviting his rushes by means of elaborate

flauntings of the cloak (_floréos_, flourishes).

Another trumpet-call gives the signal for the final division of the fight,

the _suerte de matár_ (killing). This is carried out by the _espada_,

alone, his assistants being present only in the case of emergency or to get

the bull back to the proper part of the ring, should he bolt to a distance.

The _espada_, taking his stand before the box of the president, holds aloft

in his left hand sword and _muleta_ and in his right his hat, and in set

phrases formally dedicates (_brinde_) the death of the bull to the

president or some other personage of rank, finishing by tossing his hat

behind his back and proceeding bareheaded to the work of killing the bull.

This is a process accompanied by much formality. The _espada_, armed with

the _estoque_, a sword with a heavy flat blade, brings the bull into the

proper position by means of passes with the _muleta_, a small red silk flag

mounted on a short staff, and then essays to kill him with a single thrust,

delivered through the back of the neck close to the head and downward into

the heart. This stroke is a most difficult one, requiring long practice as

well as great natural dexterity, and very frequently fails of its object,

the killing of the bull often requiring repeated thrusts. The stroke

(_estocada_) is usually given _á volapié_ (half running), the _espada_

delivering the thrust while stepping forward, the bull usually standing

still. Another method is _recibiéndo_ (receiving), the _espada_ receiving

the onset of the bull upon the point of his sword. Should the bull need a

_coup de grâce_, it is given by a _chulo_, called _puntilléro_, with a

dagger which pierces the spinal marrow. The dead beast is then dragged out

of the ring by the triple mule-team, while the _espada_ makes a tour of

honour, being acclaimed, in the case of a favourite, with the most

extravagant enthusiasm. The ring is then raked over, a second bull is

introduced, and the spectacle begins anew. Upon great occasions, such as a

coronation, a _corrida_ in the ancient style is given by amateurs, who are

clad in gala costumes without armour of any kind, and mounted upon steeds

of good breed and condition. They are armed with sharp lances, with which

they essay to kill the bull while protecting themselves and their steeds

from his horns. As the bulls in these encounters have not been weakened by

many wounds and tired out by much running, the performances of the

gentlemen fighters are remarkable for pluck and dexterity.

See Moratin, _Origen y Progeso de las Fiestas de Toros_; Bedoya's _Historia

del Toreo_; J.S. Lozano, _Manual de Tauromaquia_ (Seville, 1882); A.

Chapman and W.T. Buck, _Wild Spain_ (London, 1893).

BULLFINCH (_Pyrrhula vulgaris_), the ancient English name given to a bird

belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ (see FINCH), of a bluish-grey and

black colour above, and generally of a bright tile-red beneath, the female

differing chiefly in having its under-parts chocolate-brown. It is a shy

bird, not associating with other species, and frequents well-wooded

districts, being very rarely seen on moors or other waste lands. It builds

a shallow nest composed of twigs lined with fibrous roots, on low trees or

thick underwood, only a few feet from the ground, and lays four or five

eggs of a bluish-white colour speckled and streaked with purple. The young

remain with their parents during autumn and winter, and pair in spring, not

building their nests, however, till May. In spring and summer they feed on

the buds of trees and bushes, choosing, it is said, such only as contain

the incipient blossom, and thus doing immense injury to orchards and

gardens. In autumn and winter they feed principally on wild fruits and on

seeds. The note of the bullfinch, in the wild state, is soft and pleasant,

but so low as scarcely to be audible; it possesses, however, great powers

of imitation, and considerable memory, and can thus be taught to whistle a

variety of tunes. Bullfinches are very abundant in the forests of Germany,

and it is there that most of the piping bullfinches are trained. They are

taught continuously for nine months, and the lesson is repeated throughout

the first moulting, as during that change the young birds are apt to forget

all that they have previously acquired. The bullfinch is a native of the

northern countries of Europe, occurring in Italy and other southern parts

only as a winter visitor. White and black varieties are occasionally met

with; the latter are often produced by feeding the bullfinch exclusively on

hempseed, when its plumage gradually changes to black. It rarely breeds in

confinement, and hybrids between it and the canary have been produced on

but few occasions.

BULLI, a town of Camden county, New South Wales, Australia, 59 m. by rail

S. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2500. It is the headquarters of the Bulli Mining

Company, whose coal-mine on the flank of the Illawarra Mountains is worked

by a tunnel, 2 m. long, driven into the heart of the mountain. From this

tunnel the coal is conveyed by rail for 1½ m. to a pier, whence it is

shipped to Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane by a fleet of steam colliers. The

beautiful Bulli Pass, 1000 ft. above the sea, over the Illawarra range, is

one of the most attractive tourist resorts in Australia.

BULLINGER, HEINRICH (1504-1575), Swiss reformer, son of Dean Heinrich

Bullinger by his wife Anna (Wiederkehr), was born at Bremgarten, Aargau, on

the 18th of July 1504. He studied at Emmerich and Cologne, where the

teaching of Peter Lombard led him, through Augustine and Chrysostom, to

first-hand study of the Bible. Next the writings of Luther and Melanchthon

appealed to him. Appointed teacher (1522) in the cloister school of Cappel,

he lectured on Melanchthon's _Loci Communes_ (1521). He heard Zwingli at

Zürich in 1527, and next year accompanied him to the disputation at Berne.

He was made pastor of Bremgarten in 1529, and married Anna Adlischweiler, a

nun, by whom he had eleven children. After the battle [v.04 p.0791] of

Cappel (11th of October 1531), in which Zwingli fell, he left Bremgarten.

On the 9th of December 1531 he was chosen to succeed Zwingli as chief

pastor of Zürich. A strong writer and thinker, his spirit was essentially

unifying and sympathetic, in an age when these qualities won little

sympathy. His controversies on the Lord's Supper with Luther, and his

correspondence with Lelio Sozini (see SOCINUS), exhibit, in different

connexions, his admirable mixture of dignity and tenderness. With Calvin he

concluded (1549) the _Consensus Tigurinus_ on the Lord's Supper. The

(second) Helvetic Confession (1566) adopted in Switzerland, Hungary,

Bohemia and elsewhere, was his work. The volumes of the _Zurich Letters_,

published by the Parker Society, testify to his influence on the English

reformation in later stages. Many of his sermons were translated into

English (reprinted, 4 vols., 1849). His works, mainly expository and

polemical, have not been collected. He died at Zürich on the 17th of

September 1575.

See Carl Pestalozzi, _Leben_ (1858); Raget Christoffel, _H. Bullinger_

(1875); Justus Heer, in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1897).

