FOOTNOTE:

[1] The word "hue," which is now obsolete except in this phrase and

in the "huers" on the Cornish coast who direct the pilchard-fishing

from the cliffs, is generally connected with the Old French verb

_huer_, to cry, shout, especially in war or the chase. It has been

suggested that while "cry" represents the sound of the voices of the

pursuers, "hue" applies to the sound of horns or other instruments

used in the pursuit; and so Blackstone, _Comment._ iv. xxi. 293

(1809), "an hue and cry, _hutesium et clamor_, ... with horn and

voice." "Hue," appearance, colour, is in Old English _hiew_, _hiw_,

cognate with Swedish _hij_, complexion, skin, and probably connected

with Sanskrit _chawi_, skin, complexion, beauty.

HUEHUETANANGO (i.e. in the local Indian dialect, "City of the

Ancients"), the capital of the department of Huehuetanango, western

Guatemala, 106 m. W.N.W. of Guatemala city, on the right bank and near

the source of the river Salegua, a tributary of the Chiapas. Pop. (1905)

about 12,000. Huehuetanango was built near the site of the ancient

Indian city of Zakuleu, now represented by some ruins on a neighbouring

ridge surrounded by deep ravines. It is the principal town of a fertile

upland region, which produces coffee, cocoa and many European and

tropical fruits. Chiantla, a neighbouring town mainly inhabited by

Indians, was long the headquarters of a successful Dominican mission;

its convent, enriched by the gifts of pilgrims and the revenues of the

silver mines owned by the monks, became one of the wealthiest

foundations in Central America. It was secularized in 1873, and the

mines have been abandoned.

HUELVA, a maritime province of south-western Spain, formed in 1833 of

districts taken from Andalusia, and bounded on the N. by Badajoz, E. by

Seville, S. by the Gulf of Cadiz and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900)

260,880; area 3913 sq. m. With the exception of its south-eastern angle,

where the province merges into the flat waste lands known as Las

Marismas, at the mouth of the Guadalquivir, Huelva presents throughout

its entire extent an agreeably varied surface. It is traversed in a

south-westerly direction by the Sierra Morena, here known, in its main

ridge, as the Sierra de Aracena. The principal streams are the navigable

lower reaches of the Guadalquivir and Guadiana, which respectively form

for some distance the south-eastern and south-western boundaries; the

Odiel and the Tinto, which both fall into the Atlantic by navigable

_rias_ or estuaries; the Malagon, Chanza, Alcalaboza and Murtiga, which

belong to the Guadiana system; and the Huelva, belonging to that of the

Guadalquivir. Huelva has a mild and equable climate, with abundant

moisture and a fertile soil. Among the mountains there are many valuable

woodlands, in which oaks, pines, beeches, cork-trees and chestnuts

predominate, while the lowlands afford excellent pasturage. But

agriculture and stock-breeding are here less important than in most

Spanish provinces, although the exports comprise large quantities of

fruit, oil and wine, besides cork and esparto grass. The headquarters of

the fishing trades, which include the drying and salting of fish, are at

Huelva, the capital, and Ayamonte on the Guadiana. There are numerous

brandy distilleries; and bricks, pottery, soap, candles and flour are

also manufactured; but the great local industry is mining. In 1903 no

fewer than 470 mines were at work; and their output, consisting chiefly

of copper with smaller quantities of manganese and iron, exceeded

L1,500,000 in value. The celebrated Rio Tinto copper mines, near the

sources of the Tinto, were, like those of Tharsis, 30 m. N.N.W. of

Huelva, exploited long before the Christian era, probably by the

Carthaginians, and certainly by the Romans. They are still among the

most important copper mines in the world (see RIO TINTO). Saline and

other mineral springs are common throughout the province. Huelva is the

principal seaport, and is connected with Seville on the east and Merida

on the north by direct railways; while a network of narrow-gauge

railways gives access to the chief mining centres. The principal towns,

besides Huelva (21,359) and Rio Tinto (11,603), which are described in

separate articles, are Alosno (8187), Ayamonte (7530), Bollullos (7922),

Moguer (8455), Nerva (7908) and Zalamea la Real (7335). The state and

municipal roads are better engineered and maintained than those of the

neighbouring provinces. See also ANDALUSIA.

HUELVA (the ancient Onuba, Onoba, or Onuba Aestuaria), the capital of

the Spanish province of Huelva, about 10 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, on

the left bank of the river Odiel, and on the Seville-Huelva,

Merida-Huelva and Rio Tinto-Huelva railways, the last-named being a

narrow-gauge line. Pop. (1900) 21,357. Huelva is built on the western

shore of a triangular peninsula formed by the estuaries of the Odiel and

Tinto, which meet below the town. It is wholly modern in character and

appearance, and owes its prosperity to an ever-increasing transit trade

in copper and other ores, for which it is the port of shipment. After

1872, when the famous Rio Tinto copper mines were for the first time

properly exploited, it progressed rapidly in size and wealth. Dredging

operations removed a great part of the sandbanks lining the navigable

main channel of the Odiel, and deepened the water over the bar at its

mouth; new railways were opened, and port works were undertaken on a

large scale, including the construction of extensive quays and two

piers, and the installation of modern appliances for handling cargo.

Many of these improvements were added after 1900. Besides exporting

copper, manganese and other minerals, which in 1903 reached 2,750,000

tons, valued at more than L1,500,000, Huelva is the headquarters of

profitable sardine, tunny and bonito fisheries, and of a trade in grain,

grapes, olives and cork. The copper and cork industries are mainly in

British hands, and the bulk of the imports, which consist chiefly of

coal, iron and steel and machinery, comes from Great Britain. Foodstuffs

and Australian hardwood are also imported.

Huelva was originally a Carthaginian trading-station, and afterwards a

Roman colony; but it retains few memorials of its past, except the Roman

aqueduct, repaired in modern times, and the colossal statue of Columbus.

This was erected in 1892 to commemorate the fourth centenary of his

voyage to the new world in 1492-1493, which began and ended in the

village of San Palos de la Frontera on the Tinto. Columbus resided in

the neighbouring monastery of Santa Maria la Rabida after his original

plans for the voyage had been rejected by King John II. of Portugal in

1484. An exact reproduction of this monastery was erected in 1893 at the

World's Fair, Chicago, U.S.A., and was afterwards converted into a

sanatorium. Higher up the Tinto, above San Palos, is the town of Moguer

(pop. 8455), which exports large quantities of oil and wine.

