The introduction to his first volume of _Actes et paroles_, ranging in

date from 1841 to 1851, is dated in June 1875; it is one of his most

earnest and most eloquent appeals to the conscience and intelligence of

the student. The second volume contains the record of his deeds and

words during the years of his exile; like the first and the third, it is

headed by a memorable preface, as well worth the reverent study of those

who may dissent from some of the writer's views as of those who may

assent to all. The third and fourth volumes preserve the register of his

deeds and words from 1870 to 1885; they contain, among other things

memorable, the nobly reticent and pathetic tribute to the memory of the

two sons, Charles (1826-1871) and Francois (1828-1873), he had lost

since their common return from exile. In 1877 appeared the second series

of _La Legende des siecles_; and in the same year the author of that

colossal work, treating no less of superhuman than of human things, gave

us the loveliest and most various book of song on the loveliest and

simplest of subjects ever given to man, _L'Art d'etre grandpere_. Next

year he published _Le Pape_, a vision of the spirit of Christ in appeal

against the spirit of Christianity, his ideal follower confronted and

contrasted with his nominal vicar; next year again _La Pitie supreme_, a

plea for charity towards tyrants who know not what they do, perverted by

omnipotence and degraded by adoration; two years later _Religions et

religion_, a poem which is at once a cry of faith and a protest against

the creeds which deform and distort and leave it misshapen and envenomed

and defiled; and in the same year _L'Ane_, a paean of satiric invective

against the past follies of learned ignorance, and lyric rapture of

confidence in the future wisdom and the final conscience of the world.

These four great poems, one in sublimity of spirit and in supremacy of

style, were succeeded next year by a fourfold gift of even greater

price, _Les Quatre Vents de l'esprit_: the first book, that of satire,

is as full of fiery truth and radiant reason as any of his previous work

in that passionate and awful kind; the second or dramatic book is as

full of fresh life and living nature, of tragic humour and of mortal

pathos, as any other work of the one great modern dramatist's; the third

or lyric book would suffice to reveal its author as incomparably and

immeasurably the greatest poet of his age, and one great among the

greatest of all time; the fourth or epic book is the sublimest and most

terrible of historic poems--a visionary pageant of French history from

the reign and the revelries of Henry IV. to the reign and the execution

of Louis XVI. Next year the great tragic poem of _Torquemada_ came forth

to bear witness that the hand which wrote _Ruy Blas_ had lost nothing of

its godlike power and its matchless cunning, if the author of _Le Roi

s'amuse_ had ceased to care much about coherence of construction from

the theatrical point of view as compared with the perfection of a

tragedy designed for the devotion of students not unworthy or incapable

of the study; that his command of pity and terror, his powers of

intuition and invention, had never been more absolute and more sublime;

and that his infinite and illimitable charity of imagination could

transfigure even the most monstrous historic representative of Christian

or Catholic diabolatry into the likeness of a terribly benevolent and a

tragically magnificent monomaniac. Two years later Victor Hugo published

the third and concluding series of _La Legende des siecles_.

On the 22nd of May 1885 Victor Hugo died. He was given a magnificent

public funeral, and his remains were laid in the Pantheon. The first

volume published of his posthumous works was the exquisite and splendid

_Theatre en liberte_, a sequence if not a symphony of seven poems in

dramatic form, tragic or comic or fanciful eclogues, incomparable with

the work of any other man but the author of _The Tempest_ and _The

Winter's Tale_ in combination and alternation of gayer and of graver

harmonies. The unfinished poems, _Dieu_ and _La Fin de Satan_, are full

to overflowing of such magnificent work, such wise simplicity of noble

thought, such heroic and pathetic imagination, such reverent and daring

faith, as no other poet has ever cast into deathless words and set to

deathless music. _Les Jumeaux_, an unfinished tragedy, would possibly

have been the very greatest of his works if it had been completed on the

same scale and on the same lines as it was begun and carried forward to

the point at which it was cut short for ever. His reminiscences of

"Things Seen" in the course of a strangely varied experience, and his

notes of travel among the Alps and Pyrenees, in the north of France and

in Belgium, in the south of France and in Burgundy, are all recorded by

such a pen and registered by such a memory as no other man ever had at

the service of his impressions or his thoughts. _Toute la lyre_, his

latest legacy to the world, would be enough, though no other evidence

were left, to show that the author was one of the very greatest among

poets and among men; unsurpassed in sublimity of spirit, in spontaneity

of utterance, in variety of power, and in perfection of workmanship;

infinite and profound beyond all reach of praise at once in thought and

in sympathy, in perception and in passion; master of all the simplest as

of all the subtlest melodies or symphonies of song that ever found

expression in a Border ballad or a Pythian ode. (A. C. S.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Victor Hugo's complete works were published in a

definitive edition at Paris in 58 volumes (1885-1902). The critical

literature which has grown up round his name is very extensive, from

the time of Sainte-Beuve onwards, and only a few of the more important

books need here be mentioned for reference on biographical and other

details: F. T. Marzials, _Life of Hugo_, with bibliography (1888); A.

C. Swinburne, _Study of Hugo_ (1886); E. Dupuy, _Victor Hugo, l'homme

et le poete_ (1886); Paul de Saint Victor, _Victor Hugo_ (1885); F.

Brunetiere, _Victor Hugo_ (1903); Jules Claretie, _Victor Hugo,

souvenirs intimes_ (1902). See also _The Bookman_ for August 1904;

Francis Gribble, "The Hugo Legend," an adverse view, in _Fortnightly

Review_ (February 1910); and the article FRENCH LITERATURE.

HUGUENOTS, the name given from about the middle of the 16th century to

the Protestants of France. It was formerly explained as coming from the

German _Eidgenossen_, the designation of the people of Geneva at the

time when they were admitted to the Swiss confederation. This

explanation is now abandoned. The words _Huguenot_, _Huguenote_ are old

French words, common in 14th and 15th-century charters. As the

Protestants called the Catholics _papistes_, so the Catholics called the

Protestants _huguenots_. Henri Estienne, one of the great savants of his

time, in the introduction to his _Apologie d'Herodote_ (1566) gives a

very clear explanation of the term _huguenots_. The Protestants at

Tours, he says, used to assemble by night near the gate of King Hugo,

whom the people regarded as a spirit. A monk, therefore, in a sermon

declared that the Lutherans ought to be called _Huguenots_ as kinsmen of

King Hugo, inasmuch as they would only go out at night as he did. This

nickname became popular from 1560 onwards, and for a long time the

French Protestants were always known by it.

France could not stand outside the religious movement of the 16th

century. It is true that the French reform movement has often been

regarded as an offshoot of Lutheranism; up to I he middle of the century

its adherents were known as Lutherans. But it should not be forgotten

that so early as 1512 Jacobus Faber (q.v.) of Etaples published his

_Santi Pauli Epistolae xiv. ... cum commentariis_, which enunciates the

cardinal doctrine of reform, justification by faith, and that in 1523

appeared his French translation of the New Testament. The first

Protestants were those who set the teachings of the Gospel against the

doctrines of the Roman Church. As early as 1525 Jacques Pavannes, the

hermit of Livry, and shortly afterwards Louis de Berquin, the first

martyrs, were burned at the stake. But no persecution could stop the

Reform movement, and on the walls of Paris and even at Amboise, on the

very door of Francis I.'s bedroom, there were found placards condemning

the mass (1534). On the 29th of January 1535 an edict was published

ordering the extermination of the heretics. From this edict dates the

emigration of French Protestants, an emigration which did not cease till

the middle of the 18th century. Three years later (1538) at Strassburg

the first French Protestant Church, composed of 1500 refugees, was

founded.

Of all these exiles the most famous was John Calvin (q.v.), the future

leader of the movement, who fled to Basel, where he is said to have

written the famous _Institutio christianae religionis_, preceded by a

letter to Francis I. in which he pleaded the cause of the reformers. The

first Protestant community in France was that of Meaux (1546) organized

on the lines of the church at Strassburg of which Calvin was pastor. The

Catholic Florimond de Remond paid it the beautiful tribute of saying

that it seemed as though "la chretiente fut revenue en elle a sa

primitive innocence."

Persecution, however, became more rigorous. The Vaudois of Cabrieres and

Merindol had in 1545 been massacred by the orders of Jean de Maynier,

baron d'Oppede, lieutenant-general of Provence, and at Paris was created

a special court in the parlement, for the suppression of heretics, a

court which became famous in history as the _Chambre ardente_ (1549). In

spite of persecution the churches became more numerous; the church at

Paris was founded in 1556. They realized the necessity of uniting in

defence of their rights and their liberty, and in 1558 at Poitiers it

was decided that all the Protestant churches in France should formulate

by common accord a confession of faith and an ecclesiastical discipline.

The church at Paris was commissioned to summon the first synod, which in

spite of the danger of persecution met on the 25th of May 1559. The

Synod of Paris derived its inspiration from the constitution introduced

by Calvin at Geneva, which has since become the model for all the

presbyterian churches. Ecclesiastical authority resides ultimately in

the people, for the faithful select the elders who are charged with the

general supervision of the church and the choice of pastors. The

churches are independent units, and there can be no question of

superiority among them; at the same time they have common interests and

their unity must be maintained by an authority which is capable of

protecting them. The association of several neighbouring churches forms

a local council (_colloque_). Over these stands the provincial synod, on

which each church is equally represented by lay delegates and pastors.

Supreme authority resides in the National Synod composed of

representatives, lay and ecclesiastic, elected by the provincial synods.

The democratic character of this constitution of elders and synods is

particularly remarkable in view of the early date at which it began to

flourish. The striking individuality of the Huguenot character cannot be

fully realized without a clear understanding of this powerful

organization which contrived to reconcile individual liberty with a

central authority.

The synod of 1559 was the beginning of a remarkable increase in the

Reform movement; at that synod fifteen churches were represented, two

years later, in 1561, the number increased to 2150. The parlements were

powerless before this increase; thousands left the Catholic Church, and

when it was seen that execution and popular massacre provided no

solution of the difficulty the struggle was carried into the arena of

national politics. On the side of the reformers were ranged some among

the noblest Frenchmen of the age, Coligny, La Noue, Duplessis Mornay,

Jean Cousin, Ramus, Marot, Ambroise Pare, Olivier de Serres, Bernard

Palissy, the Estiennes, Hotman, Jean de Serres, with the princess Renee

of France, Jeanne d'Albret, Louise de Coligny. The policy which refused

liberty of conscience to the reformers and thus plunged the country into

the horrors of civil war came near to causing a national catastrophe.