(A. GO.*)

BULLION, a term applied to the gold and silver of the mines brought to a

standard of purity. The word appears in an English act of 1336 in the

French form "puissent sauvement porter à les exchanges ou bullion ...

argent en plate, vessel d'argent, &c."; and apparently it is connected with

_bouillon_, the sense of "boiling" being transferred in English to the

melting of metal, so that _bullion_ in the passage quoted meant

"melting-house" or "mint." The first recorded instance of the use of the

word for precious metal as such in the mass is in an act of 1451. From the

use of gold and silver as a medium of exchange, it followed that they

should approximate in all nations to a common degree of fineness; and

though this is not uniform even in coins, yet the proportion of alloy in

silver, and of carats alloy to carats fine in gold, has been reduced to

infinitesimal differences in the bullion of commerce, and is a prime

element of value even in gold and silver plate, jewelry, and other articles

of manufacture. Bullion, whether in the form of coins, or of bars and

ingots stamped, is subject, as a general rule of the London market, not

only to weight but to assay, and receives a corresponding value.

BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657-c. 1740), English actor, "of great glee and much

comic vivacity," was the original Clincher in Farquhar's _Constant Couple_

(1699), Boniface in _The Beaux' Stratagem_ (1707), and Sir Francis Courtall

in Pavener's _Artful Wife_ (1717). He played at all the London theatres of

his time, and in the summer at a booth at Bartholomew Fair. He had three

sons, all actors, of whom the eldest was Christopher Bullock (c.

1690-1724), who at Drury Lane, the Haymarket and Lincoln's Inn Fields

displayed "a considerable versatility of talent." Christopher created a few

original parts in comedies and farces of which he was the author or

adapter:--_A Woman's Revenge_ (1715); _Slip_; _Adventures of Half an Hour_

(1716); _The Cobbler of Preston_; _Woman's a Riddle_; _The Perjurer_

(1717); and _The Traitor_ (1718).

BULLROARER, the English name for an instrument made of a small flat slip of

wood, through a hole in one end of which a string is passed; swung round

rapidly it makes a booming, humming noise. Though treated as a toy by

Europeans, the bullroarer has had the highest mystic significance and

sanctity among primitive people. This is notably the case in Australia,

where it figures in the initiation ceremonies and is regarded with the

utmost awe by the "blackfellows." Their bullroarers, or sacred "tunduns,"

are of two types, the "grandfather" or "man tundun," distinguished by its

deep tone, and the "woman tundun," which, being smaller, gives forth a

weaker, shriller note. Women or girls, and boys before initiation, are

never allowed to see the tundun. At the Bora, or initiation ceremonies, the

bullroarer's hum is believed to be the voice of the "Great Spirit," and on

hearing it the women hide in terror. A Maori bullroarer is preserved in the

British Museum, and travellers in Africa state that it is known and held

sacred there. Thus among the Egba tribe of the Yoruba race the supposed

"Voice of Oro," their god of vengeance, is produced by a bullroarer, which

is actually worshipped as the god himself. The sanctity of the bullroarer

has been shown to be very widespread. There is no doubt that the rhombus

[Greek: rhombos] which was whirled at the Greek mysteries was one. Among

North American Indians it was common. At certain Moqui ceremonies the

procession of dancers was led by a priest who whirled a bullroarer. The

instrument has been traced among the Tusayan, Apache and Navaho Indians

(J.G. Bourke, _Ninth Annual Report of Bureau of Amer. Ethnol._, 1892),

among the Koskimo of British Columbia (Fr. Boas, "Social Organization, &c.,

of the Kwakiutl Indians," _Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895_),

and in Central Brazil. In New Guinea, in some of the islands of the Torres

Straits (where it is swung as a fishing-charm), in Ceylon (where it is used

as a toy and figures as a sacred instrument at Buddhist festivals), and in

Sumatra (where it is used to induce the demons to carry off the soul of a

woman, and so drive her mad), the bullroarer is also found. Sometimes, as

among the Minangkabos of Sumatra, it is made of the frontal bone of a man

renowned for his bravery.

See A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (1884); J.D.E. Schmeltz, _Das Schwirrholz_

(Hamburg, 1896); A.C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_, and in the _Journ.

Anthrop. Instit._ xix., 1890; G.M.C. Theal, _Kaffir Folk-Lore_; A.B. Ellis,

_Yoruba-Speaking Peoples_ (1894); R.C. Codrington, _The Melanesians_

(1891).

BULL RUN, a small stream of Virginia, U.S.A., which gave the name to two

famous battles in the American Civil War.

(1) The first battle of Bull Run (called by the Confederates Manassas) was

fought on the 21st of July 1861 between the Union forces under

Brigadier-General Irvin McDowell and the Confederates under General Joseph

E. Johnston. Both armies were newly raised and almost untrained. After a

slight action on the 18th at Blackburn's Ford, the two armies prepared for

a battle. The Confederates were posted along Bull Run, guarding all the

passages from the Stone Bridge down to the railway bridge. McDowell's

forces rendezvoused around Centreville, and both commanders, sensible of

the temper of their troops, planned a battle for the 21st. On his part

McDowell ordered one of his four divisions to attack the Stone Bridge, two

to make a turning movement via Sudley Springs, the remaining division

(partly composed of regular troops) was to be in reserve and to watch the

lower fords. The local Confederate commander, Brigadier-General P.G.T.

Beauregard, had also intended to advance, and General Johnston, who arrived

by rail on the evening of the 20th with the greater part of a fresh army,

and now assumed command of the whole force, approved an offensive movement

against Centreville for the 21st; but orders miscarried, and the Federal

attack opened before the movement had begun. Johnston and Beauregard then

decided to fight a defensive battle, and hurried up troops to support the

single brigade of Evans which held the Stone Bridge. Thus there was no

serious fighting at the lower fords of Bull Run throughout the day.

[Illustration]

The Federal staff was equally inexperienced, and the divisions [v.04

p.0792] engaged in the turning movement met with many unnecessary checks.