HUERCAL OVERA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of

Almeria, on the Lorca-Baza railway, and between two branches of the

river Almanzora. Pop. (1900) 15,763. Huercal Overa is the chief town of

a thriving agricultural district, largely dependent for its prosperity

on the lead mining carried on among the surrounding highlands.

HUESCA, a frontier province of northern Spain, formed in 1833 of

districts previously belonging to Aragon; and bounded on the N. by

France, E. and S.E. by Lerida, S.W. and W. by Saragossa, and N.W. by

Navarre. Pop. (1900) 244,867; area 5848 sq. m. The entire northern half

of Huesca belongs to the mountain system of the Pyrenees, which here

attain their greatest altitudes in Aneto, the highest point of the

Maladetta ridge (11,168 ft.), and in Monte Perdido (10,997 ft.). The

southern half forms part of the rugged and high-lying plateau of Aragon.

Its only conspicuous range of hills is the Sierra de Alcubierre on the

south-western border. The whole province is included in the basin of

the Ebro, and is drained by four of its principal tributaries--the

Aragon in the north-west, the Gallego in the west, the Cinca in the

centre, and the Noguera Ribagorzana along part of the eastern border.

These rivers rise among the Pyrenees, and take a southerly course; the

two last-named unite with the Segre on their way to join the Ebro. The

Cinca receives the combined waters of the Alcanadre and Isuela on the

right and the Esera on the left.

The climate varies much according to the region; in the north, cold

winds from the snow-capped Pyrenees prevail, while in the south, the

warm summers are often unhealthy from the humidity of the atmosphere.

Agriculture, the leading industry of Huesca, is facilitated by a fairly

complete system of irrigation, by means of which much waste land has

been reclaimed, although large tracts remain barren. There is good

summer pasturage on the mountains, where cattle, sheep and swine are

reared. The mountains are richly clothed with forests of pine, beech,

oak and fir; and the southern regions, wherever cultivation is possible,

produce abundant crops of wheat and other cereals, vines, mulberries and

numerous other fruits and vegetables. The mineral resources include

argentiferous lead, copper, iron and cobalt, with salt, lignite,

limestone, millstone, gypsum, granite and slate. None of these, however,

occurs in large quantities; and in 1903 only salt, lignite and

fluor-spar were worked, while the total output was worth less than

L1500. Mineral springs are numerous, and the mining industry was

formerly much more important; but the difficulties of transport hinder

the development of this and other resources. Trade is most active with

France, whither are sent timber, millstones, cattle, leather, brandy and

wine. Between 1882 and 1892 the wine trade throve greatly, owing to the

demand for common red wines, suitable for blending with finer French

vintages; but the exports subsequently declined, owing to the protective

duties imposed by France. The manufactures, which are of little

importance, include soap, spirits, leather, pottery and coarse cloth.

The Saragossa-Lerida-Barcelona railway traverses the province, and gives

access, by two branch lines, to Jaca, by way of Huesca, the provincial

capital, and to Barbastro. Up to the beginning of the 20th century this

was the only railway completed, although it was supplemented by many

good roads. But by the Railway Convention of 1904, ratified by the

Spanish government in 1906, France and Spain agreed jointly to construct

a Transpyrenean line from Oloron, in the Basses Pyrenees, to Jaca, which

should pass through the Port de Canfranc, and connect Saragossa with

Pau. Apart from the episcopal cities of Huesca (pop. 1900, 12,626) and

Jaca (4934), which are separately described, the only towns in the

province with more than 5000 inhabitants are Barbastro (7033), an

agricultural market, and Fraga (6899), an ancient residence of the kings

of Aragon, with a fine 12th century parish church and a ruined Moorish

citadel. Monzon, long celebrated as the meeting-place of the Aragonese

and Catalonian parliaments, is a town on the lower Cinca, with the ruins

of a Roman fortification, and of a 12th century castle, which was owned

by the Knights Templar. (See also Aragon.)

HUESCA (anc. _Osca_), the capital of the Spanish province of Huesca, 35

m. N.N.E. of Saragossa, on the Tardienta-Huesca-Jaca railway. Pop.

(1900), 12,626. Huesca occupies a height near the right bank of the

river Isuela, overlooking a broad and fertile plain. It is a very

ancient city and bears many traces of its antiquity. The streets in the

older part are narrow and crooked, though clean, and many of the houses

witness by their size and style to its former magnificence. It is an

episcopal see and has an imposing Gothic cathedral, begun in 1400,

finished in 1515, and enriched with fine carving. In the same plaza is

the old palace of the kings of Aragon, formerly given up for the use of

the now closed Sertoria (the university), so named in memory of a school

for the sons of native chiefs, founded at Huesca by Sertorius in 77 B.C.

(Plut. _Sert._ 15). Among the other prominent buildings are the

interesting parish churches (San Pedro, San Martin and San Juan), the

episcopal palace, and various benevolent and religious foundations.

Considerable attention is paid to public education, and there are not

only several good primary schools, but schools for teachers, an

institute, an ecclesiastical seminary, an artistic and archaeological

museum, and an economic society. Huesca manufactures cloth, pottery,

bricks and leather; but its chief trade is in wine and agricultural

produce. The development of these industries caused an increase in the

population which, owing to emigration to France, had declined by nearly

2000 between 1887 and 1897.

Strabo (iii. 161, where some editors read Ileosca) describes Osca as a

town of the Ilergetes, and the scene of Sertorius's death in 72 B.C.;

while Pliny places the Oscenses in _regio Vescitania_. Plutarch (loc.

cit.) calls it a large city. Julius Caesar names it Vencedora; and the

name by which Augustus knew it, Urbs victrix Osca, was stamped on its

coins, and is still preserved on its arms. In the 8th century A.D. it

was captured by the Moors; but in 1096 Pedro I. of Aragon regained it,

after winning the decisive battle of Alcoraz.