For more than fifty years the history of the Huguenots is that of France

(1560-1629). Francis II., who succeeded Henry II. at the age of sixteen,

married Mary Stuart, and fell under the domination of the queen's

uncles, the Guises, who were to lead the anti-Reform party. The

Bourbons, the Montmorencies, the Chatillons, out of hostility to them,

became the chiefs of the Huguenots.

The conspiracy of Amboise, formed with the object of kidnapping the king

(March 1560), was discovered, and resulted in the death of the plotters;

it was followed by the proclamation of the Edict of Romorantin which

laid an interdict upon the Protestant religion. But the reformers had

become so powerful that Coligny, who was to become their most famous

leader, protested in their name against this violation of liberty of

conscience. The Guise party caused the prince of Conde to be arrested

and condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried into effect,

and at this moment Catherine de' Medici became regent on the accession

of Charles IX. She introduced Italian methods of government, alternating

between concessions and vigorous persecution, both alike devoid of

sincerity. For a moment, at the colloquy of Poissy (Oct. 1561), at which

Roman Catholic and Protestant divines were assembled together and

Theodore Beza played so important a part, it seemed as though a modus

vivendi would be established. The attempt failed, but by the edict of

January 1562, religious liberty was assured to the Huguenots. This,

however, was merely the prelude to civil war, the signal for which was

given by the Guises, who slaughtered a number of Huguenots assembled for

worship in a barn at Vassy (March 1, 1562). The duke of Guise, entering

Paris in triumph, transferred the court to Fontainebleau by a daring

_coup d'etat_ in defiance of the queen regent. It was then that Conde

declared "qu'on ne pouvait plus rien esperer que de Dieu et ses armes,"

and with the Huguenot leaders signed at Orleans (April 11, 1562) the

manifesto in which, having declared their loyalty to the crown, they

stated that as good and loyal subjects they were driven to take up arms

for liberty of conscience on behalf of the persecuted saints. The first

civil war had already broken out; till the end of the century the

history of France is that of the struggle between the Huguenots

upholding "The Cause" (La Cause) and the Roman Catholics fighting for

the Holy League (La Sainte Ligue). The leading events only will be

related here (see also FRANCE: _History_). The Huguenots lost the battle

of Dreux (Dec. 19, 1562), the duke of Guise was assassinated by Poltrot

de Mere (Feb. 18, 1563) and finally Conde signed the Edict of Amboise

which put an end to this first war. But the League gradually extended

its action and Catherine de' Medici entered into negotiations with

Spain. The Huguenots, seeing their danger, renewed hostilities, but

after their defeat at St Denis (Nov. 10, 1567) and the revolt of La

Rochelle, peace was concluded at Longjumeau (March 23, 1568). This truce

lasted only a few months. Pope Pius V. did not cease to demand the

extermination of the heretics, and the queen mother finally issued the

edict of the 28th of September 1568, which put the Huguenots outside the

protection of the law. The Huguenots once more took up arms, but were

defeated at Jarnac (March 13, 1569), and Conde was taken prisoner and

assassinated by Montesquiou. But Jeanne d'Albret renewed the courage of

the vanquished by presenting to them her son Henri de Bourbon, the

future Henry IV. Coligny, whose heroic courage rose with adversity,

collected the remnants of the Protestant army and by a march as able as

it was audacious moved on Paris, and the Peace of St Germain was signed

on the 8th of August 1570.

For a moment it seemed reasonable to hope that the war was at an end.

Coligny had said that he would prefer to be dragged through the streets

of Paris than to recommence the fighting; Charles IX. had realized the

nobility and the patriotism of the man who wished to drive the Spaniards

from Flanders; Henri de Bourbon was to marry Marguerite of France. Peace

seemed to be assured when on the night of the 24th of August, 1572,

after a council at which Catherine de' Medici, Charles IX., the duke of

Anjou and other leaders of the League assisted, there occurred the

treacherous Massacre of St Bartholomew (q.v.) in which Coligny and all

the leading Huguenots were slain. This date marks a disastrous epoch in

the history of France, the long period of triumph of the Catholic

reaction, during which the Huguenots had to fight for their very

existence. The Paris massacre was repeated throughout France; few were

those who were noble enough to decline to become the executioners of

their friends, and the Protestants were slain in thousands. The

survivors resolved upon a desperate resistance. It was at this time that

the Huguenots were driven to form a political party; otherwise they

must, like the Protestants of Spain, have been exterminated. This party

was formed at Milhau in 1573, definitely constituted at La Rochelle in

1588, and lasted until the peace of Alais in 1629. The delegates

selected by the churches bound themselves to offer a united opposition

to the violence of the enemies of God, the king and the state. It is a

profound mistake to attribute to them, as their enemies have done, the

intention of overthrowing the monarchy and substituting a republic. They

were royalists to the core, as is shown by the sacrifices they made for

the sake of setting Henry IV. on the throne. It is true, however, that

among themselves they formed a kind of republic which, according to the

historian J. A. de Thou, had its own laws dealing with civil government,

justice, war, commerce, finance. They had a president called the

Protector of the Churches, an office held first by Conde and afterwards

by the king of Navarre up to the day on which he became king of France

as Henry IV. (1589). The fourth religious war, which had broken out

immediately after the Massacre of St Bartholomew, was brought to an end

by the pacification of Boulogne (July 16, 1573), which granted a general

amnesty, but the obstinate intolerance of the League resulted in the

creation of a Catholic party called "les Politiques" which refused to

submit to their domination and offered aid to the Huguenots against the

Guises. The recollections of the horrors of St Bartholomew's night had

hastened the death of Charles IX., the last of the Valois; he had been

succeeded by the most debauched and effeminate of monarchs, Henry III.

Once more war broke out. Henry of Guise, "le Balafre," nephew of the

cardinal of Lorraine, became chief of the League, while the duke of

Anjou, the king's brother, made common cause with the Huguenots. The

peace of Monsieur, signed on the 5th of May 1576, marked a new victory

of liberty of conscience, but its effect was ephemeral; hostilities soon

recommenced and lasted for many years, and only became fiercer when the

duke of Anjou died on the 10th of June 1584.

The fact that on the death of Henry III. the crown would pass to Henry

of Navarre, the Protector of the Churches, induced the Guise party to

declare that they would never accept a heretical monarch, and, at the

instigation of Henry of Guise, Cardinal de Bourbon was nominated by them

to succeed. Henry of Navarre since 1575 leader of the Huguenots, had

year by year seen his influence increase, and now, faced by the

machinations of the Guises, who had made overtures to Spain, declared

that his only object was to free the feeble Henry III. from their

influence. On the 20th of October 1587 he won the battle of Coutras, but

on the 28th the foreign Protestants who were coming to his aid were

routed by Guise at Montargis. The new body, known as "the Sixteen of

Paris," thereupon compelled Henry III. to sign the "Edict of Union" by

which the cardinal of Bourbon was declared heir presumptive. The king

could not, however, endure the humiliation of hearing Henry of Guise

described as "king of Paris" and on the 23rd of December 1588 had him

murdered together with the cardinal of Lorraine at the chateau of Blois.

The League, now led by the duke of Mayenne, Guise's brother, declared

war to the knife upon him and caused him to be excommunicated. In his

isolation Henry III. threw himself into the arms of Henry of Navarre,

who saved the royalist party by defeating Mayenne and escorted the king

with his victorious army to St. Cloud, whence he proposed to enter Paris

and destroy the League. But Henry III., on the 1st of August 1589, was

assassinated by the monk Jacques Clement, on his deathbed appointing

Henry of Navarre as his successor.

This only spurred the League to redoubled energy, and Mayenne proclaimed

the cardinal of Bourbon king with the title of Charles X. But Henry IV.,

who had already promised to maintain the Roman Church, gained new

adherents every day, defeated the Leaguers at Arques in 1589, utterly

routed Mayenne at Ivry on the 14th of March 1590, and laid siege to

Paris. Cardinal de Bourbon having died in the same year and France being

in a state of anarchy, Philip II. of Spain, in concert with Pope Gregory

XIV., who excommunicated Henry IV., supported the claims of the infanta

Isabella. Mayenne, unable to continue the struggle without Spanish help,

promised to assist him, but Henry neutralized this danger by declaring

himself a Roman Catholic at St Denis (July 25, 1593), saying, "Paris

after all is worth a mass, in spite of the advice and the prayers of my

faithful Huguenots." "It is with anguish and grief," writes Beza, "that

I think of the fall of this prince in whom so many hopes were placed."

On the 22nd of March 1594 Henry entered Paris. The League was utterly

defeated. Thus the Huguenots after forty years of strife obtained by

their constancy the promulgation of the Edict of Nantes (April 13,

1598), the charter of religion and political freedom (see NANTES, EDICT

OF).

The Protestants might reasonably hope that Henry IV., in spite of his

abjuration of their faith, would remember the devoted support which they

had given him, and that his authority would guarantee the observance of

the provisions of the Edict. Unhappily twelve years afterwards, on the

14th of May 1610, Henry was assassinated by Ravaillac, leaving the great

work incomplete. Once more France was to undergo the misery of civil

war. During the minority of Louis XIII. power resided in the hands of

counsellors who had not inherited the wisdom of Henry IV. and were only

too ready to favour the Catholic party. The Huguenots, realizing that

their existence was at stake, once more took up arms in defence of their

liberty under the leadership of Henri de Rohan (q.v.). Their watchword

had always been that, so long as the state was opposed to liberty of

conscience, so long there could be no end to religious and civil strife,

that misfortune and disaster must attend an empire of which the

sovereign identified himself with a single section of his people.

Richelieu had entered the king's council on the 4th of May 1624; the

destruction of the Huguenots was his policy and he pursued it to a

triumphant conclusion. On the 28th of October 1628, La Rochelle, the

last stronghold of the Huguenots, was obliged to surrender after a siege

rendered famous for all time by the heroism of its defenders and of its

mayor. The peace of Alais, which was signed on the 28th of June 1629,

marks the end of the civil wars.