At 6 A.M., when the troops told off for the frontal attack appeared before

the Stone Bridge, the turning movement was by no means well advanced. Evans

had time to change position so as to command both the Stone Bridge and

Sudley Springs, and he was promptly supported by the brigades of Bee,

Bartow and T.J. Jackson. About 9.30 the leading Federal brigade from Sudley

Springs came into action, and two hours later Evans, Bee and Bartow had

been driven off the Matthews hill in considerable confusion. But on the

Henry House hill Jackson's brigade stood, as General Bee said to his men,

"like a stone wall," and the defenders rallied, though the Federals were

continually reinforced. The fighting on the Henry House hill was very

severe, but McDowell, who dared not halt to re-form his enthusiastic

volunteers, continued to attack. About 1.30 P.M. he brought up two regular

batteries to the fighting line; but a Confederate regiment, being mistaken

for friendly troops and allowed to approach, silenced the guns by close

rifle fire, and from that time, though the hill was taken and retaken

several times, the Federal attack made no further headway. At 2.45 more of

Beauregard's troops had come up; Jackson's brigade charged with the

bayonet, and at the same time the Federals were assailed in flank by the

last brigades of Johnston's army, which arrived at the critical moment from

the railway. They gave way at once, tired out, and conscious that the day

was lost, and after one rally melted away slowly to the rear, the handful

of regulars alone keeping their order. But when, at the defile of the Cub

Run, they came under shell fire the retreat became a panic flight to the

Potomac. The victors were too much exhausted to pursue, and the U.S.

regulars of the reserve division formed a strong and steady rearguard. The

losses were--Federals, 2896 men out of about 18,500 engaged; Confederates,

1982 men out of 18,000.

(2) The operations of the last days of August 1862, which include the

second battle of Bull Run (second Manassas), are amongst the most

complicated of the war. At the outset the Confederate general Lee's army

(Longstreet's and Jackson's corps) lay on the Rappahannock, faced by the

Federal Army of Virginia under Major-General John Pope, which was to be

reinforced by troops from McClellan's army to a total strength of 150,000

men as against Lee's 60,000. Want of supplies soon forced Lee to move,

though not to retreat, and his plan for attacking Pope was one of the most

daring in all military history. Jackson with half the army was despatched

on a wide turning movement which was to bring him via Salem and

Thoroughfare Gap to Manassas Junction in Pope's rear; when Jackson's task

was accomplished Lee and Longstreet were to follow him by the same route.

Early on the 25th of August Jackson began his march round the right of

Pope's army; on the 26th the column passed Thoroughfare Gap, and Bristoe

Station, directly in Pope's rear, was reached on the same evening, while a

detachment drove a Federal post from Manassas Junction. On the 27th the

immense magazines at the Junction were destroyed. On his side Pope had soon

discovered Jackson's departure, and had arranged for an immediate attack on

Longstreet. When, however, the direction of Jackson's march on Thoroughfare

Gap became clear, Pope fell back in order to engage him, at the same time

ordering his army to concentrate on Warrenton, Greenwich and Gainesville.

He was now largely reinforced. On the evening of the 27th one of his

divisions, marching to its point of concentration, met a division of

Jackson's corps, near Bristoe Station; after a sharp fight the Confederate

general, Ewell, retired on Manassas. Pope now realized that he had

Jackson's corps in front of him at the Junction, and at once took steps to

attack Manassas with all his forces. He drew off even the corps at

Gainesville for his intended battle of the 28th; McDowell, however, its

commander, on his own responsibility, left Ricketts's division at

Thoroughfare Gap. But Pope's blow was struck in the air. When he arrived at

Manassas on the 28th he found nothing but the ruins of his magazines, and

one of McDowell's divisions (King's) marching from Gainesville on Manassas

Junction met Jackson's infantry near Groveton. The situation had again

changed completely. Jackson had no intention of awaiting Pope at Manassas,

and after several feints made with a view to misleading the Federal scouts

he finally withdrew to a hidden position between Groveton and Sudley

Springs, to await the arrival of Longstreet, who, taking the same route as

Jackson had done, arrived on the 28th at Thoroughfare Gap and, engaging

Ricketts's division, finally drove it back to Gainesville. On the evening

of this day Jackson's corps held the line Sudley Springs-Groveton, his

right wing near Groveton opposing King's division; and Longstreet held

Thoroughfare Gap, facing Ricketts at Gainesville. On Ricketts's right was

King near Groveton, and the line was continued thence by McDowell's

remaining division and by Sigel's corps to the Stone Bridge. At

Centreville, 7 m. away, was Pope with three divisions, a fourth was

north-east of Manassas Junction, and Porter's corps at Bristoe Station.

Thus, while Ricketts continued at Gainesville to mask Longstreet, Pope

could concentrate a superior force against Jackson, whom he now believed to

be meditating a retreat to the Gap. But a series of misunderstandings

resulted in the withdrawal of Ricketts and King, so that nothing now

intervened between Longstreet and Jackson; while Sigel and McDowell's other

division alone remained to face Jackson until such time as Pope could bring

up the rest of his scattered forces. Jackson now closed on his left and

prepared for battle, and on the morning of the 29th the Confederates,

posted behind a high railway embankment, repelled two sharp attacks made by

Sigel. Pope arrived at noon with the divisions from Centreville, which, led

by the general himself and by Reno and Hooker, two of the bravest officers

in the Union army, made a third and most desperate attack on Jackson's

line. The latter, repulsing it with difficulty, carried its counter-stroke

too far and was in turn repulsed by Grover's brigade of Hooker's division.

Grover then made a fourth assault, but was driven back with terrible loss.

The last assault, gallantly delivered by two divisions under Kearny and

Stevens, drove the Confederate left out of its position; but a Confederate

counter-attack, led by the brave Jubal Early, dislodged the assailants with

the bayonet.

In the meanwhile events had taken place near Groveton which were, for

twenty years after the war, the subject of controversy and recrimination

(see PORTER, FITZ-JOHN). When Porter's and part of McDowell's corps, acting

on various orders sent by Pope, approached Gainesville from the south-east,

Longstreet had already reached that place, and the Federals thus

encountered a force of unknown strength at the moment when Sigel's guns to

the northward showed him to be closely engaged with Jackson. The two

generals consulted, and McDowell marched off to join Sigel, while Porter

remained to hold the new enemy in check. In this he succeeded; Longstreet,

though far superior in numbers, made no forward move, and his advanced

guard alone came into action. On the night of the 29th Lee reunited the

wings of his army on the field of battle. He had forced Pope back many

miles from the Rappahannock, and expecting that the Federals would retire

to the line of Bull Run before giving battle, he now decided to wait for

the last divisions of Longstreet's corps, which were still distant. But

Pope, still sanguine, ordered a "general pursuit" of Jackson for the 30th.