HUET, PIERRE DANIEL (1630-1721), bishop of Avranches, French scholar,

was born at Caen in 1630. He was educated at the Jesuit school of Caen,

and also received lessons from the Protestant pastor, Samuel Bochart. At

the age of twenty he was recognized as one of the most promising

scholars of the time. He went in 1651 to Paris, where he formed a

friendship with Gabriel Naude, conservator of the Mazarin library. In

the following year Samuel Bochart, being invited by Queen Christina to

her court at Stockholm, took his friend Huet with him. This journey, in

which he saw Leiden, Amsterdam and Copenhagen, as well as Stockholm,

resulted chiefly in the discovery, in the Swedish royal library, of some

fragments of Origen's _Commentary on St Matthew_, which gave Huet the

idea of editing Origen, a task he completed in 1668. He eventually

quarrelled with his friend Bochart, who accused him of having suppressed

a line in Origen in the Eucharistic controversy. In Paris he entered

into close relations with Chapelain. During the famous dispute of

Ancients and Moderns Huet took the side of the Ancients against Charles

Perrault and Desmarets. Among his friends at this period were Conrart

and Pellisson. His taste for mathematics led him to the study of

astronomy. He next turned his attention to anatomy, and, being himself

shortsighted, devoted his inquiries mainly to the question of vision and

the formation of the eye. In this pursuit he made more than 800

dissections. He then learned all that was then to be learned in

chemistry, and wrote a Latin poem on salt. All this time he was no mere

book-worm or recluse, but was haunting the salons of Mlle de Scudery and

the studios of painters; nor did his scientific researches interfere

with his classical studies, for during this time he was discussing with

Bochart the origin of certain medals, and was learning Syriac and Arabic

under the Jesuit Parvilliers. He also translated the pastorals of

Longus, wrote a tale called _Diane de Castro_, and defended, in a

treatise on the origin of romance, the reading of fiction. On being

appointed assistant tutor to the Dauphin in 1670, he edited with the

assistance of Anne Lefevre, afterwards Madame Dacier, the well-known

edition of the Delphin Classics. This series was a comprehensive edition

of the Latin classics in about sixty volumes, and each work was

accompanied by a Latin commentary, _ordo verborum_, and verbal index.

The original volumes have each an engraving of Arion and the Dolphin,

and the appropriate inscription _in usum serenissimi Delphini_. Huet was

admitted to the Academy in 1674. He issued one of his greatest works,

the _Demonstratio evangelica_, in 1679. He took holy orders in 1676, and

two years later the king gave him the abbey of Aulnay, where he wrote

his _Questiones Aletuanae_ (Caen, 1690), his _Censura philosophiae

Cartesianae_ (Paris, 1689), his _Nouveau memoire pour servir a

l'histoire du Cartesianisme_ (1692), and his discussion with Boileau on

the Sublime. In 1685 he was made bishop of Soissons, but after waiting

for installation for four years he took the bishopric of Avranches

instead. He exchanged the cares of his bishopric for what he thought

would be the easier chair of the Abbey of Fontenay, but there he was

vexed with continual lawsuits. At length he retired to the Jesuits'

House in the Rue Saint Antoine at Paris, where he died in 1721. His

great library and manuscripts, after being bequeathed to the Jesuits,

were bought by the king for the royal library.

In the _Huetiana_ (1722) of the abbe d'Olivet will be found material

for arriving at an idea of his prodigious labours, exact memory and

wide scholarship. Another posthumous work was his _Traite

philosophique de la faiblesse de l'esprit humain_ (Amsterdam, 1723),

His autobiography, found in his _Commentarius de rebus ad eum

pertinentibus_ (Paris, 1718), has been translated into French and into

English.

See de Gournay, _Huet, eveque d'Avranches, sa vie et ses ouvrages_

(Paris, 1854).

HUFELAND, CHRISTOPH WILHELM (1762-1836), German physician, was born at

Langensalza on the 12th of August 1762. His early education was carried

on at Weimar, where his father held the office of court physician to the

grand duchess. In 1780 he entered the university of Jena, and in the

following year proceeded to Gottingen, where in 1783 he graduated in

medicine. After assisting his father for some years at Weimar, he was

called in 1793 to the chair of medicine at Jena, receiving at the same

time the dignities of court physician and councillor at Weimar. In 1798

he was placed at the head of the medical college and generally of state

medical affairs in Berlin. He filled the chair of pathology and

therapeutics in the university of Berlin, founded in 1809, and in 1810

became councillor of state. He died at Berlin on the 25th of August

1836. Hufeland is celebrated as the most eminent practical physician of

his time in Germany, and as the author of numerous works displaying

extensive reading and cultivated and critical faculty.

The most widely known of his many writings is the treatise entitled

_Makrobiotik, oder die Kunst, das menschliche Leben zu verlangern_

(1796), which was translated into many languages. Of his practical

works, the _System of Practical Medicine_ (_System der praktischen

Heilkunde_, 1818-1828) is the most elaborate. From 1795 to 1835 he

published a _Journal der praktischen Arznei und Wundarzneikunde_. His

autobiography was published in 1863. There are sketches of his life

and labours by Augustin and Stourdza (1837).

HUFELAND, GOTTLIEB (1760-1817), German economist and jurist, was born at

Dantzig on the 19th of October 1760. He was educated at the gymnasium of

his native town, and completed his university studies at Leipzig and

Gottingen. He graduated at Jena, and in 1788 was there appointed to an

extraordinary professorship. Five years later he was made ordinary

professor. His lectures on natural law, in which he developed with great

acuteness and skill the formal principles of the Kantian theory of

legislation, attracted a large audience, and contributed to raise to its

height the fame of the university of Jena, then unusually rich in able

teachers. In 1803, after the secession of many of his colleagues from

Jena, Hufeland accepted a call to Wurzburg, from which, after but a

brief tenure of a professorial chair, he proceeded to Landshut. From

1808 to 1812 he acted as burgomaster in his native town of Dantzig.

Returning to Landshut, he lived there till 1816, when he was invited to

Halle, where he died on the 25th of February 1817.