The Huguenots had ceased to exist as a political party and, in the

assurance that liberty of conscience would be accorded to them, showed

themselves loyal subjects. On the death of Louis XIII., the declaration

of the 8th of July 1643 had guaranteed to the Protestants "free and

unrestricted, exercise of their religion," thus confirming the Edict of

Nantes. The synods of Charenton (1644) and Loudun (1659) asserted their

absolute loyalty to Louis XIV., a loyalty of which the Huguenots had

given proof not only by their entire abstention from the troubles of the

Fronde, but also by their public adherence to the king. The Roman

Catholic clergy had never accepted the Edict of Nantes, and all their

efforts were directed to obtaining its revocation. As long as Mazarin

was alive the complaints of the clergy were in vain, but when Louis XIV.

attained his majority there commenced a legal persecution which was

bound in time to bring about the ruin of the reformed churches. The

Edict of Nantes, which was part of the law of the land, might seem to

defy all attacks, but the clergy found means to evade the law by

demanding that it should be observed with literal accuracy, disregarding

the changes which had been produced in France during more than half a

century. The clergy in 1661 successfully demanded that commissioners

should be sent to the provinces to report infractions of the Edict, and

thus began a judicial war which was to last for more than twenty years.

All the churches which had been built since the Edict of Nantes were

condemned to be demolished. All the privileges which were not explicitly

stated in the actual text of the Edict were suppressed. More than four

hundred proclamations, edicts or declarations attacking the Huguenots in

their households and their civil freedom, their property and their

liberty of conscience were promulgated during the years which preceded

the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In spite of all sufferings which

this rigorous legislation inflicted upon them they did not cease to

resist, and in order to crush this resistance and to compel them to

accept the "king's religion," there were organized the terrible

_dragonnades_ (1683-1686) which effected the forcible conversion of

thousands of Protestants who gave way under the tortures which were

inflicted upon them. It was then that Louis XIV. declared that "the best

of the larger part of our subjects, who formerly held the so-called

reformed religion, have embraced the Catholic religion, and therefore

the Edict of Nantes has become unnecessary"; on the 18th of October 1685

he pronounced its revocation. Thus under the influence of the clergy was

committed one of the most flagrant political and religious blunders in

the history of France, which in the course of a few years lost more than

400,000 of its inhabitants, men who, having to choose between their

conscience and their country, endowed the nations which received them

with their heroism, their courage and their ability.

There is perhaps no example in history of so cruel a persecution as

this, which destroyed a church of which Protestant Europe was justly

proud. At no period in its career had it numbered among its adherents so

many men of eminence, Abbadie, Claude, Bayle, Du Bosc, Jurieu, Elie

Benoist, La Placette, Basnage, Daille, Mestrezat, Du Quesne, Schomberg,

Ruvigny. There were no Huguenots left in France; those who, conquered by

persecution, remained there were described as "New Catholics." All the

pastors who refused to abjure their faith were compelled to leave the

country within fifteen days. The work was complete. Protestantism, with

its churches and its schools, was destroyed. As Bayle wrote, "France was

Catholic to a man under the reign of Louis the Great."

Persecution had succeeded in silencing, but it could not convert the

people. The Huguenots, before the ruins of their churches, remembered

the early Christians and held their services in secret. Their pastors,

making light of death, returned from the lands of their exile and

visited their own churches to restore their courage. If any one denied

the Catholic faith on his death-bed his body was thrown into the common

sewers. The galleys were full of brave Huguenots condemned for remaining

constant to the Protestant faith. For fifteen years the exiles

continuously besought Louis XIV. to give them back their religious

liberty. For a moment they hoped that the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) would

realise their hopes, but Louis XIV. steadily declined to grant their

requests. Despair armed the Cevennes, and in 1702 the war of the

Camisards broke out, a struggle of giants sustained by Jean Cavalier

with his mountaineers against the royal troops (see CAMISARDS and

CAVALIER, Jean). The Huguenots seemed to be finally conquered. On the

8th of March 1715 Louis XIV. announced that he had put an end to all

exercise of the Protestant religion; but in this very year, on the 21st

of August, while the king was dying at Versailles, there assembled

together at Monoblet in Languedoc, under the presidency of a young man

twenty years of age, Antoine Court, a number of preachers, as the

pastors were then called, with the object of raising the church from its

ruins. This was the first synod of the Desert. To re-establish the

abandoned worship, to unite the churches in the struggle for liberty of

conscience, such was the work to which Court devoted his life, and which

earned for him the name of the "Restorer of Protestantism" (see COURT,

ANTOINE). In spite of persecution the Protestants continued their

assemblies; the fear of death and of the galleys were alike powerless to

break their resistance. On the demand of the clergy all marriages

celebrated by their pastors were declared null and void, and the

children born of these unions were regarded as bastards.

Protestantism, which persecution seemed to have driven from France, drew

new life from this very persecution. Outlawed, exiles in their own

country, deprived of all civil existence, the Huguenots showed an

invincible heroism. The history of their church during the period of the

Desert is the history of a church which refused to die. Amongst its

famous defenders was Paul Rabaut, the successor of Antoine Court. Year

by year the churches became more numerous. In 1756 there were already 40

pastors; several years later, in 1763, the date of the last synod of the

Desert, their number had increased to 65. The question of Protestant

marriages roused public opinion which could not tolerate the idea that

Frenchmen, whose sole crime was their religious belief, should be

condemned to civil death. The torture of Jean Calas, who was condemned

on a false charge of having killed his son because he desired to become

a Catholic, caused general indignation, of which Voltaire became the

eloquent mouthpiece. Ideas of tolerance, of which Bayle had been the

earliest advocate, became victorious, and owing to the devotion of

Rabaut Saint-Etienne, son of Paul Rabaut, and the zeal of Lafayette, the

edict of November 1787, in spite of the fierce opposition of the clergy,

renewed the civil rights of the Huguenots by recognizing the validity of

their marriages. Victories even greater were in store; two years later

liberty of conscience was won. On the 22nd of August 1789 the pastor

Rabaut Saint-Etienne, deputy for the _senechaussee_ of Nimes to the

States General, cried out, "It is not tolerance which I demand, it is

liberty, that my country should accord it equally without distinction of

rank, of birth or of religion." The Declaration of the Rights of Man

affirmed the liberty of religion; the Huguenots had not suffered in

vain, for the cause for which their ancestors and themselves had

suffered so much was triumphant, and it was the nation itself which

proclaimed the victory. But religious passions were always active, and

at Montauban as at Nimes (1790) Catholics and Protestants came to blows.

The Huguenots, having endured the persecutions of successive monarchs,

had to endure those of the Terror; their churches were shut, their

pastors dispersed and some died upon the scaffold. On the 3rd of

Ventose, year II. (February 21, 1795), the church was divorced from the

state and the Protestants devoted themselves to reorganization. Some

years later Bonaparte, having signed the Concordat of the 15th of July

1801, promulgated the law of the 18th of Germinal, year X., which

recognized the legal standing of the Protestant church, but took from it

the character of free church which it had always claimed. So great was

the contrast between a past which recalled to Protestants nothing but

persecution, and a present in which they enjoyed liberty of conscience,

that they accepted with a profound gratitude a regime of which the

ecclesiastical standpoint was so alien to their traditions. With

enthusiasm they repeated the words with which Napoleon had received the

pastors at the Tuileries on the 16th of Frimaire, year XII.: "The empire

of the law ends where the undefined empire of conscience begins; law and

prince are powerless against this liberty."

The Protestants, on the day on which liberty of conscience was restored,

could measure the full extent of the misery which they had endured. Of

this people, which in the 16th century formed more than one-tenth of the

population of France, there survived only a few hundred thousands;

migration and persecution had more than decimated them. In 1626 there

were 809 pastors in the service of 751 churches; in 1802 there were

only 121 pastors and 171 churches; in Paris there was only a single

church with a single pastor. The church had no faculty of theology, no

schools, no Bible societies, no asylums, no orphanages, no religious

literature. Everything had to be created afresh, and this work was

pursued during the 19th century with the energy and the earnest faith

which is characteristic of the Huguenot character.

At the fall of the Empire (1815) the reaction of the White Terror once

more exposed the Protestants to outrage, and once more a number fled

from persecution and sought safety in foreign countries. Peace having

been established, attention was once more focussed on religious

questions, and the period was marked in Protestantism by a remarkable

awakening. On all sides churches were built and schools opened. It was

an epoch of the greatest importance, for the church concentrated itself

more and more on its real mission. During this period were founded the

great religious societies:--Societe biblique (1819), Societe de

l'instruction primaire (1829), Societe des traites (1821), Societe des

missions (1822). The influence of English thought on the development of

religious life was remarkable, and theology drew its inspiration from

the writings of Paley, David Bogue, Chalmers, Ebenezer Erskine, Robert

and James Alexander Haldane, which were translated into French. Later on

German theology and the works of Kant, Neander and Schleiermacher

produced a far-reaching effect. This was due to the period of

persecution which had checked that development of religious thought

which had been so remarkable a feature of French Protestantism of the

16th and 17th centuries.

Slowly Protestantism once more took its place in the national life. The

greatest names in its history are those of Guizot and Cuvier; Adolf

Monod, with Athanase Coquerel, stand in the front rank of pulpit

orators. The Protestants associated themselves with all the great

philanthropic works--Baron Jules Delessert founded savings banks, Baron

de Stael condemned slavery, and all France united to honour the pastor,

Jean Frederic Oberlin. But the reformers, if they had no longer to fear

persecution, had still to fight in order to win respect for religious

liberty, which was unceasingly threatened by their adversaries. Numerous

were the cases tried at this epoch in order to obtain justice. On the

other hand the old union of the reformed churches had ceased to exist

since the revolution of July. Ecclesiastical strife broke out and has

never entirely ceased. A schism occurred first in 1848, owing to the

refusal of the synod to draw up a profession of faith, the comte de

Gasparin and the pastor Frederic Monod seceding and founding the Union

des Eglises Evangeliques de France, separated from the state, of which

later on E. de Pressense was to become the most famous pastor. Under the

Second Empire (1852-1870) the divisions between the orthodox and the

liberal thinkers were accentuated; they resulted in a separation which

followed on the reassembly of the national synod, authorized in 1872 by

the government of the Third Republic. The old Huguenot church was thus

separated into two parts, having no other link than that of the

Concordat of 1802 and each possessing its own peculiar organization.