There was some ground for his suppositions, for Jackson had retired a short

distance and Longstreet's advanced guard had also fallen back. McDowell,

however, who was in general charge of the Federal right on the 30th, soon

saw that Jackson was not retreating and stopped the "pursuit," and the

attack on Jackson's right, which Pope had ordered Porter to make, was

repulsed by Longstreet's overwhelming forces. Then Lee's whole line, 4 m.

long, made its grand counter-stroke (4 P.M.). There was now no hesitation

in Longstreet's attack; the Federal left was driven successively from every

position it took up, and Longstreet finally captured Bald Hill. Jackson,

though opposed by the greater part of Pope's forces, advanced to the

Matthews hill, and his artillery threatened the Stone Bridge. The Federals,

driven back to the banks of Bull Run, were only saved by the gallant

defence of the Henry House hill by the Pennsylvanian division of Reynolds

and the regulars [v.04 p.0793] under Sykes. Pope withdrew under cover of

night to Centreville. Here he received fresh reinforcements, but Jackson

was already marching round his new right, and after the action of Chantilly

(1st of September) the whole Federal army fell back to Washington. The

Union forces present on the field on the 29th and 30th numbered about

63,000, the strength of Lee's army being on the same dates about 54,000.

Besides their killed and wounded the Federals lost very heavily in

prisoners.

BULLY (of uncertain origin, but possibly connected with a Teutonic word

seen in many compounds, as the Low Ger. _bullerjaan_, meaning "noisy"; the

word has also, with less probability, been derived from the Dutch _boel_,

and Ger. _Buhle_, a lover), originally a fine, swaggering fellow, as in

"Bully Bottom" in _A Midsummer Night's Dream_, later an overbearing

ruffian, especially a coward who abuses his strength by ill-treating the

weak; more technically a _souteneur_, a man who lives on the earnings of a

prostitute. The term in its early use of "fine" or "splendid" survives in

American slang.

BÜLOW, BERNHARD ERNST VON (1815-1879), Danish and German statesman, was the

son of Adolf von Bülow, a Danish official, and was born at Cismar in

Holstein on the 2nd of August 1815. He studied law at the universities of

Berlin, Göttingen and Kiel, and began his political career in the service

of Denmark, in the chancery of Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburg at Copenhagen,

and afterwards in the foreign office. In 1842 he became councillor of

legation, and in 1847 Danish _chargé d'affaires_ in the Hanse towns, where

his intercourse with the merchant princes led to his marriage in 1848 with

a wealthy heiress, Louise Victorine Rücker. When the insurrection broke out

in the Elbe duchies (1848) he left the Danish service, and offered his

services to the provisional government of Kiel, an offer that was not

accepted. In 1849, accordingly, he re-entered the service of Denmark, was

appointed a royal chamberlain and in 1850 sent to represent the duchies of

Schleswig and Holstein at the restored federal diet of Frankfort. Here he

came into intimate touch with Bismarck, who admired his statesmanlike

handling of the growing complications of the Schleswig-Holstein Question.

With the radical "Eider-Dane" party he was utterly out of sympathy; and

when, in 1862, this party gained the upper hand, he was recalled from

Frankfort. He now entered the service of the grand-duke of

Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and remained at the head of the grand-ducal

government until 1867, when he became plenipotentiary for the two

Mecklenburg duchies in the council of the German Confederation (Bundesrat),

where he distinguished himself by his successful defence of the medieval

constitution of the duchies against Liberal attacks. In 1873 Bismarck, who

was in thorough sympathy with his views, persuaded him to enter the service

of Prussia as secretary of state for foreign affairs, and from this time

till his death he was the chancellor's most faithful henchman. In 1875 he

was appointed Prussian plenipotentiary in the Bundesrat; in 1877 he became

Bismarck's lieutenant in the secretaryship for foreign affairs of the

Empire; and in 1878 he was, with Bismarck and Hohenlohe, Prussian

plenipotentiary at the congress of Berlin. He died at Frankfort on the 20th

of October 1879, his end being hastened by his exertions in connexion with

the political crisis of that year. Of his six sons the eldest, Bernhard

Heinrich Karl (see below), became chancellor of the Empire.

See the biography of H. von Petersdorff in _Allgemeine deutsche

Biographie_, Band 47, p. 350.

BÜLOW, BERNHARD HEINRICH KARL MARTIN, PRINCE VON (1849- ), German

statesman, was born on the 3rd of May 1849, at Klein-Flottbeck, in

Holstein. The Bülow family is one very widely extended in north Germany,

and many members have attained distinction in the civil and military

service of Prussia, Denmark and Mecklenburg. Prince Bülow's great-uncle,

Heinrich von Bülow, who was distinguished for his admiration of England and

English institutions, was Prussian ambassador in England from 1827 to 1840,

and married a daughter of Wilhelm von Humboldt (see the letters of

Gabrielle von Bülow). His father, Bernhard Ernst von Bülow, is separately

noticed above.

Prince Bülow must not be confused with his contemporary Otto v. Bülow

(1827-1901), an official in the Prussian foreign office, who in 1882 was

appointed German envoy at Bern, from 1892 to 1898 was Prussian envoy to the

Vatican, and died at Rome on the 22nd of November 1901.

Bernhard von Bülow, after serving in the Franco-Prussian War, entered the

Prussian civil service, and was then transferred to the diplomatic service.

In 1876 he was appointed attaché to the German embassy in Paris, and after

returning for a while to the foreign office at Berlin, became second

secretary to the embassy in Paris in 1880. From 1884 he was first secretary

to the embassy at St Petersburg, and acted as _chargé d'affaires_; in 1888

he was appointed envoy at Bucharest, and in 1893 to the post of German

ambassador at Rome. In 1897, on the retirement of Baron Marshall von

Bieberstein, he was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs (the

same office which his father had held) under Prince Hohenlohe, with a seat

in the Prussian ministry. The appointment caused much surprise at the time,

as Bülow was little known outside diplomatic circles. The explanations

suggested were that he had made himself very popular at Rome and that his

appointment was therefore calculated to strengthen the loosening bonds of

the Triple Alliance, and also that his early close association with

Bismarck would ensure the maintenance of the Bismarckian tradition. As

foreign secretary Herr von Bülow was chiefly responsible for carrying out

the policy of colonial expansion with which the emperor had identified

himself, and in 1899, on bringing to a successful conclusion the

negotiations by which the Caroline Islands were acquired by Germany, he was

raised to the rank of count. On the resignation of Hohenlohe in 1900 he was

chosen to succeed him as chancellor of the empire and president of the

Prussian ministry.