Hufeland's works on the theory of legislation--_Versuch uber den

Grundsatz Naturrechts_ (1785); _Lehrbuch des Naturrechts_ (1790);

_Institutionen des gesammten positiven Rechts_ (1798); and _Lehrbuch

der Geschichte und Encyclopadie aller in Deutschland geltenden

positiven Rechte_ (1790), are distinguished by precision of statement

and clearness of deduction. They form on the whole the best commentary

upon Kant's _Rechtslehre_, the principles of which they carry out in

detail, and apply to the discussion of positive laws. In political

economy Hufeland's chief work is the _Neue Grundlegung der

Staatswirthschaftskunst_ (2 vols., 1807 and 1813), the second volume

of which has the special title, _Lehre vom Gelde und Geldumlaufe_. The

principles of this work are for the most part those of Adam Smith's

_Wealth of Nations_, which were then beginning to be accepted and

developed in Germany; but both in his treatment of fundamental

notions, such as economic good and value, and in details, such as the

theory of money, Hufeland's treatment has a certain originality. Two

points in particular seem deserving of notice. Hufeland was the first

among German economists to point out the profit of the _entrepreneur_

as a distinct species of revenue with laws peculiar to itself. He also

tends towards, though he does not explicitly state, the view that rent

is a general term applicable to all payments resulting from

differences of degree among productive forces of the same order. Thus

the superior gain of a specially gifted workman or specially skilled

employer is in time assimilated to the payment for a natural agency of

more than the minimum efficiency.

See Roscher, _Geschichte der Nationalokonomik in Deutschland_,

654-662.

HUG, JOHANN LEONHARD (1765-1846), German Roman Catholic theologian, was

born at Constance on the 1st of June 1765. In 1783 he entered the

university of Freiburg, where he became a pupil in the seminary for the

training of priests, and soon distinguished himself in classical and

Oriental philology as well as in biblical exegesis and criticism. In

1787 he became superintendent of studies in the seminary, and held this

appointment until the breaking up of the establishment in 1790. In the

following year he was called to the Freiburg chair of Oriental languages

and Old Testament exegesis; to the duties of this post were added in

1793 those of the professorship of New Testament exegesis. Declining

calls to Breslau, Tubingen, and thrice to Bonn, Hug continued at

Freiburg for upwards of thirty years, taking an occasional literary tour

to Munich, Paris or Italy. In 1827 he resigned some of his professorial

work, but continued in active duty until in the autumn of 1845 he was

seized with a painful illness, which proved fatal on the 11th of March

1846.

Hug's earliest publication was the first instalment of his

_Einleitung_; in it he argued with much acuteness against J. G.

Eichhorn in favour of the "borrowing hypothesis" of the origin of the

synoptical gospels, maintaining the priority of Matthew, the present

Greek text having been the original. His subsequent works were

dissertations on the origin of alphabetical writing (_Die Erfindung

der Buchstabenschrift_, 1801), on the antiquity of the _Codex

Vaticanus_ (1810), and on ancient mythology (_Uber den Mythos der

alten Volker_, 1812); a new interpretation of the Song of Solomon

(_Das hohe Lied in einer noch unversuchten Deutung_, 1813), to the

effect that the lover represents King Hezekiah, while by his beloved

is intended the remnant left in Israel after the deportation of the

ten tribes; and treatises on the indissoluble character of the

matrimonial bond (_De conjugii christiani vinculo indissolubili

commentatio exegetica_, 1816) and on the Alexandrian version of the

Pentateuch (1818). His _Einleitung in die Schriften des Neuen

Testaments_, undoubtedly his most important work, was completed in

1808 (fourth German edition, 1847; English translations by D. G. Wait,

London, 1827, and by Fosdick, New York, 1836; French partial

translation by J. E. Cellerier, Geneva, 1823). It is specially

valuable in the portion relating to the history of the text (which up

to the middle of the 3rd century he holds to have been current only in

a common edition ([Greek: koine ekdosis]), of which recensions were

afterwards made by Hesychius, an Egyptian bishop, by Lucian of

Antioch, and by Origen) and in its discussion of the ancient versions.

The author's intelligence and acuteness are more completely hampered

by doctrinal presuppositions when he comes to treat questions relating

to the history of the individual books of the New Testament canon.

From 1839 to his death Hug was a regular and important contributor to

the _Freiburger Zeitschrift fur kathol. Theologie_.

See A. Maier, _Gedachtnisrede auf J. L. Hug_ (1847); K. Werner,

_Geschichte der kath. Theol. in Deutschland_, 527-533 (1866).

HUGGINS, SIR WILLIAM (1824-1910), English astronomer, was born in London

on the 7th of February 1824, and was educated first at the City of

London School and then under various private teachers. Having determined

to apply himself to the study of astronomy, he built in 1856 a private

observatory at Tulse Hill, in the south of London. At first he occupied

himself with ordinary routine work, but being far from satisfied with

the scope which this afforded, he seized eagerly upon the opportunity

for novel research, offered by Kirchhoff's discoveries in spectrum

analysis. The chemical constitution of the stars was the problem to

which he turned his attention, and his first results, obtained in

conjunction with Professor W. A. Miller, were presented to the Royal

Society In 1863, in a preliminary note on the "Lines of some of the

fixed stars." His experiments, in the same year, on the photographic

registration of stellar spectra, marked an innovation of a momentous

character. But the wet collodion process was then the only one

available, and its inconveniences were such as to preclude its extensive

employment; the real triumphs of photographic astronomy began in 1875

with Huggins's adoption and adaptation of the gelatine dry plate. This

enabled the observer to make exposures of any desired length, and,

through the cumulative action of light on extremely sensitive surfaces,

to obtain permanent accurate pictures of celestial objects so faint as

to be completely invisible to the eye, even when aided by the most

powerful telescopes. In the last quarter of the 19th century

spectroscopy and photography together worked a revolution in

observational astronomy, and in both branches Huggins acted as pioneer.

Many results of great importance are associated with his name. Thus in

1864 the spectroscope yielded him evidence that planetary and irregular

nebulae consist of luminous gas--a conclusion tending to support the

nebular hypothesis of the origin of stars and planets by condensation

from glowing masses of fluid material. On the 18th of May 1866 he made

the first spectroscopic examination of a temporary star (Nova Coronae),

and found it to be enveloped in blazing hydrogen. In 1868 he proved

incandescent carbon-vapours to be the main source of cometary light; and

on the 23rd of April in the same year applied Doppler's principle to the

detection and measurement of stellar velocities in the line of sight.