The descendants of the Huguenots, however, remained faithful to the

traditions of their ancestors, and extolled the great past of the French

reform movement. Moreover, in 1859 were held the magnificent religious

festivals to celebrate the third centenary of the convocation of their

first national synod; and when on the 18th of October 1885 they recalled

the 200th anniversary of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, they

were able to assert that the Huguenots had been the first defenders of

religious liberties in France. In the early days of the 20th century the

work of restoring French Protestantism, which had been pursued with

steady perseverance for more than one hundred years, showed great

results. This church, which in 1802 had scarcely 100 pastors has seen

this number increased to 1000; it possesses more than 900 churches or

chapels and 180 presbyteries. In contrast with the poverty of religious

life under the First Empire it presented a striking array of Bible

societies, missionary societies, and others for evangelical,

educational, pastoral and charitable work, which bear witness to a

church risen from its ruins. French Protestantism in the course of the

19th century reckoned among its members such eminent theologians as

Timothee Colani (1824-1888), who together with Edmond Scherer founded

the celebrated _Revue de theologie de Strasbourg_ (1850); Edmond de

Pressense, editor of the _Revue chretienne_, Charles Bois and Michel

Nicolas, professors of theology at Montauban, Auguste Sabatier,

professor of theology at the university of Paris, Albert Reville,

professor at the College de France, Felix Pecaut, &c.; well-known

preachers such as Eugene Bersier, Ernest Dhornbres, Ariste Vigure, Numa

Recolin, Auguste de Coppet, and missionaries, for example Eugene Casalis

and Coillard; Jean Bost, who founded the hospitals at Laforce;

historians like Napoleon Peyrat, the brothers Haag, who wrote _La France

protestante_, Francois Puaux, Charles Coquerel, Onesime Douen, Henri

Bordier, Edouard Sayous, de Felice, Theophile Rollez; Jean Pedezert,

Leon Pilatte and others, who were journalists; such statesmen as Guizot,

Leon Say, Waddington; such scholars as Cuvier, Broca, Wurtz, Friedel de

Quatrefages; such illustrious soldiers and sailors as Rapp, Admirals

Baudin, Jaureguiberry, Colonel Denfert-Rochereau. But the population of

Protestant France does not exceed 750,000 souls, without counting the

Lutherans, who are attached to the Confession of Augsburg, numbering

about 75,000. Their chief centres are in the departments of Gard,

Ardeche, Drome, Lozere, the Deux Sevres and the Seine.

The law of the 9th of December 1905, which separated the church from the

state, has been accepted by the great majority of Protestants as a

legitimate consequence of the reform principles. Nor has its application

given rise to any difficulty with the state. They used their influence

only in the direction of rendering the law more liberal and immediately

devoted themselves to the organization of their churches under the new

regime. If the two great parties, orthodox and liberal, have each their

particular constitution, nevertheless a third party has been formed with

the object of effecting a reconciliation of all the Protestant churches

and of thus reconstituting the old Huguenot church.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A complete list of works is impossible. The following

are the most important:--

General Authorities.--_Bulletin de la societe de l'histoire du

protestantisme francais_ (54 vols.), a most valuable collection,

indispensable as a work of reference; Haag, _La France protestante_,

lives of French Protestants (10 vols., 1846; 2nd ed., Henri Bordier, 6

vols., 1887); F. Puaux, _Histoire de la Reformation francaise_ (7

vols., 1858) and articles "Calvin" and "France protestante" in

_Encyclopedie des sciences religieuses_ of Lichtenberger; Smedley,

_History of the Reformed Religion in France_ (3 vols., London, 1832);

Browning, _History of the Huguenots_ (1 vol., 1840); G. A. de Felice,

_Histoire des protestants de France_ (1874).

Special Periods. The 16th Century.--H. M. Baird, _The Huguenots and

Henry of Navarre_ (2 vols., New York, 1886), and _History of the Rise

of the Huguenots of France_ (New York, 1879); A. W. Whitehead,

_Gaspard de Coligny_ (London, 1904); J. W. Thompson, _The Wars of

Religion in France_, 1559-1576 (1909); Th. Beza, _Histoire

ecclesiastique des eglises reformees au royaume de France_ (3 vols.,

Antwerp, 1580; new edition by G. Baum et Cunitz, 1883); Crespin,

_Histoire des martyrs persecutes et mis a mort pour la verite de

l'evangile_ (2 vols. in fol., Geneva, 1619; abridged translation by

Rev. A. Maddock, London, 1780); Pierre de la Place, _Commentaires sur

l'etat de la religion et de la republique_ (1565); Florimond de

Raemond, _L'Histoire de la naissance, progres et decadence de

l'heresie du siecle_ (1610); De Thou, _Histoire universelle_ (16

vols.); Th. Agrippa D'Aubigne, _Histoire universelle_ (3 vols.,

Geneva, 1626); Hermingard, _Correspondance des reformateurs dans les

pays de la langue francaise_ (8 vols., 1866), a scholarly work and the

most trustworthy source for the history of the origin of French

reform. "Calvini opera" in the _Corpus reformatorum_, edited by Reuss,

Baum and Cunitz, particularly the correspondence, vols. x. to xxii.;

Doumergue, _Jean Calvin, les hommes et les choses de son temps_ (3

vols., 1899); G. von Polenz, _Geschichte des franzosischen

Calvinismus_ (5 vols., 1857); Etienne A. Laval, _Compendious history

of the reformation in France and of the reformed Church in that

Kingdom from the first beginning of the Reformation to the Repealing

of the Edict of Nantes_ (7 vols., London, 1737-1741); Soldan,

_Geschichte des Protestantismus in Frankreich bis zum Tode Karls IX._

(2 vols., 1855); Merle D'Aubigne, _Histoire de la reformation en

Europe au temps de Calvin_ (5 vols., 1863).

17th Century.--Elie Benoit, _Histoire de l'Edit de Nantes_ (5 vols.,

Delft, 1693), a work of the first rank; Aymon, _Tous les synodes_

_nationaux des eglises reformees de France_ (2 vols.); J. Quick,

_Synodicon_ (2 vols., London, 1692), important for the ecclesiastical

history of French Protestantism; D'Huisseau, _La Discipline des

eglises reformees de France_ (Amsterdam, 1710); H. de Rohan, _Memoires

... jusqu'en 1629_ (Amsterdam, 1644); Jean Claude, _Les Plaintes des

Protestans de France_ (Cologne, 1686, new edition with notes by Frank

Puaux, Paris, 1885); Pierre Jurieu, _Lettres pastorales_ (3 vols.,

Rotterdam, 1688); Brousson, _Etat des Reformes de France_ (3 vols.,

The Hague, 1685); Anquez, _Histoire des assemblees politiques des

reformes de France_ (1 vol., Paris, 1859); Pilatte, _Edits et arrets

concernant la religion pretendue reformee, 1662-1711_ (1889); Douen,

_Les Premiers pasteurs du Desert_ (2 vols., 1879); H. M. Baird, _The

Huguenots and The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes_ (2 vols., New

York).

18th Century.--Peyrat, _Histoire des pasteurs du Desert_ (2 vols.,

1842); Ch. Coquerel, _Histoire des eglises du Desert_ (2 vols., 1841);

E. Hugues, Antoine Court, _Histoire de la restauration du

protestantisme en France_ (2 vols., 1872); _Les Synodes du Desert_ (3

vols., 1875); A. Coquerel, _Jean Calas_ (1869); Court de Gebelin, _Les

Toulousaines_ (1763).

19th Century.--_Die protestantische Kirche Frankreichs_ (2 vols.,

1848); _Annuaire_ de Rabaut 1807, de Soulier 1827, de De Prat 1862,

(1878); _Agenda protestant_ de Frank Puaux (1880-1894); _Agenda

annuaire protestant_ de Gambier (1895-1907); Bersier, _Histoire du

Synode de 1872_ (2 vols.); Frank Puaux, _Les Oeuvres du protestantisme

francais au XIX^e siecle_. See also CAMISARDS, CALVIN, EDICT OF

NANTES. (F. Px.)

HUGUES, CLOVIS (1851-1907), French poet and socialist, was born at

Menerbes in Vaucluse on the 3rd of November 1851. He studied for the

priesthood, but did not take orders. For some revolutionary articles in

the local papers of Marseilles he was condemned in 1871 to three years'

imprisonment and a fine of 6000 francs. In 1877 he fought a duel in

which he killed his adversary, a rival journalist. Elected deputy by

Marseilles in the general elections of 1881, he was at that time the

sole representative of the Socialist party in the chambers. He was

re-elected in 1885, and in 1893 became one of the deputies for Paris,

retaining his seat until 1906. He died on the 11th of June 1907.

His poems, novels and comedies are full of wit and exuberant vitality.

His principal works are: _Poemes de prison_ (1875), written during his

detention, _Soirs de bataille_ (1883); _Jours de combat_ (1883); and

_Le Travail_ (1889); the novels, _Madame Phaeton_ (1885) and _Monsieur

le gendarme_ (1891); and the dramas, _Une etoile_ (1888) and _Le

sommeil de Danton_ (1888).

HUICHOL (pronounced Veetchol--a corruption of the native name

_Vishalika_ or _Virarika_, doctors or healers), a tribe of Mexican

Indians living in a mountainous region on the eastern side of the

Chapalagana river, Jalisco. Huichol tradition assigns the south as their

place of origin. Their name of "healers" is deserved, for about

one-fourth of the men are Shamans. The Huichols are in much the same

social condition as at the time of the Aztec empire. They were conquered

by the Spaniards in 1722.

For full description of the people and their habits see Carl Lumholtz,

_Unknown Mexico_ (1903).

HUITZILOPOCHTLI, the supreme being in the religions of ancient Mexico,

and as a specialized deity, the god of war. He was the mythic leader and

chief divinity of the Aztecs, dominant tribe of the Nahua nation. As a

humming-bird Huitzilopochtli was alleged to have led the Aztecs to a new

home. E. B. Tylor (_Primitive Culture_, 4th ed., vol. ii. p. 307) calls

him an "inextricable compound parthenogenetic deity"; and finds, in the

fact that his chief festival (when his paste idol was shot through with

an arrow, and afterwards eaten) was at the winter solstice, ground for

believing that he was at first a nature-god, whose life and death were

connected with the year's. His idol was a huge block of basalt (still

thought to be preserved in Mexico), on one side of which he is

sculptured in hideous form, adorned with the feathers of the

humming-bird. The ceremonies of his worship were of the most

bloodthirsty character, and hundreds of human beings were murdered

annually before his shrine, their limbs being eaten by his worshippers.