The _Berliner Neueste Nachrichten_, commenting on this appointment, very

aptly characterized the relations of the new chancellor to the emperor, in

contrast to the position occupied by Bismarck. "The Germany of William

II.," it said, "does not admit a Titan in the position of the highest

official of the Empire. A cautious and versatile diplomatist like Bernhard

von Bülow appears to be best adapted to the personal and political

necessities of the present situation." Count Bülow, indeed, though, like

Bismarck, a "realist," utilitarian and opportunist in his policy, made no

effort to emulate the masterful independence of the great chancellor. He

was accused, indeed, of being little more than the complacent executor of

the emperor's will, and defended himself in the Reichstag against the

charge. The substance of the relations between the emperor and himself, he

declared, rested on mutual good-will, and added: "I must lay it down most

emphatically that the prerogative of the emperor's personal initiative must

not be curtailed, and will not be curtailed, by any chancellor.... As

regards the chancellor, however, I say that no imperial chancellor worthy

of the name ... would take up any position which in his conscience he did

not regard as justifiable." It is clear that the position of a chancellor

holding these views in relation to a ruler so masterful and so impulsive as

the emperor William II. could be no easy one; and Bülow's long continuance

in office is the best proof of his genius. His first conspicuous act as

chancellor was a masterly defence in the Reichstag of German action in

China, a defence which was, indeed, rendered easier by the fact that Prince

Hohenlohe had--to use his own words--"dug a canal" for the flood of

imperial ambition of which warning had been given in the famous "mailed

fist" speech. Such incidents as this, however, though they served to

exhibit consummate tact and diplomatic skill, give little index to the

fundamental character of his work as chancellor. Of this it may be said, in

general, that it carried on the best traditions of the Prussian service in

whole-hearted devotion to the interests of the state. The accusation that

he was an "agrarian" he thought it necessary to rebut in a speech delivered

on the 18th of February 1906 to the German Handelstag. He was an agrarian,

he declared, in so far as he came of a land-owning family, and was

interested in the prosperity of agriculture; but as chancellor, whose

function it is to watch over the welfare [v.04 p.0794] of all classes, he

was equally concerned with the interests of commerce and industry

(_Kölnische Zeitung_, Feb. 20, 1906). Some credit for the immense material

expansion of Germany under his chancellorship is certainly due to his zeal

and self-devotion. This was generously recognized by the emperor in a

letter publicly addressed to the chancellor on the 21st of May 1906,

immediately after the passage of the Finance Bill. "I am fully conscious,"

it ran, "of the conspicuous share in the initiation and realization of this

work of reform... which must be ascribed to the statesmanlike skill and

self-sacrificing devotion with which you have conducted and promoted those

arduous labours." Rumours had from time to time been rife of a "chancellor

crisis" and Bülow's dismissal; in the _Berliner Tageblatt_ this letter was

compared to the "Never!" with which the emperor William I. had replied to

Bismarck's proffered resignation.

On the 6th of June 1905 Count Bülow was raised to the rank of prince

(_Fürst_), on the occasion of the marriage of the crown prince. The

coincidence of this date with the fall of M. Delcassé, the French minister

for foreign affairs--a triumph for Germany and a humiliation for

France--was much commented on at the time (see _The Times_, June 7, 1905);

and the elevation of Bismarck to the rank of prince in the Hall of Mirrors

at Versailles was recalled. Whatever element of truth there may have been

in this, however, the significance of the incident was much exaggerated.

On the 5th of April 1906, while attending a debate in the Reichstag, Prince

Bülow was seized with illness, the result of overwork and an attack of

influenza, and was carried unconscious from the hall. At first it was

thought that the attack would be fatal, and Lord Fitzmaurice in the House

of Lords compared the incident with that of the death of Chatham, a

compliment much appreciated in Germany. The illness, however, quickly took

a favourable turn, and after a month's rest the chancellor was able to

resume his duties. In 1907 Prince Bülow was made the subject of a

disgraceful libel, which received more attention than it deserved because

it coincided with the Harden-Moltke scandals; his character was, however,

completely vindicated, and the libeller, a journalist named Brand, received

a term of imprisonment.

The parliamentary skill of Prince Bülow in holding together the

heterogeneous elements of which the government majority in the Reichstag

was composed, no less than the diplomatic tact with which he from time to

time "interpreted" the imperial indiscretions to the world, was put to a

rude test by the famous "interview" with the German emperor, published in

the London _Daily Telegraph_ of the 28th of October 1908 (see WILLIAM II.,

German emperor), which aroused universal reprobation in Germany. Prince

Bülow assumed the official responsibility, and tendered his resignation to

the emperor, which was not accepted; but the chancellor's explanation in

the Reichstag on the 10th of November showed how keenly he felt his

position. He declared his conviction that the disastrous results of the

interview would "induce the emperor in future to observe that strict

reserve, even in private conversations, which is equally indispensable in

the interest of a uniform policy and for the authority of the crown,"

adding that, in the contrary case, neither he nor any successor of his

could assume the responsibility (_The Times_, Nov. 11, 1908, p. 9). The

attitude of the emperor showed that he had taken the lesson to heart. It

was not the imperial indiscretions, but the effect of his budget proposals

in breaking up the Liberal-Conservative _bloc_, on whose support he

depended in the Reichstag, that eventually drove Prince Bülow from office

(see GERMANY: _History_). At the emperor's request he remained to pilot the

mutilated budget through the House; but on the 14th of July 1909 the

acceptance of his resignation was announced.

Prince Bülow married, on the 9th of January 1886, Maria Anna Zoe Rosalia

Beccadelli di Bologna, Princess Camporeale, whose first marriage with Count

Karl von Dönhoff had been dissolved and declared null by the Holy See in

1884. The princess, an accomplished pianist and pupil of Liszt, was a

step-daughter of the Italian statesman Minghetti.

See J. Penzler, _Graf Bülows Reden nebst urkundlichen Beiträgen zu seiner

Politik_ (Leipzig, 1903).

BÜLOW, DIETRICH HEINRICH, FREIHERR VON (1757-1807), Prussian soldier and

military writer, and brother of General Count F.W. Bülow, entered the

Prussian army in 1773. Routine work proved distasteful to him, and he read

with avidity the works of the chevalier Folard and other theoretical

writers on war, and of Rousseau. After sixteen years' service he left

Prussia, and endeavoured without success to obtain a commission in the

Austrian army. He then returned to Prussia, and for some time managed a

theatrical company. The failure of this undertaking involved Bülow in heavy

losses, and soon afterwards he went to America, where he seems to have been

converted to, and to have preached, Swedenborgianism. On his return to

Europe he persuaded his brother to engage in a speculation for exporting

glass to the United States, which proved a complete failure. After this for

some years he made a precarious living in Berlin by literary work, but his

debts accumulated, and it was under great disadvantages that he produced

his _Geist des Neueren Kriegssystems_ (Hamburg, 1799) and _Der Feldzug

1800_ (Berlin, 1801). His hopes of military employment were again

disappointed, and his brother, the future field marshal, who had stood by

him in all his troubles, finally left him. After wandering in France and

the smaller German states, he reappeared at Berlin in 1804, where he wrote

a revised edition of his _Geist des Neueren Kriegssystems_ (Hamburg, 1805),

_Lehrsätze des Neueren Kriegs_ (Berlin, 1805), _Geschichte des Prinzen

Heinrich von Preussen_ (Berlin, 1805), _Neue Taktik der Neuern wie sie sein

sollte_ (Leipzig, 1805), and _Der Feldzug 1805_ (Leipzig, 1806). He also

edited, with G.H. von Behrenhorst (1733-1814) and others, _Annalen des

Krieges_ (Berlin, 1806). These brilliant but unorthodox works,

distinguished by an open contempt of the Prussian system, cosmopolitanism

hardly to be distinguished from high treason, and the mordant sarcasm of a

disappointed man, brought upon Bülow the enmity of the official classes and

of the government. He was arrested as insane, but medical examination

proved him sane and he was then lodged as a prisoner in Colberg, where he

was harshly treated, though Gneisenau obtained some mitigation of his

condition. Thence he passed into Russian hands and died in prison at Riga

in 1807, probably as a result of ill-treatment.