Data of this kind, which are by other means inaccessible to the

astronomer, are obviously indispensable to any adequate conception of

the stellar system as a whole or in its parts. In solar physics Huggins

suggested a spectroscopic method for viewing the red prominences in

daylight; and his experiments went far towards settling a much-disputed

question regarding the solar distribution of calcium. In the general

solar spectrum this element is represented by a large number of lines,

but in the spectrum of the prominences and chromosphere one pair only

can be detected. This circumstance appeared so anomalous that some

astronomers doubted whether the surviving lines were really due to

calcium; but Sir William and Lady Huggins (_nee_ Margaret Lindsay

Murray, who, after their marriage in 1875, actively assisted her

husband) successfully demonstrated in the laboratory that calcium

vapour, if at a sufficiently low pressure, gives under the influence of

the electric discharge precisely these lines and no others. The striking

discovery was, in 1903, made by the same investigators that the

spontaneous luminosity of radium gives a spectrum of a kind never before

obtained without the aid of powerful excitation, electrical or thermal.

It consists, that is to say, in a range of bright lines, the agreement

of which with the negative pole bands of nitrogen, together with details

of interest connected with its mode of production, was ascertained by a

continuance of the research. Sir William Huggins, who was made K.C.B. in

1897, received the Order of Merit in 1902, and was awarded many honours,

academic and other. He presided over the meeting of the British

Association in 1891, and during the five years 1900-1905 acted as

president of the Royal Society, from which he at different times

received a Royal, a Copley and a Rumford medal. Four of his presidential

addresses were republished in 1906, in an illustrated volume entitled

_The Royal Society_. A list of his scientific papers is contained in

chapter ii. of the magnificent _Atlas of Representative Stellar

Spectra_, published in 1899, by Sir William and Lady Huggins conjointly,

for which they were adjudged the Actonian prize of the Royal

Institution. Sir William Huggins died on the 12th of May 1910.

See ch. i. of _Atlas of Stellar Spectra_, containing a history of the

Tulse Hill observatory; Sir W. Huggins's personal retrospect in the

_Nineteenth Century_ for June 1897; "Scientific Worthies," with

photogravure portrait (_Nature_); _Astronomers of To-Day_, by Hector

Macpherson, junr. (1905) (portrait); _Month. Notices Roy. Astr.

Society_, xxvii. 146 (C. Pritchard). (A. M. C.)

HUGH, ST. ST HUGH OF AVALON (c. 1140-1200), bishop of Lincoln, who must

be distinguished from Hugh of Wells, and also from St Hugh of Lincoln

(see below), was born of a noble family at Avalon in Burgundy. At the

age of eight he entered along with his widowed father the neighbouring

priory of canons regular at Villard-Benoit, where he was ordained deacon

at nineteen. Appointed not long after prior of a dependent cell, Hugh

was attracted from that position by the holy reputation of the monks of

the Grande Chartreuse, whose house he finally entered despite an oath to

the contrary which he had given his superior. There he remained about

ten years, receiving priest's orders, and rising to the important office

of procurator, which brought him into contact with the outer world. The

wide reputation for energy and tact which Hugh speedily attained

penetrated to the ears of Henry II. of England, and induced that monarch

to request the procurator's assistance in establishing at Witham in

Somersetshire the first English Carthusian monastery. Hugh reluctantly

consented to go to England, where in a short time he succeeded in

overcoming every obstacle, and in erecting and organizing the convent,

of which he was appointed first prior. He speedily became prime

favourite with Henry, who in 1186 procured his election to the see of

Lincoln. He took little part in political matters, maintaining as one of

his chief principles that a churchman should hold no secular office. A

sturdy upholder of what he believed to be right, he let neither royal

nor ecclesiastical influence interfere with his conduct, but fearlessly

resisted whatever seemed to him an infringement of the rights of his

church or diocese. But with all his bluff firmness Hugh had a calm

judgment and a ready tact, which almost invariably left him a better

friend than before of those whom he opposed; and the astute Henry, the

impetuous Richard, and the cunning John, so different in other points,

agreed in respecting the bishop of Lincoln. Hugh's manners were a little

rigid and harsh; but, though an ascetic to himself, he was distinguished

by a broad kindliness to others, so that even the Jews of Lincoln wept

at his funeral. He had great skill in taming birds, and for some years

had a pet swan, which occupies a prominent place in all histories and

representations of the saint. In 1200 Bishop Hugh revisited his native

country and his first convents, and on the return journey was seized

with an illness, of which he died at London on the 16th of November

1200. He was canonized by Honorius III. on the 17th of February 1220.

His feast day is kept on the 17th of November in the Roman Church.

The chief life of St Hugh, the _Magna vita S. Hugonis_, probably

written by Adam, afterwards abbot of Eynsham, the bishop's chaplain,

was edited by J. F. Dimock in _Rer. Britan. med. aevi script_. No.

xxxvii, (London, 1864). MSS. of this are in the Bodleian Library

(Digby, 165 of the 13th century) and in Paris (_Bib. Nat._ 5575, Fonds

Latin); the Paris MS. fortunately makes good the portions lacking in

the Oxford one. Mr Dimock also edited a _Metrical Life of St Hugh of

Avalon_ (London, 1860), from two MSS. in the British Museum and the

Bodleian Library. The best modern source for information as to St Hugh

and his time is the _Vie de St Hugues, eveque de Lincoln_ (1140-1200)

_par un religieux de la Grande Chartreuse_ (Montreuil, 1890), Eng.

trans. edited by H. Thurston, S.J., with valuable appendices and notes

(London, 1898). A complete bibliography is given in U. Chevalier,

_Bio-bibliographie_ (Paris, 1905, 2206-2207); see also A. Potthast,

_Bibliotheca med. aev._, 1380.

HUGH OF WELLS, one of King John's officials and councillors, became

bishop of Lincoln in 1209. He soon fell into disfavour with John, and

the earlier years of his bishopric were mainly spent abroad, while the

king seized the revenues of his see. However, he was one of John's

supporters when Magna Carta was signed, and after the accession of Henry

III. he was able to turn his attention to his episcopal duties. His

chief work was the establishment of vicarages in his diocese, thus

rendering the parish priest more independent of the monastic houses;

this policy, and consequently Hugh himself, was heartily disliked by

Matthew Paris and other monastic writers. The bishop, who did some

building at Lincoln and also at Wells, died on the 7th of February 1235.