When his temple was dedicated in 1486 it is traditionally reported that

70,000 people were killed. See MEXICO.

HULDA, in Teutonic mythology, goddess of marriage. She was a beneficent

deity, the patroness and guardian of all maidens (see BERCHTA).

HULKE, JOHN WHITAKER (1830-1895), British surgeon and geologist, was

born on the 6th of November 1830, being the son of a well-known medical

practitioner at Deal. He was educated partly at a boarding-school in

this country, partly at the Moravian College at Neuwied (1843-1845),

where he gained an intimate knowledge of German and an interest in

geology through visits to the Eifel district. He then entered King's

College school, and three years later commenced work at the hospital,

becoming M.R.C.S. in 1852. In the Crimean War he volunteered, and was

appointed (1855) assistant-surgeon at Smyrna and subsequently at

Sebastopol. On returning home he became medical tutor at his old

hospital, was elected F.R.C.S. in 1857, and afterwards assistant-surgeon

to the Royal Ophthalmic Hospital, Moorfields (1857), and surgeon

(1868-1890). In 1870 he became surgeon at the Middlesex hospital, and

here much of his more important surgical work was accomplished. His

skill as an operator was widely known: he was an excellent general

surgeon, but made his special mark as an ophthalmologist, while as a

geologist he attained a European reputation. He was elected F.R.S. in

1867 for his researches on the anatomy and physiology of the retina in

man and the lower animals, particularly the reptiles. He subsequently

devoted all his spare time to geology and especially to the fossile

reptilia, describing many remains of Dinosaurs, to our knowledge of

which as well as of other Saurians he largely contributed. In 1887 the

Wollaston medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society of London.

He was president of both the Geological and Pathological Societies in

1883, and president of the Royal College of Surgeons from 1893 until his

death. He was a man with a wide range of knowledge not only of science

but of literature and art. He died in London on the 19th of February

1895.

HULL, ISAAC (1775-1843), commodore in the U.S. navy, was born at Derby

in Connecticut on the 9th of March 1775. He went to sea young in the

merchant service and was in command of a vessel at the age of nineteen.

In 1798 he was appointed lieutenant in the newly organized U.S. navy.

From 1803 to 1805 he served in the squadron sent to chastise the Barbary

pirates as commander of the "Enterprise," but was transferred to the

"Argus" in November of 1803. When the War of 1812 broke out he was

captain of the U.S. frigate "Constitution" (44), and was on a mission to

Europe carrying specie for the payment of a debt in Holland. The

"Constitution" was shadowed by British men-of-war, but was not attacked.

In July of that year, however, he was pursued by a squadron of British

vessels, and escaped by good seamanship and the fine sailing qualities

of the "Constitution." He was to have been superseded, but put to sea

before the officer who was to have relieved him arrived--an action which

might have been his ruin if he had not signalized his cruise by the

capture of the British frigate "Guerriere" (38). Captain Hull had been

cruising off the Gulf of St Lawrence, and the engagement, which took

place on the 19th of August, was fought south of the Grand Bank. The

"Constitution" was a fine ship of 1533 tons, originally designed for a

two-decker, but cut down to a frigate. The "Guerriere" was of 1092 tons

and very ill-manned, while the "Constitution" had a choice crew. The

British ship was easily overpowered. Hull received a gold medal for the

capture of the "Guerriere," but had no further opportunity of

distinction in the war. After the peace he held a variety of commands at

sea, and was a naval commissioner from 1815 to 1817. He had a high

reputation in the United States navy for practical seamanship. He died

at Philadelphia on the 13th of February 1843.

HULL, a city (1875) and railway junction of the province of Quebec,

Canada, and the capital of Wright county, opposite the city of Ottawa.

Pop. (1901) 13,988. The magnificent water-power of the Chaudiere Falls

of the Ottawa is utilized for the lighting of the city, the operation of

a system of electric railways connecting Hull with Ottawa and Aylmer,

and a number of large saw-mills, pulp, paper and match manufactories.

Hull has gone through several disastrous fires, but since that of 1900,

which swept out most of the town, an efficient system of fire protection

has been established. Three bridges unite Ottawa and Hull. The city is

governed by a council composed of a mayor and twelve aldermen elected

annually. Champlain was the first white man to set foot on the site of

Hull, but long before he came it was a favourite meeting-place for the

Indians. Later it became familiar to explorers and fur-traders as the

foot of the Chaudiere portage, and many a canoe has been carried

shoulder high over the site of future busy streets. Philemon Wright, of

Woburn, Massachusetts, was the first man to settle here in 1800. The

report he sent back was so favourable that a number of other families

followed from the same place and laid the foundations of the future

city. His descendants have remained among the substantial men of the

town.

HULL (officially KINGSTON-UPON-HULL), a city and county of a city,

municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and seaport in the East

Riding of Yorkshire, England, at the junction of the river Hull with the

Humber, 22 m. from the open sea, and 181 m. N. of London. Pop. (1891)

200,472; (1901) 240,259. Its full name, not in general use, is

Kingston-upon-Hull. It is served by the North Eastern, Great Central and

Hull & Barnsley railways, the principal station being Paragon Street.

The town stands on a level plain so low as to render embankments

necessary to prevent inundation. The older portion is completely

enclosed by the Hull and Humber on the E. and S. and by docks on the N.

and W. Here are narrow streets typical of the medieval mercantile town,

though modern improvements have destroyed some of them; and there are a

few ancient houses. In Holy Trinity church Hull possesses one of the

largest English parish churches, having an extreme length of 272 ft. It

is cruciform and has a massive central tower. This and the transepts and

choir are of Decorated work of various dates. The choir is largely

constructed of brick, and thus affords an unusually early example of the

use of this material in English ecclesiastical architecture. The nave is

Perpendicular, a fine example of the style. William Mason the poet

(1725-1797) was the son of a rector of the parish. The church of St

Mary, Lowgate, was founded in the 14th century, but is almost wholly a

reconstruction. Modern churches are numerous, but of no remarkable

architectural merit. Among public buildings the town-hall, in Lowgate,

ranks first. It was completed in 1866, but was subsequently extended and

in great part rebuilt; it is in Italian renaissance style, having a

richly adorned facade. The exchange, in the same street, was also

completed in 1866, in a less ornate Italian style. There are also

theatres, a chamber of commerce, corn exchange, market-hall,

custom-house, and the dock offices, a handsome Italian building. The

principal intellectual institution is the Royal Institution, a fine

classical building opened by Albert, prince consort, in 1854, and

containing a museum and large library. It accommodates the Literary and

Philosophical Society. The grammar school was founded in 1486. One of

its masters was Joseph Milner (1744-1797), author of a history of the

Church; and among its students were Andrew Marvell the poet (1621-1678)

and William Wilberforce the philanthropist (1759-1833), who is

commemorated by a column and statue near the dock offices, and by the

preservation of the house of his birth in High Street. This house

belongs to the corporation and was opened in 1906 as the Wilberforce and

Historical Museum. There are also to be mentioned the Hull and East

Riding College, Hymer's College, comprising classical, modern and junior

departments, the Trinity House marine school (1716), the Humber

industrial school ship "Southampton," and technical and art schools.

Charities and benevolent foundations are numerous. Trinity House is a

charity for seamen of the merchant service; the building (1753) was

founded by the Trinity House Gild instituted in 1369, and contains a

noteworthy collection of paintings and a museum. The Charterhouse

belongs to a foundation for the support of the old and feeble,

established by Sir Michael de la Pole, afterwards earl of Suffolk, in

1384. The infirmary was founded in 1782. Of the three parks, Pearson

Park was presented by a mayor of that name in 1860, and contains statues

of Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort. A botanic garden was opened in

1880.

The original harbour occupied that part of the river Hull which faced

the old town, but in 1774 an act was passed for forming a dock on the

site of the old fortifications on the right bank of the Hull. This

afterwards became known as Queen's dock, and with Prince's and Humber

docks completes the circle round the old town. The small railway dock

opens from Humber dock. East of the Hull lie the Victoria dock and

extensive timber ponds, and west of the Humber dock basin, parallel to

the Humber, is Albert dock. Others are the Alexandra, St Andrew's and

fish docks. The total area of the docks is about 186 acres, and the

owning companies are the North Eastern and the Hull & Barnsley railways.

The ports of Hull and Goole (q.v.) have been administratively combined

since 1888, the conservancy of the river being under the Humber

Conservancy Board. Hull is one of the principal shipping ports for the

manufactures of Yorkshire and Lancashire, and has direct communication

with the coal-fields of the West Riding. Large quantities of grain are

imported from Russia, America, &c., and of timber from Norway and

Sweden. Iron, fish, butter and fruit are among other principal imports.

The port was an early seat of the whale fisheries. Of passenger

steamship services from Hull the principal are those to the Norwegian

ports, which are greatly frequented during the summer; these, with

others to the ports of Sweden, &c., are in the hands of the large

shipping firm of Thomas Wilson & Co. A ferry serves New Holland, on the

Lincolnshire shore (Great Central railway). The principal industries of

Hull are iron-founding, shipbuilding and engineering, and the

manufacture of chemicals, oil-cake, colours, cement, paper, starch, soap

and cotton goods; and there are tanneries and breweries.

The parliamentary borough returns three members, an increase from two

members in 1885. Hull became the seat of a suffragan bishop in the

diocese of York in 1891. This was a revival, as the office was in

existence from 1534 till the death of Edward VI. The county borough was

created in 1888. The city is governed by a mayor, 16 aldermen and 48

councillors. Area, 8989 acres.