In Bülow's writings there is evident a distinct contrast between the spirit

of his strategical and that of his tactical ideas. As a strategist (he

claimed to be the first of strategists) he reduces to mathematical rules

the practice of the great generals of the 18th century, ignoring

"friction," and manoeuvring his armies _in vacuo_. At the same time he

professes that his system provides working rules for the armies of his own

day, which in point of fact were "armed nations," infinitely more affected

by "friction" than the small dynastic and professional armies of the

preceding age. Bülow may therefore be considered as anything but a reformer

in the domain of strategy. With more justice he has been styled the "father

of modern tactics." He was the first to recognize that the conditions of

swift and decisive war brought about by the French Revolution involved

wholly new tactics, and much of his teaching had a profound influence on

European warfare of the 19th century. His early training had shown him

merely the pedantic _minutiae_ of Frederick's methods, and, in the absence

of any troops capable of illustrating the real linear tactics, he became an

enthusiastic supporter of the methods, which (more of necessity than from

judgment) the French revolutionary generals had adopted, of fighting in

small columns covered by skirmishers. Battles, he maintained, were won by

skirmishers. "We must organize disorder," he said; indeed, every argument

of writers of the modern "extended order" school is to be found _mutatis

mutandis_ in Bülow, whose system acquired great prominence in view of the

mechanical improvements in armament. But his tactics, like his strategy,

were vitiated by the absence of "friction," and their dependence on the

realization of an unattainable standard of bravery.

See von Voss, _H. von Bülow_ (Köln, 1806); P. von Bülow, _Familienbuch der

v. Bülow_ (Berlin, 1859); Ed. von Bülow, _Aus dem Leben Dietrichs v.

Bülow_, also _Vermischte Schriften aus dem Nachlass von Behrenhorst_

(1845); Ed. von Bülow and von Rüstow, _Militärische und vermischte

Schriften von Heinrich Dietrich v. Bülow_ (Leipzig, 1853); Memoirs by

Freiherr v. Meerheimb in _Allgemeine deutsche [v.04 p.0795] Biographie_,

vol. 3 (Leipzig, 1876), and "Behrenhorst und Bülow" (_Historische

Zeitschrift_, 1861, vi.); Max Jähns, _Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften_,

vol. iii. pp. 2133-2145 (Munich, 1891); General von Cämmerer (transl. von

Donat), _Development of Strategical Science_ (London, 1905), ch. i.

BÜLOW, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, FREIHERR VON, count of Dennewitz (1755-1816),

Prussian general, was born on the 16th of February 1755, at Falkenberg in

the Altmark; he was the elder brother of the foregoing. He received an

excellent education, and entered the Prussian army in 1768, becoming ensign

in 1772, and second lieutenant in 1775. He took part in the "Potato War" of

1778, and subsequently devoted himself to the study of his profession and

of the sciences and arts. He was throughout his life devoted to music, his

great musical ability bringing him to the notice of Frederick William II.,

and about 1790 he was conspicuous in the most fashionable circles of

Berlin. He did not, however, neglect his military studies, and in 1792 he

was made military instructor to the young prince Louis Ferdinand, becoming

at the same time full captain. He took part in the campaigns of 1792-93-94

on the Rhine, and received for signal courage during the siege of Mainz the

order _pour le mérite_ and promotion to the rank of major. After this he

went to garrison duty at Soldau. In 1802 he married the daughter of Colonel

v. Auer, and in the following year he became lieutenant-colonel, remaining

at Soldau with his corps. The vagaries and misfortunes of his brother

Dietrich affected his happiness as well as his fortune. The loss of two of

his children was followed in 1806 by the death of his wife, and a further

source of disappointment was the exclusion of his regiment from the field

army sent against Napoleon in 1806. The disasters of the campaign aroused

his energies. He did excellent service under Lestocq's command in the

latter part of the war, was wounded in action, and finally designated for a

brigade command in Blücher's force. In 1808 he married the sister of his

first wife, a girl of eighteen. He was made a major-general in the same

year, and henceforward he devoted himself wholly to the regeneration of

Prussia. The intensity of his patriotism threw him into conflict even with

Blücher and led to his temporary retirement; in 1811, however, he was again

employed. In the critical days preceding the War of Liberation he kept his

troops in hand without committing himself to any irrevocable step until the

decision was made. On the 14th of March 1813 he was made a

lieutenant-general. He fought against Oudinot in defence of Berlin (see

NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS), and in the summer came under the command of

Bernadotte, crown prince of Sweden. At the head of an army corps Bülow

distinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Gross Beeren, a victory

which was attributed almost entirely to his leadership. A little later he

won the great victory of Dennewitz, which for the third time checked

Napoleon's advance on Berlin. This inspired the greatest enthusiasm in

Prussia, as being won by purely Prussian forces, and rendered Bülow's

popularity almost equal to that of Blücher. Bülow's corps played a

conspicuous part in the final overthrow of Napoleon at Leipzig, and he was

then entrusted with the task of evicting the French from Holland and

Belgium. In an almost uniformly successful campaign he won a signal victory

at Hoogstraaten, and in the campaign of 1814 he invaded France from the

north-west, joined Blücher, and took part in the brilliant victory of Laon

in March. He was now made general of infantry and received the title of

Count Bülow von Dennewitz. In the short peace of 1814-1815 he was at

Konigsberg as commander-in-chief in Prussia proper. He was soon called to

the field again, and in the Waterloo campaign commanded the IV. corps of

Blücher's army. He was not present at Ligny, but his corps headed the flank

attack upon Napoleon at Waterloo, and bore the heaviest part in the

fighting of the Prussian troops. He took part in the invasion of France,

but died suddenly on the 25th of February 1816, a month after his return to

the Königsberg command.