ST HUGH OF LINCOLN, a native of Lincoln, was a child about ten years old

when he was found dead on premises belonging to a Jew. It was said, and

the story was generally believed, that the boy had been scourged and

crucified in imitation of the death of Jesus Christ. Great and general

indignation was aroused, and a number of Jews were hanged or punished in

other ways. The incident is referred to by Chaucer in the _Prioresses

Tale_ and by Marlowe in the _Jew of Malta_.

HUGH, called THE GREAT (d. 956), duke of the Franks and count of Paris,

son of King Robert I. of France (d. 923) and nephew of King Odo or Eudes

(d. 898), was one of the founders of the power of the Capetian house in

France. Hugh's first wife was Eadhild, a sister of the English king,

Aethelstan. At the death of Raoul, duke of Burgundy, in 936, Hugh was in

possession of nearly all the region between the Loire and the Seine,

corresponding to the ancient Neustria, with the exception of the

territory ceded to the Normans in 911. He took a very active part in

bringing Louis IV. (d'Outremer) from England in 936, but in the same

year Hugh married Hadwig, sister of the emperor Otto the Great, and soon

quarrelled with Louis. Hugh even paid homage to Otto, and supported him

in his struggle against Louis. When Louis fell into the hands of the

Normans in 945, he was handed over to Hugh, who released him in 946 only

on condition that he should surrender the fortress of Laon. At the

council of Ingelheim (948) Hugh was condemned, under pain of

excommunication, to make reparation to Louis. It was not, however, until

950 that the powerful vassal became reconciled with his suzerain and

restored Laon. But new difficulties arose, and peace was not finally

concluded until 953. On the death of Louis IV. Hugh was one of the first

to recognize Lothair as his successor, and, at the intervention of Queen

Gerberga, was instrumental in having him crowned. In recognition of this

service Hugh was invested by the new king with the duchies of Burgundy

(his suzerainty over which had already been nominally recognized by

Louis IV.) and Aquitaine. But his expedition in 955 to take possession

of Aquitaine was unsuccessful. In the same year, however, Giselbert,

duke of Burgundy, acknowledged himself his vassal and betrothed his

daughter to Hugh's son Otto. At Giselbert's death (April 8, 956) Hugh

became effective master of the duchy, but died soon afterwards, on the

16th or 17th of June 956.

HUGH CAPET (c. 938-996), king of France and founder of the Capetian

dynasty, was the eldest son of Hugh the Great by his wife Hadwig. When

his father died in 956 he succeeded to his numerous fiefs around Paris

and Orleans, and thus becoming one of the most powerful of the

feudatories of his cousin, the Frankish king Lothair, he was recognized

somewhat reluctantly by that monarch as duke of the Franks. Many of the

counts of northern France did homage to him as their overlord, and

Richard I., duke of Normandy, was both his vassal and his

brother-in-law. His authority extended over certain districts south of

the Loire, and, owing to his interference, Lothair was obliged to

recognize his brother Henry as duke of Burgundy. Hugh supported his

royal suzerain when Lothair and the emperor Otto II. fought for the

possession of Lorraine; but chagrined at the king's conduct in making

peace in 980, he went to Rome to conclude an alliance with Otto. Laying

more stress upon independence than upon loyalty, Hugh appears to have

acted in a haughty manner toward Lothair, and also towards his son and

successor Louis V.; but neither king was strong enough to punish this

powerful vassal, whose clerical supporters already harboured the thought

of securing for him the Frankish crown. When Louis V. died without

children in May 987, Hugh and the late king's uncle Charles, duke of

Lower Lorraine, were candidates for the vacant throne, and in this

contest the energy of Hugh's champions, Adalberon, archbishop of Reims,

and Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II., prevailed. Declaring that

the Frankish crown was an elective and not an hereditary dignity,

Adalberon secured the election of his friend, and crowned him, probably

at Noyon, in July 987.

The authority of the new king was quickly recognized in his kingdom,

which covered the greater part of France north of the Loire with the

exception of Brittany, and in a shadowy fashion he was acknowledged in

Aquitaine; but he was compelled to purchase the allegiance of the great

nobles by large grants of royal lands, and he was hardly more powerful

as king than he had been as duke. Moreover, Charles of Lorraine was not

prepared to bow before his successful rival, and before Hugh had secured

the coronation of his son Robert as his colleague and successor in

December 987, he had found allies and attacked the king. Hugh was

worsted during the earlier part of this struggle, and was in serious

straits, until he was saved by the wiles of his partisan Adalberon,

bishop of Laon, who in 991 treacherously seized Charles and handed him

over to the king. This capture virtually ended the war, but one of its

side issues was a quarrel between Hugh and Pope John XV., who was

supported by the empire, then under the rule of the empresses Adelaide

and Theophano as regents for the young emperor Otto III. In 987 the king

had appointed to the vacant archbishopric of Reims a certain Arnulf, who

at once proved himself a traitor to Hugh and a friend to Charles of

Lorraine. In June 991, at the instance of the king, the French bishops

deposed Arnulf and elected Gerbert in his stead, a proceeding which was

displeasing to the pope, who excommunicated the new archbishop and his

partisans. Hugh and his bishops remained firm, and the dispute was still

in progress when the king died at Paris on the 24th of October 996.

Hugh was a devoted son of the church, to which, it is not too much to

say, he owed his throne. As lay abbot of the abbeys of St Martin at

Tours and of St Denis he was interested in clerical reform, was fond of

participating in religious ceremonies, and had many friends among the

clergy. His wife was Adelaide, daughter of William III., duke of

Aquitaine, by whom he left a son, Robert, who succeeded him as king of

France. The origin of Hugh's surname of _Capet_, which was also applied

to his father, has been the subject of some discussion. It is derived

undoubtedly from the Lat. _capa_, _cappa_, a cape, but whether Hugh

received it from the cape which he wore as abbot of St Martin's, or from

his youthful and playful habit of seizing caps, or from some other

cause, is uncertain.

See Richerus, _Historiarum libri IV._, edited by G. Waitz (Leipzig,

1877); F. Lot, _Les Derniers Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1891), and _Etudes

sur le regne de Hugues Capet_ (Paris, 1900); G. Monod, "Les Sources du

regne de Hugues Capet," in the _Revue historique_, tome xxviii.