The first mention of Hull occurs under the name of Wyke-upon-Hull in a

charter of 1160 by which Maud, daughter of Hugh Camin, granted it to the

monks of Meaux, who in 1278 received licence to hold a market here every

Thursday and a fair on the vigil, day and morrow of Holy Trinity and

twelve following days. Shortly afterwards Edward I., seeing its value as

a port, obtained the town from the monks in exchange for other lands in

Lincolnshire and changed its name to Kingston-upon-Hull. To induce

people to settle here he gave the town a charter in 1299. This granted

two weekly markets on Tuesday and Friday and a fair on the eve of St

Augustine lasting thirty days; it made the town a free borough and

provided that the king would send his justices to deliver the prison

when necessary. He sent commissioners in 1303 to inquire how and where

the roads to the "new town of Kingston-upon-Hull" could best be made,

and in 1321 Edward II. granted the burgesses licence to enclose the town

with a ditch and "a wall of stone and lime." In the 14th century the

burgesses of Hull disputed the right of the archbishop of York to

prisage of wine and other liberties in Hull, which they said belonged to

the king. The archbishop claimed under charters of King Aethelstand and

Henry III. The dispute, after lasting several years, was at length

decided in favour of the king. In 1381 Edward III., while inspecting

former charters, granted that the burgesses might hold the borough with

fairs, markets and free customs at a fee-farm of L70, and that every

year they might choose a mayor and four bailiffs. The king in 1440

granted the burgesses Hessle, North Ferriby and other places in order

that they might obtain a supply of fresh water. The charter also granted

that the above places with the town itself should become the county of

the town of Kingston-upon-Hull. Henry VIII. visited the town in 1541,

and ordered that a castle and other places of defence should be built,

and Edward VI. in 1552 granted the manor to the burgesses. The town was

incorporated by Queen Elizabeth in 1576 and a new charter was granted by

James II. in 1688. During the civil wars Hull, although the majority of

the inhabitants were royalists, was garrisoned by the parliamentarians,

and Charles I. was refused admission by the governor Sir John Hotham. In

1643 it stood a siege of six weeks, but the new governor Ferdinando

Fairfax, 2nd Baron Fairfax, obliged the Royalist army to retreat by

opening the sluices and placing the surrounding country under water.

Hull was represented in the parliament of 1295 and has sent members ever

since, save that in 1384 the burgesses were exempted from returning any

member on account of the expenses which they were incurring through

fortifying their town. Besides the fairs granted to the burgesses by

Edward I., two others were granted by Charles II. in 1664 to Henry

Hildiard who owned property in the town.

See T. Gent, _Annales Regioduni Hullini_ (York, 1735, reprinted 1869);

G. Hadley, _History of the Town and County of Kingston-upon-Hull_

(Hull, 1788); C. Frost, _Notices relative to the Early History of the

Town and Port of Hull_ (London, 1827); J. J. Sheaham, _General and

Concise History of Kingston-upon-Hull_ (London and Beverley, 1864).

HULL (in O. Eng. _hulu_, from _helan_, to cover, cf. Ger. _Hulle_,

covering), the outer covering, pod, or shell of beans, peas, &c., also

the enclosing envelope of a chrysalis. The word may be the same as

"hull," meaning the body of a ship without its masts or superstructure,

&c., but in this sense the word is more usually connected with "hold,"

the interior cargo-carrying part of a vessel. This word was borrowed, as

a nautical term, from the Dutch, _hol_ (cognate with "hole"), the _d_

being due to confusion with "to hold," "grasp" (O. Eng. _healdan_). The

meanings of "hull" and "hold" are somewhat far apart, and the closest

sense resemblance is to the word "hulk," which is not known till about a

century later.

HULLAH, JOHN PYKE (1812-1884), English composer and teacher of music,

was born at Worcester on the 27th June 1812. He was a pupil of William

Horsley from 1829, and entered the Royal Academy of Music in 1833. He

wrote an opera to words by Dickens, _The Village Coquettes_, produced in

1836; _The Barbers of Bassora_ in 1837, and _The Outpost_ in 1838, the

last two at Covent Garden. From 1839, when he went to Paris to

investigate various systems of teaching music to large masses of people,

he identified himself with Wilhem's system of the "fixed Do," and his

adaptation of that system was taught with enormous success from 1840 to

1860. In 1847 a large building in Long Acre, called St Martin's Hall,

was built by subscription and presented to Hullah. It was inaugurated in

1850 and burnt to the ground in 1860, a blow from which Hullah was long

in recovering. He had risked his all in the maintenance of the building,

and had to begin the world again. A series of lectures was given at the

Royal Institution in 1861, and in 1864 he lectured in Edinburgh, but in

the following year was unsuccessful in his application for the Reid

professorship. He conducted concerts in Edinburgh in 1866 and 1867, and

the concerts of the Royal Academy of Music from 1870 to 1873; he had

been elected to the committee of management in 1869. In 1872 he was

appointed by the Council of Education musical inspector of training

schools for the United Kingdom. In 1878 he went abroad to report on the

condition of musical education in schools, and wrote a very valuable

report, quoted in the memoir of him published by his wife in 1886. He

was attacked by paralysis in 1880, and again in 1883. His compositions,

which remained popular for some years after his death in 1884, consisted

mainly of ballads; but his importance in the history of music is owing

to his exertions in popularizing musical education, and his persistent

opposition to the Tonic Sol-Fa system, which had a success he could not

foresee. His objections to it were partly grounded on the character of

the music which was in common use among the early teachers of the

system. While it cannot be doubted that Hullah would have won more

success if he had not opposed the Tonic Sol-Fa movement so strenuously,

it must be confessed that his work was of great value, for he kept

constantly in view and impressed upon all who followed him or learnt

from him the supreme necessity of maintaining the artistic standard of

the music taught and studied, and of not allowing trumpery compositions

to usurp the place of good music on account of the greater ease with

which they could be read.

HULME, WILLIAM (1631-1691), English philanthropist, was born in the

neighbourhood of Manchester, and died on the 29th of October 1691.

Having lost his only son Banastre, Hulme left his property in trust to

maintain "four exhibitioners of the poorest sort of bachelors for the

space of four years" at Brasenose College, Oxford. This was the

beginning of the Hulme Trust. Its property was in Manchester, and owing

to its favourable situation its value increased rapidly. Eventually in

1881 a scheme was drawn up by the charity commissioners, by which (as

amended in 1907) the trust is now governed. Its income of about L10,000

a year is devoted to maintaining the Hulme Grammar School in Manchester

and to assisting other schools, to supporting a theological college,

Hulme Hall, attached to the university of Manchester, and to providing a

number of scholarships and exhibitions at Brasenose College.

See J. Croston, _Hulme's Charity_ (1877).

HULS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 4 m. N. of

Crefeld and 17 N.W. of Dusseldorf by rail. Pop. (1905) 6510. It has two

Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue and manufactures of damask and

velvet. In the neighbourhood ironstone is obtained.

HULSE, JOHN (1708-1790), English divine, was born--the eldest of a

family of nineteen--at Middlewich, in Cheshire, in 1708. Entering St

John's College, Cambridge, in 1724, he graduated in 1728; and on taking

orders (in 1732) was presented to a small country curacy. His father

having died in 1753, Hulse succeeded to his estates in Cheshire, where,

owing to feeble health, he lived in retirement till his death in

December 1790. He bequeathed his estates to Cambridge University for the

purpose of maintaining two divinity scholars (L30 a year each) at St

John's College, of founding a prize for a dissertation, and of

instituting the offices of Christian advocate and of Christian preacher

or Hulsean lecturer. By a statute in 1860 the Hulsean professorship of

divinity was substituted for the office of Christian advocate, and the

lectureship was considerably modified. The first course of lectures

under the benefaction was delivered in 1820. In 1830 the number of

annual lectures or sermons was reduced from twenty to eight; after 1861

they were further reduced to a minimum of four. The annual value of the

Hulse endowment is between L800 and L900, of which eight-tenths go to

the professor of divinity and one-tenth to the prize and lectureship

respectively.

An account of the Hulsean lectures from 1820 to 1894 is given in J.

Hunt's _Religious Thought in the 19th Century_, 332-338; among the

lecturers have been Henry Alford (1841), R. C. Trench (1845),

Christopher Wordsworth (1847), Charles Merivale (1861), James

Moorhouse (1865), F. W. Farrar (1870), F. J. A. Hort (1871), W. Boyd

Carpenter (1878), W. Cunningham (1885), M. Creighton (1893).

HUMACAO, a small city and the capital of a municipal district and

department of the same name, in Porto Rico, 46 m. S.E. of San Juan. Pop.

(1899) of the city, 4428; and of the municipal district, 14,313. Humacao

is attractively situated near the E. coast, 9 m. from the port of

Naguabo and a little over 6 m. from its own port of Punta Santiago, with

which it is connected by a good road; a railway was under construction

in 1908, and some of the sugar factories of the department are now

connected by rail with the port. The department covers the eastern end

of the island and includes all the islands off its coast, among which

are Culebra and Vieques; the former (pop. in 1899, 704) has two

excellent harbours and is used as a U.S. naval station; the latter is 21

m. long by 6 m. wide and in 1899 had a population of nearly 6000.

Grazing is the principal industry, but sugar-cane, tobacco and fruit are

cultivated. There are valuable forests in the mountainous districts, a

part of which has been set aside for preservation under the name of the

Luquillo forest reserve. Humacao was incorporated as a city in 1899. It

suffered severely in the hurricane of 1898, the damage not having been

fully repaired as late as 1906.

HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL. This society was founded in England in 1774 for

the purpose of rendering "first aid" in cases of drowning and for

restoring life by artificial means to those apparently drowned. Dr

William Hawes (1736-1808), an English physician, became known in 1773

for his efforts to convince the public that persons apparently dead from

drowning might in many cases be resuscitated by artificial means. For a

year he paid a reward out of his own pocket to any one bringing him a

body rescued from the water within a reasonable time of immersion. Dr

Thomas Cogan (1736-1818), another English physician, who had become

interested in the same subject during a stay at Amsterdam, where was

instituted in 1767 a society for preservation of life from accidents in

water, joined Hawes in his crusade. In the summer of 1774 each of them

brought fifteen friends to a meeting at the Chapter Coffee-house, St

Paul's Churchyard, when the Royal Humane Society was founded. The

society, the chief offices of which are at 4 Trafalgar Square, London,

has upwards of 280 depots throughout the kingdom, supplied with

life-saving apparatus. The chief and earliest of these depots is the

Receiving House in Hyde Park, on the north bank of the Serpentine, which

was built in 1794 on a site granted by George III. Boats and boatmen are

kept to render aid to bathers, and in the winter ice-men are sent round

to the different skating grounds in and around London. The society

distributes money-rewards, medals, clasps and testimonials, to those who

save or attempt to save drowning people. It further recognizes "all

cases of exceptional bravery in rescuing or attempting to rescue persons

from asphyxia in mines, wells, blasting furnaces, or in sewers where

foul gas may endanger life." It further awards prizes for swimming to

public schools and training ships. Since 1873 the Stanhope gold medal

has been awarded "to the case exhibiting the greatest gallantry during

the year." During the year 1905 873 persons were rewarded for saving or

attempting to save 947 lives from drowning. The society is maintained by

private subscriptions and bequests. Its motto is _Lateat scintillula

forsan_, "a small spark may perhaps lie hid." (See also DROWNING AND

LIFE-SAVING.)