See _General Graf Bülow von Dennewitz, 1813-1814_ (Leipzig, 1843);

Varnhagen von Ense, _Leben des G. Grafen B. von D._ (Berlin, 1854).

BÜLOW, HANS GUIDO VON (1830-1894), German pianist and conductor, was born

at Dresden, on the 8th of January 1830. At the age of nine he began to

study music under Friedrich Wieck as part of a genteel education. It was

only after an illness while studying law at Leipzig University in 1848 that

he determined upon music as a career. At this time he was a pupil of Moritz

Hauptmann. In 1849 revolutionary politics took possession of him. In the

Berlin _Abendpost_, a democratic journal, the young aristocrat poured forth

his opinions, which were strongly coloured by Wagner's _Art and

Revolution_. Wagner's influence was musical no less than political, for a

performance of _Lohengrin_ under Liszt at Weimar in 1850 completed von

Bülow's determination to abandon a legal career. From Weimar he went to

Zürich, where the exile Wagner instructed him in the elements of

conducting. But he soon returned to Weimar and Liszt; and in 1853 he made

his first concert tour, which extended from Vienna to Berlin. Next he

became principal professor of the piano at the Stern Academy, and married

in his twenty-eighth year Liszt's daughter Cosima. For the following nine

years von Bülow laboured incessantly in Berlin as pianist, conductor and

writer of musical and political articles. Thence he removed to Munich,

where, thanks to Wagner, he had been appointed _Hofkapellmeister_ to Louis

II., and chief of the Conservatorium. There, too, he organized model

performances of _Tristan_ and _Die Meistersinger_. In 1869 his marriage was

dissolved, his wife subsequently marrying Wagner, an incident which, while

preventing Bülow from revisiting Bayreuth, never dimmed his enthusiasm for

Wagner's dramas. After a temporary stay in Florence, Bülow set out on tour

again as a pianist, visiting most European countries as well as the United

States of America, before taking up the post of conductor at Hanover, and,

later, at Meiningen, where he raised the orchestra to a pitch of excellence

till then unparalleled. In 1885 he resigned the Meiningen office, and

conducted a number of concerts in Russia and Germany. At Frankfort he held

classes for the higher development of piano-playing. He constantly visited

England, for the last time in 1888, in which year he went to live in

Hamburg. Nevertheless he continued to conduct the Berlin Philharmonic

Concerts. He died at Cairo, on the 13th of February 1894. Bülow was a

pianist of the highest order of intellectual attainment, an artist of

remarkably catholic tastes, and a great conductor. A passionate hater of

humbug and affectation, he had a ready pen, and a biting, sometimes almost

rude wit, yet of his kindness and generosity countless tales were told. His

compositions are few and unimportant, but his annotated editions of the

classical masters are of great value. Bülow's writings and letters (_Briefe

und Schriften_), edited by his widow, have been published in 8 vols.

(Leipzig, 1895-1908).

BULRUSH, a name now generally given to _Typha latifolia_, the reed-mace or

club-rush, a plant growing in lakes, by edges of rivers and similar

localities, with a creeping underground stem, narrow, nearly flat leaves, 3

to 6 ft. long, arranged in opposite rows, and a tall stem ending in a

cylindrical spike, half to one foot long, of closely packed male (above)

and female (below) flowers. The familiar brown spike is a dense mass of

minute one-seeded fruits, each on a long hair-like stalk and covered with

long downy hairs, which render the fruits very light and readily carried by

the wind. The name bulrush is more correctly applied to _Scirpus

lacustris_, a member of a different family (Cyperaceae), a common plant in

wet places, with tall spongy, usually leafless stems, bearing a tuft of

many-flowered spikelets. The stems are used for matting, &c. The bulrush of

Scripture, associated with the hiding of Moses, was the _Papyrus_ (_q.v._),

also a member of the order Cyperaceae, which was abundant in the Nile.

BULSTRODE, SIR RICHARD (1610-1711), English author and soldier, was a son

of Edward Bulstrode (1588-1659), and was educated at Pembroke College,

Cambridge; after studying law in London he joined the army of Charles I. on

the outbreak of the Civil War in 1642. In 1673 he became a resident agent

of Charles II. at Brussels; in 1675 he was knighted; then following James

II. into exile he died at St Germain on the 3rd of October 1711. Bulstrode

is chiefly known by his _Memoirs and Reflections upon the Reign and

Government of King Charles I. and King Charles II._, published after his

death in 1721. He also [v.04 p.0796] wrote _Life of James II._, and

_Original Letters written to the Earl of Arlington_ (1712). The latter

consists principally of letters written from Brussels giving an account of

the important events which took place in the Netherlands during 1674.

His second son, WHITELOCKE BULSTRODE (1650-1724), remained in England after

the flight of James II.; he held some official positions, and in 1717 wrote

a pamphlet in support of George I. and the Hanoverian succession. He

published _A Discourse of Natural Philosophy_, and was a prominent

Protestant controversialist. He died in London on the 27th of November

1724.

BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from _bol_ or _bole_, a

tree-trunk, and _werk_, work, in Ger. _Bollwerk_, which has also been

derived from an old German _bolen_, to throw, and so a machine for throwing

missiles), a barricade of beams, earth, &c., a work in 15th and 16th

century fortifications designed to mount artillery (see BOULEVARD). On

board ship the term is used of the woodwork running round the ship above

the level of the deck. Figuratively it means anything serving as a defence.

BUMBOAT, a small boat which carries vegetables, provisions, &c., to ships

lying in port or off the shore. The word is probably connected with the

Dutch _bumboat_ or _boomboot_, a broad Dutch fishing-boat, the derivation

of which is either from _boom_, cf. Ger. _baum_, a tree, or from _bon_, a

place in which fish is kept alive, and _boot_, a boat. It appears first in

English in the Trinity House By-laws of 1685 regulating the scavenging

boats attending ships lying in the Thames.

BUMBULUM, BOMBULUM or BUNIBULUM, a fabulous musical instrument described in

an apocryphal letter of St Jerome to Dardanus,[1] and illustrated in a

series of illuminated MSS. of the 9th to the 11th century, together with

other instruments described in the same letter. These MSS. are the _Psalter

of Emmeran_, 9th century, described by Martin Gerbert,[2] who gives a few

illustrations from it; the Cotton MS. _Tiberius C. VI._ in the British

Museum, 11th century; the famous _Boulogne Psalter_, A.D. 1000; and the

_Psalter of Angers_, 9th century.[3] In the Cotton MS. the instrument

consists of an angular frame, from which depends by a chain a rectangular

metal plate having twelve bent arms attached in two rows of three on each

side, one above the other. The arms appear to terminate in small

rectangular bells or plates, and it is supposed that the standard frame was

intended to be shaken like a sistrum in order to set the bells jangling.