(Paris, 1891); P. Viollet, _La Question de la legitimite a l'avenement

a Hugues Capet_ (Paris, 1892); and E. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_,

tome ii. (Paris, 1903-1905).

HUGH DE PUISET (c. 1125-1195), bishop of Durham, was the nephew of

Stephen and Henry of Blois; the latter brought him to England and made

him an archdeacon of the see of Winchester. Hugh afterwards became

archdeacon and treasurer of York. In 1153 he was chosen bishop of

Durham, in spite of the opposition of the archbishop of York; but he

only obtained consecration by making a personal visit to Rome. Hugh took

little part in politics in the reign of Henry II., remaining in the

north, immersed in the affairs of his see. He was, however, present with

Roger, archbishop of York, at the coronation of young Henry (1170), and

was in consequence suspended by Alexander III. He remained neutral, as

far as he could, in the quarrel between Henry and Becket, but he at

least connived at the rebellion of 1173 and William the Lion's invasion

of England in that year. After the failure of the rebellion the bishop

was compelled to surrender Durham, Norham and Northallerton to the king.

In 1179 he attended the Lateran Council at Rome, and in 1181 by the

pope's order he laid Scotland under an interdict. In 1184 he took the

cross. At the general sale of offices with which Richard began his reign

(1189) Hugh bought the earldom of Northumberland. The archbishopric of

York had been vacant since 1181. This vacancy increased Hugh's power

vastly, and when the vacancy was filled by the appointment of Geoffrey

he naturally raised objections. This quarrel with Geoffrey lasted till

the end of his life. Hugh was nominated justiciar jointly with William

Longchamp when Richard left the kingdom. But Longchamp soon deprived the

bishop of his place (1191), even going so far as to imprison Hugh and

make him surrender his castle, his earldom and hostages. Hugh's chief

object in politics was to avoid acknowledging Geoffrey of York as his

ecclesiastical superior, but this he was compelled to do in 1195. On

Richard's return Hugh joined the king and tried to buy back his earldom.

He seemed on the point of doing so when he died. Hugh was one of the

most important men of his day, and left a mark upon the north of England

which has never been effaced. Combining in his own hands the palatinate

of Durham and the earldom of Northumberland, he held a position not much

dissimilar to that of the great German princes, a local sovereign in all

but name.

See Kate Norgate's _England under the Angevin Kings_ (1887); Stubbs's

preface to Hoveden, iii.

HUGH OF ST CHER (c. 1200-1263), French cardinal and Biblical

commentator, was born at St Cher, a suburb of Vienne, Dauphine, and

while a student in Paris entered the Dominion convent of the Jacobins in

1225. He taught philosophy, theology and canon law. As provincial of his

order, which office he held during most of the third decade of the

century, he contributed largely to its prosperity, and won the

confidence of the popes Gregory IX., Innocent IV. and Alexander IV., who

charged him with several important missions. Created cardinal-priest in

1244, he played an important part in the council of Lyons in 1245,

contributed to the institution of the Feast of Holy Sacrament, the

reform of the Carmelites (1247), and the condemnations of the

_Introductorius in evangelium aeternum_ of Gherardino del Borgo San

Donnino (1255), and of William of St Amour's _De periculis novissimorum

temporum_. He died at Orvieto on the 19th of March 1263. He directed the

first revision of the text of the Vulgate, begun in 1236 by the

Dominicans; this first "correctorium," vigorously criticized by Roger

Bacon, was revised in 1248 and in 1256, and forms the base of the

celebrated _Correctorium Bibliae Sorbonicum_. With the aid of many of

his order he edited the first concordance of the Bible (_Concordantiae

Sacrorum Bibliorum_ or _Concordantiae S. Jacobi_), but the assertion

that we owe the present division of the chapters of the Vulgate to him

is false.

Besides a commentary on the book of Sentences, he wrote the _Postillae

in sacram scripturam juxta quadruplicem sensum, litteralem,

allegoricum, anagogicum et moralem_, published frequently in the 15th

and 16th centuries. His _Sermones de tempore et sanctis_ are

apparently only extracts. His exegetical works were published at

Venice in 1754 in 8 vols.

See, for sources, Quetif-Echard, _Scriptores ordinis praedicatorum_;

Denifle, in _Archiv fur Litteratur und Kirchengeschichte des

Mittelalters_, i. 49, ii. 171, iv. 263 and 471; _L'Annee dominicaine_,

iii. (1886) 509 and 883; _Chartularium universitatis Parisiensis_, i.

158. (H. L.)

HUGH OF ST VICTOR (c. 1078-1141), mystic philosopher, was probably born

at Hartingam, in Saxony. After spending some time in a house of canons

regular at Hamersleben, in Saxony, where he completed his studies, he

removed to the abbey of St Victor at Marseilles, and thence to the abbey

of St Victor in Paris. Of this last house he rose to be canon, in 1125

_scholasticus_, and perhaps even prior, and it was there that he died on

the 11th of February 1141. His eloquence and his writings earned for him

a renown and influence which far exceeded St Bernard's, and which held

its ground until the advent of the Thomist philosophy. Hugh was more

especially the initiator of a movement of ideas--the mysticism of the

school of St Victor--which filled the whole of the second part of the

12th century. "The mysticism which he inaugurated," says Ch. V.

Langlois, "is learned, unctuous, ornate, florid, a mysticism which never

indulges in dangerous temerities; it is the orthodox mysticism of a

subtle and prudent rhetorician." This tendency undoubtedly shows a

marked reaction from the contentious theology of Roscellinus and

Abelard. For Hugh of St Victor dialectic was both insufficient and

perilous. Yet he did not profess the haughty contempt for science and

philosophy which his followers the Victorines expressed; he regarded

knowledge, not as an end in itself, but as the vestibule of the mystic

life. The reason, he thought, was but an aid to the understanding of the

truths which faith reveals. The ascent towards God and the functions of

the "threefold eye of the soul"--_cogitatio_, _meditatio_ and

_contemplatio_--were minutely taught by him in language which is at once

precise and symbolical.