HUMANISM (from Lat. _humanus_, human, connected with _homo_, mankind),

in general any system of thought or action which assigns a predominant

interest to the affairs of men as compared with the supernatural or the

abstract. The term is specially applied to that movement of thought

which in western Europe in the 15th century broke through the medieval

traditions of scholastic theology and philosophy, and devoted itself to

the rediscovery and direct study of the ancient classics. This movement

was essentially a revolt against intellectual, and especially

ecclesiastical authority, and is the parent of all modern developments

whether intellectual, scientific or social (see RENAISSANCE). The term

has also been applied to the philosophy of Comte in virtue of its

insistence on the dignity of humanity and its refusal to find in the

divine anything external or superior to mankind, and the same tendency

has had marked influence over the development of modern Christian

theology which inclines to obliterate the old orthodox conception of the

separate existence and overlordship of God. The narrow sense of the term

survives in modern university terminology. Thus in the University of

Oxford the curriculum known as _Litterae Humaniores_ ("Humane

Literature") consists of Latin and Greek literature and philosophy, i.e.

of the "arts," often described in former times as the "polite letters."

In the Scottish universities the professor of Latin is called the

professor of "humanity." The plural "humanities" is a generic term for

the classics. In ordinary language the adjective "humane" is restricted

to the sense of "kind-hearted," "unselfish": the abstract "humanity" has

this sense and also the sense of "that which pertains to mankind"

derived in this case with the companion adjective "human."

HUMANITARIANS, a term applied (1) to a school of theologians who

repudiate the doctrine of the Trinity and hold an extreme view of the

person of Christ as simply human. The adoption of this position by men

like Nathaniel Lardner, Joseph Priestley and Theophilus Lindsey in the

middle of the 18th century led to the establishment of the first

definitely organized Unitarian churches in England. (2) It is also

applied to those who believe in the perfectibility of man apart from

superhuman aid, especially those who follow the teaching of Pierre

Leroux (q.v.). The name is also sometimes given to the Positivists, and

in a more general sense, to persons whose chief principle of action is

the desire to preserve others from pain and discomfort.

HUMAYUN (1508-1556), Mogul emperor of Delhi, succeeded his father Baber

in India in 1530, while his brother Kamran obtained the sovereignty of

Kabul and Lahore. Humayun was thus left in possession of his father's

recent conquests, which were in dispute with the Indian Afghans under

Sher Shah, governor of Bengal. After ten years of fighting, Humayun was

driven out of India and compelled to flee to Persia through the desert

of Sind, where his famous son, Akbar the Great, was born in the petty

fort of Umarkot (1542). Sher Shah was killed at the storming of Kalinjar

(1545), and Humayun, returning to India with Akbar, then only thirteen

years of age, defeated the Indo-Afghan army and reoccupied Delhi (1555).

India thus passed again from the Afghanis to the Moguls, but six months

afterwards Humayun was killed by a fall from the parapet of his palace

(1556), leaving his kingdom to Akbar. The tomb of Humayun is one of the

finest Mogul monuments in the neighbourhood of Delhi, and it was here

that the last of the Moguls, Bahadur Shah, was captured by Major Hodson

in 1857.

HUMBER, an estuary on the east coast of England formed by the rivers

Trent and Ouse, the northern shore belonging to Yorkshire and the

southern to Lincolnshire. The junction of these two important rivers is

near the village of Faxfleet, from which point the course of the Humber

runs E. for 18 m., and then S.E. for 19 m. to the North Sea. The total

area draining to the Humber is 9293 sq. m. The width of the estuary is 1

m. at the head, gradually widening to 3(1/2) m. at 8 m. above the mouth,

but here, with a great shallow bay on the Yorkshire side, it increases

to 8 m. in width. The seaward horn of this bay, however, is formed by a

narrow protruding bank of sand and stones, thrown up by a southward

current along the Yorkshire coast, and known as Spurn Head. This reduces

the width of the Humber mouth to 5(1/2) m. Except where the Humber cuts

through a low chalk ridge, between north and south Ferriby, dividing it

into the Wolds of Yorkshire and of Lincolnshire, the shores and adjacent

lands are nearly flat. The water is muddy; and the course for shipping

considerably exceeds in length the distances given above, by reason of

the numerous shoals it is necessary to avoid. The course is carefully

buoyed and lighted, for the Humber is an important highway of commerce,

having on the Yorkshire bank the great port of Hull, and on the

Lincolnshire bank that of Grimsby, while Goole lies on the Ouse a little

above the junction with the Trent. Canals connect with the great

manufacturing district of South Yorkshire, and the Trent opens up wide

communications with the Midlands. The phenomenon of the tidal bore is

sometimes seen on the Humber. The action of the river upon the flat

Yorkshire shore towards the mouth alters the shore-line constantly. Many

ancient villages have disappeared entirely, notably Ravenspur or

Ravenser, once a port, represented in parliament under Edward I., and

the scene of the landing of Bolingbroke, afterwards Henry IV., in 1399.

Soon after this the town, which lay immediately inside Spurn Point, must

have been destroyed.

HUMBERT, RANIERI CARLO EMANUELE GIOVANNI MARIA FERDINANDO EUGENIO, KING

OF ITALY (1844-1900), son of Victor Emmanuel II. and of Adelaide,

archduchess of Austria, was born at Turin, capital of the kingdom of

Sardinia, on the 14th of March 1844. His education was entrusted to the

most eminent men of his time, amongst others to Massimo d'Azeglio and

Pasquale Stanislao Mancini. Entering the army on the 14th of March 1858

with the rank of captain, he was present at the battle of Solferino in

1859, and in 1866 commanded a division at Custozza. Attacked by the

Austrian cavalry near Villafranca, he formed his troops into squares and

drove the assailants towards Sommacampagna, remaining himself throughout

the action in the square most exposed to attack. With Bixio he covered

the retreat of the Italian army, receiving the gold medal for valour. On

the 21st of April 1868 he married his cousin, Margherita Teresa

Giovanna, princess of Savoy, daughter of the duke of Genoa (born at

Turin on the 20th of November 1851). On the 11th of November 1869

Margherita gave birth to Victor Emmanuel, prince of Naples, afterwards

Victor Emmanuel III. of Italy. Ascending the throne on the death of his

father (9th January 1878), Humbert adopted the style "Humbert I. of

Italy" instead of Humbert IV., and consented that the remains of his

father should be interred at Rome in the Pantheon, and not in the royal

mausoleum of Superga (see Crispi). Accompanied by the premier, Cairoli,

he began a tour of the provinces of his kingdom, but on entering Naples

(November 17, 1878), amid the acclamations of an immense crowd, was

attacked by a fanatic named Passanante. The king warded off the blow

with his sabre, but Cairoli, in attempting to defend him, was severely

wounded in the thigh. The would-be assassin was condemned to death, but

the sentence was by the king commuted to one of penal servitude for

life. The occurrence upset for several years the health of Queen

Margherita. In 1881 King Humbert, again accompanied by Cairoli, resumed

his interrupted tour, and visited Sicily and the southern Italian

provinces. In 1882 he took a prominent part in the national mourning for

Garibaldi, whose tomb at Caprera he repeatedly visited. When, in the

autumn of 1882, Verona and Venetia were inundated, he hastened to the

spot, directed salvage operations, and provided large sums of money for

the destitute. Similarly, on the 28th of July 1883, he hurried to

Ischia, where an earthquake had engulfed some 5000 persons.

Countermanding the order of the minister of public works to cover the

ruins with quicklime, the king prosecuted salvage operations for five

days longer, and personally saved many victims at the risk of his own

life. In 1884 he visited Busca and Naples, where cholera was raging,

helping with money and advice the numerous sufferers, and raising the

spirit of the population. Compared with the reigns of his grandfather,

Charles Albert, and of his father, Victor Emmanuel, the reign of Humbert

was tranquil. Scrupulously observant of constitutional principles, he

followed, as far as practicable, parliamentary indications in his choice

of premiers, only one of whom--Rudini--was drawn from the Conservative

ranks. In foreign policy he approved of the conclusion of the Triple

Alliance, and, in repeated visits to Vienna and Berlin, established and

consolidated the pact. Towards Great Britain his attitude was invariably

cordial, and he considered the Triple Alliance imperfect unless

supplemented by an Anglo-Italian naval _entente_. Favourably disposed

towards the policy of colonial expansion inaugurated in 1885 by the

occupation of Massawa, he was suspected of aspiring to a vast empire in

north-east Africa, a suspicion which tended somewhat to diminish his

popularity after the disaster of Adowa on the 1st of March 1896. On the

other hand, his popularity was enhanced by the firmness of his attitude

towards the Vatican, as exemplified in his telegram declaring Rome

"intangible" (September 20, 1886), and affirming the permanence of the

Italian possession of the Eternal City. Above all King Humbert was a

soldier, jealous of the honour and prestige of the army to such a degree

that he promoted a duel between his nephew, the count of Turin, and

Prince Henry of Orleans (August 15, 1897) on account of the aspersions

cast by the latter upon Italian arms. The claims of King Humbert upon

popular gratitude and affection were enhanced by his extraordinary

munificence, which was not merely displayed on public occasions, but

directed to the relief of innumerable private wants into which he had

made personal inquiry. It has been calculated that at least L100,000 per

annum was expended by the king in this way. The regard in which he was

universally held was abundantly demonstrated on the occasion of the

unsuccessful attempt upon his life made by the anarchist Acciarito near

Rome on the 22nd of April 1897, and still more after his tragic

assassination at Monza by the anarchist Bresci on the evening of the

29th of July 1900. Good-humoured, active, tender-hearted, somewhat

fatalistic, but, above all, generous, he was spontaneously called

"Humbert the Good." He was buried in the Pantheon in Rome, by the side

of Victor Emmanuel II., on the 9th of August 1900. (H. W. S.)

HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEXANDER, BARON VON (1769-1859), German

naturalist and traveller, was born at Berlin, on the 14th of September

1769. His father, who was a major in the Prussian army, belonged to a

Pomeranian family of consideration, and was rewarded for his services

during the Seven Years' War with the post of royal chamberlain. He

married in 1766 Maria Elizabeth von Colomb, widow of Baron von Hollwede,

and had by her two sons, of whom the younger is the subject of this

article. The childhood of Alexander von Humboldt was not a promising one

as regards either health or intellect. His characteristic tastes,

however, soon displayed themselves; and from his fancy for collecting

and labelling plants, shells and insects he received the playful title

of "the little apothecary." The care of his education, on the unexpected

death of his father in 1779, devolved upon his mother, who discharged

the trust with constancy and judgment. Destined for a political career,

he studied finance during six months at the university of

Frankfort-on-the-Oder; and a year later, April 25, 1789, he matriculated

at Gottingen, then eminent for the lectures of C. G. Heyne and J. F.

Blumenbach. His vast and varied powers were by this time fully

developed; and during the vacation of 1789 he gave a fair earnest of his

future performances in a scientific excursion up the Rhine, and in the

treatise thence issuing, _Mineralogische Beobachtungen uber einige

Basalte am Rhein_ (Brunswick, 1790). His native passion for distant

travel was confirmed by the friendship formed by him at Gottingen with

George Forster, Heyne's son-in-law, the distinguished companion of

Captain Cook's second voyage. Henceforth his studies, which his rare

combination of parts enabled him to render at once multifarious, rapid

and profound, were directed with extraordinary insight and perseverance

to the purpose of preparing himself for his distinctive calling as a

scientific explorer. With this view he studied commerce and foreign

languages at Hamburg, geology at Freiberg under A. G. Werner, anatomy at

Jena under J. C. Loder, astronomy and the use of scientific instruments

under F. X. von Zach and J. G. Kohler. His researches into the

vegetation of the mines of Freiberg led to the publication in 1793 of

his _Florae Fribergensis Specimen_; and the results of a prolonged

course of experiments on the phenomena of muscular irritability, then

recently discovered by L. Galvani, were contained in his _Versuche uber

die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser_ (Berlin, 1797), enriched in the

French translation with notes by Blumenbach.

In 1794 he was admitted to the intimacy of the famous Weimar coterie,

and contributed (June 1795) to Schiller's new periodical, _Die Horen_, a

philosophical allegory entitled _Die Lebenskraft, oder der rhodische

Genius_. In the summer of 1790 he paid a flying visit to England in

company with Forster. In 1792 and 1797 he was in Vienna; in 1795 he made

a geological and botanical tour through Switzerland and Italy. He had

obtained in the meantime official employment, having been appointed

assessor of mines at Berlin, February 29, 1792. Although the service of

the state was consistently regarded by him but as an apprenticeship to

the service of science, he fulfilled its duties with such conspicuous

ability that he not only rapidly rose to the highest post in his

department, but was besides entrusted with several important diplomatic

missions. The death of his mother, on the 19th of November 1796, set him

free to follow the bent of his genius, and, finally severing his

official connexions, he waited for an opportunity of executing his

long-cherished schemes of travel. On the postponement of Captain

Baudin's proposed voyage of circumnavigation, which he had been

officially invited to accompany, he left Paris for Marseilles with Aime

Bonpland, the designated botanist of the frustrated expedition, hoping

to join Bonaparte in Egypt. Means of transport, however, were not

forthcoming, and the two travellers eventually found their way to

Madrid, where the unexpected patronage of the minister d'Urquijo

determined them to make Spanish America the scene of their explorations.

Armed with powerful recommendations, they sailed in the "Pizarro" from

Corunna, on the 5th of June 1799, stopped six days at Teneriffe for the

ascent of the Peak, and landed, on the 16th of July, at Cumana. There

Humboldt observed, on the night of the 12-13th of November, that

remarkable meteor-shower which forms the starting-point of our

acquaintance with the periodicity of the phenomenon; thence he proceeded

with Bonpland to Caracas; and in February 1800 he left the coast for the

purpose of exploring the course of the Orinoco. This trip, which lasted

four months, and covered 1725 m. of wild and uninhabited country, had

the important result of establishing the existence of a communication

between the water-systems of the Orinoco and Amazon, and of determining

the exact position of the bifurcation. On the 24th of November the two

friends set sail for Cuba, and after a stay of some months regained the

mainland at Cartagena. Ascending the swollen stream of the Magdalena,

and crossing the frozen ridges of the Cordilleras, they reached Quito

after a tedious and difficult journey on the 6th of January 1802. Their

stay there was signalized by the ascent of Pichincha and Chimborazo, and

terminated in an expedition to the sources of the Amazon _en route_ for

Lima. At Callao Humboldt observed the transit of Mercury on the 9th of

November, and studied the fertilizing properties of guano, the

introduction of which into Europe was mainly due to his writings. A

tempestuous sea-voyage brought them to the shores of Mexico, and after a

year's residence in that province, followed by a short visit to the

United States, they set sail for Europe from the mouth of the Delaware,

and landed at Bordeaux on the 3rd of August 1804.

Humboldt may justly be regarded as having in this memorable expedition

laid the foundation in their larger bearings of the sciences of physical

geography and meteorology. By his delineation (in 1817) of "isothermal

lines," he at once suggested the idea and devised the means of comparing

the climatic conditions of various countries. He first investigated the

rate of decrease in mean temperature with increase of elevation above

the sea-level, and afforded, by his inquiries into the origin of

tropical storms, the earliest clue to the detection of the more

complicated law governing atmospheric disturbances in higher latitudes;

while his essay on the geography of plants was based on the then novel

idea of studying the distribution of organic life as affected by varying

physical conditions. His discovery of the decrease in intensity of the

earth's magnetic force from the poles to the equator was communicated to

the Paris Institute in a memoir read by him on the 7th of December 1804,

and its importance was attested by the speedy emergence of rival claims.

His services to geology were mainly based on his attentive study of the

volcanoes of the New World. He showed that they fell naturally into

linear groups, presumably corresponding with vast subterranean fissures;

and by his demonstration of the igneous origin of rocks previously held

to be of aqueous formation, he contributed largely to the elimination of

erroneous views.

The reduction into form and publication of the encyclopaedic mass of

materials--scientific, political and archaeological--collected by him

during his absence from Europe was now Humboldt's most urgent desire.

After a short trip to Italy with Gay-Lussac for the purpose of

investigating the law of magnetic declination, and a sojourn of two

years and a half in his native city, he finally, in the spring of 1808,

settled in Paris with the purpose of securing the scientific

co-operation required for bringing his great work through the press.

This colossal task, which he at first hoped would have occupied but two

years, eventually cost him twenty-one, and even then remained

incomplete. With the exception of Napoleon Bonaparte, he was the most

famous man in Europe. A chorus of applause greeted him from every side.

Academies, both native and foreign, were eager to enrol him among their

members. Frederick William III. of Prussia conferred upon him the

honour, without exacting the duties, attached to the post of royal

chamberlain, together with a pension of 2500 thalers, afterwards

doubled. He refused the appointment of Prussian minister of public

instruction in 1810. In 1814 he accompanied the allied sovereigns to

London. Three years later he was summoned by the king of Prussia to

attend him at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. Again in the autumn of

1822 he accompanied the same monarch to the congress of Verona,

proceeded thence with the royal party to Rome and Naples, and returned

to Paris in the spring of 1823.

The French capital he had long regarded as his true home. There he

found, not only scientific sympathy, but the social stimulus which his

vigorous and healthy mind eagerly craved. He was equally in his element

as the lion of the _salons_ and as the _savant_ of the institute and the

observatory. Thus, when at last he received from his sovereign a summons

to join his court at Berlin, he obeyed indeed, but with deep and lasting

regret. The provincialism of his native city was odious to him. He never

ceased to rail against the bigotry without religion, aestheticism

without culture, and philosophy without common sense, which he found

dominant on the banks of the Spree. The unremitting benefits and sincere

attachment of two well-meaning princes secured his gratitude, but could

not appease his discontent. At first he sought relief from the "nebulous

atmosphere" of his new abode by frequent visits to Paris; but as years

advanced his excursions were reduced to accompanying the monotonous

"oscillations" of the court between Potsdam and Berlin. On the 12th of

May 1827 he settled permanently in the Prussian capital, where his first

efforts were directed towards the furtherance of the science of

terrestrial magnetism. For many years it had been one of his favourite

schemes to secure, by means of simultaneous observations at distant

points, a thorough investigation of the nature and law of "magnetic

storms"--a term invented by him to designate abnormal disturbances of

the earth's magnetism. The meeting at Berlin, on the 18th of September

1828, of a newly-formed scientific association, of which he was elected

president, gave him the opportunity of setting on foot an extensive

system of research in combination with his diligent personal

observations. His appeal to the Russian government in 1829 led to the

establishment of a line of magnetic and meteorological stations across

northern Asia; while his letter to the duke of Sussex, then (April 1836)

president of the Royal Society, secured for the undertaking the wide

basis of the British dominions. Thus that scientific conspiracy of

nations which is one of the noblest fruits of modern civilization was by

his exertions first successfully organized.

In 1811, and again in 1818, projects of Asiatic exploration were

proposed to Humboldt, first by the Russian, and afterwards by the

Prussian government; but on each occasion untoward circumstances

interposed, and it was not until he had entered upon his sixtieth year

that he resumed his early _role_ of a traveller in the interests of

science. Between May and November 1829 he, together with his chosen

associates Gustav Rose and C. G. Ehrenberg, traversed the wide expanse

of the Russian empire from the Neva to the Yenesei, accomplishing in

twenty-five weeks a distance of 9614 m. The journey, however, though

carried out with all the advantages afforded by the immediate patronage

of the Russian government, was too rapid to be profitable. Its most

important fruits were the correction of the prevalent exaggerated

estimate of the height of the Central-Asian plateau, and the discovery

of diamonds in the gold-washings of the Ural--a result which Humboldt's

Brazilian experiences enabled him to predict, and by predicting to

secure.

Between 1830 and 1848 Humboldt was frequently employed in diplomatic

missions to the court of Louis Philippe, with whom he always maintained

the most cordial personal relations. The death of his brother, Wilhelm

von Humboldt, who expired in his arms, on the 8th of April 1836,

saddened the later years of his life. In losing him, Alexander lamented

that he had "lost half himself." The accession of the crown prince, as

Frederick William IV., on the death of his father, in June 1840, added

to rather than detracted from his court favour. Indeed, the new king's

craving for his society became at times so importunate as to leave him

only some hours snatched from sleep for the prosecution of his literary

labours.