Sebastian Virdung[4] gives illustrations of these instruments of Jerome,

and among them of the one called bumbulum in the Cotton MS., which Virdung

calls _Fistula Hieronimi_. The general outline is the same, but instead of

metal arms there is the same number of bent pipes with conical bore.

Virdung explains, following the apocryphal letter, that the stand

resembling the draughtsman's square represents the Holy Cross, the

rectangular object dangling therefrom signifies Christ on the Cross, and

the twelve pipes are the twelve apostles. Virdung's illustration, probably

copied from an older work in manuscript, conforms more closely to the text

of the letter than does the instrument in the Cotton MS. There is no

evidence whatever of the actual existence of such an instrument during the

middle ages, with the exception of this series of fanciful pictures drawn

to illustrate an instrument known from description only. The word

_bombulum_ was probably derived from the same root as the [Greek:

bombaulios] of Aristophanes (_Acharnians_, 866) ([Greek: bombos] and

[Greek: aulos]), a comic compound for a bag-pipe with a play on [Greek:

bombulios], an insect that hums or buzzes (see BAG-PIPE). The original

described in the letter, also from hearsay, was probably an early type of

organ.

(K. S.)

[1] _Ad Dardanum, de diversis generibus musicorum instrumentorum._

[2] _De Cantu et Musica Sacra_ (1774).

[3] For illustrations see _Annales archéologiques_, iii. p. 82 et seq.

[4] _Musica getutscht und aussgezogen_ (Basle, 1511).

BUN, a small cake, usually sweet and round. In Scotland the word is used

for a very rich spiced type of cake and in the north of Ireland for a round

loaf of ordinary bread. The derivation of the word has been much disputed.

It has been affiliated to the old provincial French _bugne_, "swelling," in

the sense of a "fritter," but the _New English Dictionary_ doubts the usage

of the word. It is quite as probable that it has a far older and more

interesting origin, as is suggested by an inquiry into the origin of hot

cross buns. These cakes, which are now solely associated with the Christian

Good Friday, are traceable to the remotest period of pagan history. Cakes

were offered by ancient Egyptians to their moon-goddess; and these had

imprinted on them a pair of horns, symbolic of the ox at the sacrifice of

which they were offered on the altar, or of the horned moon-goddess, the

equivalent of Ishtar of the Assyro-Babylonians. The Greeks offered such

sacred cakes to Astarte and other divinities. This cake they called _bous_

(ox), in allusion to the ox-symbol marked on it, and from the accusative

_boun_ it is suggested that the word "bun" is derived. Diogenes Laertius

(c. A.D. 200), speaking of the offering made by Empedocles, says "He

offered one of the sacred liba, called a _bouse_, made of fine flour and

honey." Hesychius (c. 6th century) speaks of the _boun_, and describes it

as a kind of cake with a representation of two horns marked on it. In time

the Greeks marked these cakes with a cross, possibly an allusion to the

four quarters of the moon, or more probably to facilitate the distribution

of the sacred bread which was eaten by the worshippers. Like the Greeks,

the Romans eat cross-bread at public sacrifices, such bread being usually

purchased at the doors of the temple and taken in with them,--a custom

alluded to by St Paul in I Cor. x. 28. At Herculaneum two small loaves

about 5 in. in diameter, and plainly marked with a cross, were found. In

the Old Testament a reference is made in Jer. vii. 18-xliv. 19, to such

sacred bread being offered to the moon goddess. The cross-bread was eaten

by the pagan Saxons in honour of Eoster, their goddess of light. The

Mexicans and Peruvians are shown to have had a similar custom. The custom,

in fact, was practically universal, and the early Church adroitly adopted

the pagan practice, grafting it on to the Eucharist. The _boun_ with its

Greek cross became akin to the Eucharistic bread or cross-marked wafers

mentioned in St Chrysostom's _Liturgy_. In the medieval church, buns made

from the dough for the consecrated Host were distributed to the

communicants after Mass on Easter Sunday. In France and other Catholic

countries, such blessed bread is still given in the churches to

communicants who have a long journey before they can break their fast. The

Holy Eucharist in the Greek church has a cross printed on it. In England

there seems to have early been a disposition on the part of the bakers to

imitate the church, and they did a good trade in buns and cakes stamped

with a cross, for as far back as 1252 the practice was forbidden by royal

proclamation; but this seems to have had little effect. With the rise of

Protestantism the cross bun lost its sacrosanct nature, and became a mere

eatable associated for no particular reason with Good Friday. Cross-bread

is not, however, reserved for that day; in the north of England people

usually crossmark their cakes with a knife before putting them in the oven.

Many superstitions cling round hot cross buns. Thus it is still a common

belief that one bun should be kept for luck's sake to the following Good

Friday. In Dorsetshire it is thought that a cross-loaf baked on that day

and hung over the chimneypiece prevents the bread baked in the house during

the year from "going stringy."

BUNBURY, HENRY WILLIAM (1750-1811), English caricaturist, was the second

son of Sir William Bunbury, 5th baronet, of Mildenhall, Suffolk, and came

of an old Norman family. He was educated at Westminster school and St

Catharine's Hall, Cambridge, and soon showed a talent for drawing, and

especially for humorous subjects. His more serious efforts did not rise to

a high level, but his caricatures are as famous as those of his

contemporaries Rowlandson and Gillray, good examples being his "Country

Club" (1788), "Barber's Shop" (1811) and "A Long Story" (1782.) He was a

popular character, and the friend of most of the notabilities of his day,

whom he never offended by attempting political satire; and his easy

circumstances and social position (he was colonel of the West Suffolk

Militia, and was appointed equerry to the duke of York in 1787) enabled him

to exercise his talents in comfort.

[v.04 p.0797] His son Sir HENRY EDWARD BUNBURY, Bart. (1778-1860), who

succeeded to the family title on the death of his uncle, was a

distinguished soldier, and rose to be a lieutenant-general; he was an

active member of parliament, and the author of several historical works of

value; and the latter's second son, Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, also a

member of parliament, was well known as a geographer and archaeologist, and

author of a _History of Ancient Geography._

BUNBURY, a seaport and municipal town of Wellington county, Western

Australia, 112 m. by rail S. by W. of Perth. Pop. (1901) 2455. The harbour,

known as Koombanah Bay, is protected by a breakwater built on a coral reef.

Coal is worked on the Collie river, 30 m. distant, and is shipped from this

port, together with tin, timber, sandal-wood and agricultural produce.