Manuscript copies of his works abound, and are to be found in almost

every library which possesses a collection of ancient writings. The

works themselves are very numerous and very diverse. The middle ages

attributed to him sixty works, and the edition in Migne's _Patr. Lat._

vols. clxxv.-clxxvii. (Paris, 1854) contains no fewer than forty-seven

treatises, commentaries and collections of sermons. Of that number,

however, B. Haureau (_Les Oeuvres de Hugues de St Victor_ (1st ed.,

Paris, 1859; 2nd ed., Paris, 1886) contests the authenticity of

several, which he ascribes with some show of probability to Hugh of

Fouilloi, Robert Paululus or others. Among those works with which Hugh

of St Victor may almost certainly be credited may be mentioned the

celebrated _De sacramentis christianae fidei_; the _Didascalicon de

studio legendi_; the treatises on mysticism entitled _Soliloquium de

arrha animae_, _De contemplatione et ejus operibus_, _Aureum de

meditando opusculum_, _De arca Noe morali_, _De arca Noe mystica_, _De

vanitate mundi_, _De arrha animae_, _De amore sponsi ad sponsam_, &c.;

the introduction (_Praenotatiunculae_) to the study of the Scriptures;

homilies on the book of Ecclesiastes; commentaries on other books of

the Bible, e.g. the Pentateuch, Judges, Kings, Jeremiah, &c.

See B. Haureau, _op. cit._ and _Notices et extraits des MSS. latins de

la Bibliotheque Nationale_, passim; De Wulf, _Histoire de la

philosophie medievale_ (Louvain, 1900), pp. 220-221; article by H.

Denifle in _Archiv fur Literatur und Kirchengeschichte des

Mittelalters_, iii. 634-640 (1887); A. Mignon, _Les Origines de la

scholastique et Hugues de St Victor_ (Paris, 1895); J. Kilgenstein,

_Die Gotteslehre des Hugo von St Victor_ (1898). (P. A.)

HUGHES, DAVID EDWARD (1831-1900), Anglo-American electrician, was born

on the 16th of May 1831 in London, but the earlier part of his life was

spent in America, whither his parents emigrated when he was about seven

years old. In 1850 he became professor of music at the college of

Bardstown, Kentucky, and soon afterwards his attainments in physical

science procured his appointment as teacher of natural philosophy at the

same place. His professorial career, however, was brief, for in 1854 he

removed to Louisville to supervise the manufacture of the type-printing

telegraph instrument which he had been thinking out for some time, and

which was destined to make both his name and his fortune. The patent for

this machine was taken out in the United States in 1855, and its success

was immediate. After seeing it well established on one side of the

Atlantic, Hughes in 1857 brought it over to his native country, where,

however, the telegraph companies did not receive it with any favour. Two

or three years afterwards he introduced it to the notice of the French

Government, who, after submitting it to severe tests, ultimately adopted

it, and in the succeeding ten years it came into extensive use all over

Europe, gaining for its inventor numerous honours and prizes. In the

development of telephony also Hughes had an important share, and the

telephone has attained its present perfection largely as a result of his

investigations. The carbon transmitters which in various forms are in

almost universal use are modifications of a simple device which he

called a microphone, and which consists essentially of two pieces of

carbon, in loose contact one with the other. The arrangement constitutes

a variable electrical resistance of the most delicate character; if it

is included in an electric circuit with a battery and subjected to the

influence of sonorous vibrations, its resistance varies in such a way as

to produce an undulatory current which affords an exact representation

of the sound waves as to height, length and form. These results were

published in 1878, but Hughes did much more work on the properties of

such microphonic joints, of which he said nothing till many years

afterwards. When towards the end of 1879 he found that they were also

sensitive to "sudden electric impulses, whether given out to the

atmosphere through the extra current from a coil or from a frictional

machine," he in fact discovered the phenomena on which depends the

action of the so-called "coherers" used in wireless telegraphy. But he

went further and practised wireless telegraphy himself, surmising,

moreover, that the agency he was employing consisted of true electric

waves. Setting some source of the "sudden electric impulses" referred to

above into operation in his house, he walked along the street carrying a

telephone in circuit with a small battery and one of these microphonic

joints, and found that the sounds remained audible in the telephone

until he had traversed a distance of 500 yards. This experiment he

showed to several English men of science, among others to Sir G. G.

Stokes, to whom he broached the theory that the results were due to

electric waves. That physicist, however, was not disposed to accept this

explanation, considering that a sufficient one could be found in

well-known electromagnetic induction effects, and Hughes was so

discouraged at that high authority taking this view of the matter that

he resolved to publish no account of his inquiry until further

experiments had enabled him to prove the correctness of his own theory.

These experiments were still in progress when H. R. Hertz settled the

question by his researches on electric waves in 1887-1889. Hughes, who

is also known for his invention of the induction balance and for his

contributions to the theory of magnetism, died in London on the 22nd of

January 1900. As an investigator he was remarkable for the simplicity of

the apparatus which served his purposes, domestic articles like

jam-pots, pins, &c., forming a large part of the equipment of his

laboratory. His manner of life, too, was simple and frugal in the

extreme. He amassed a large fortune, which, with the exception of some

bequests to the Royal Society, the Paris Academy of Sciences, the

Institution of Electrical Engineers, and the Paris Societe

Internationale des Electriciens, for the establishment of scholarships

and prizes in physical science, was left to four London hospitals,

subject only to certain life annuities.

HUGHES, SIR EDWARD (c. 1720-1794), British admiral, entered the Royal

Navy in 1735, and four years later was present at Porto Bello. In 1740

he became lieutenant, and in that rank served in the Cartagena

expedition of 1741, and at the indecisive battle of Toulon (1744). In

H.M.S. "Warwick" he was present at the action with the "Glorioso," but

in default of proper support from the "Lark" (which was sailing in

company with the "Warwick"), the combat ended with the enemy's escape.

The commander of the "Lark" was subsequently tried and condemned for his

conduct, and Hughes received the vacant command. Captain Hughes was with

Boscawen at Louisburg and with Saunders at Quebec. He was in continual

employment during the peace, and as Commodore commanded in the East

Indies from 1773 to 1777. It was not long before he returned to the East

as a rear-admiral, with an overwhelming naval force. On his outward

voyage he retook Goree from the French, and he was called upon to

conduct only minor operations for the next two years, as the enemy could

not muster any force fit to meet the powerful squadron Hughes had

brought from the Channel. In 1782 he stormed Trincomalee a few days

before the squadron of Suffren arrived in the neighbourhood. For the

next year these Indian waters were the scene of one of the most famous

of naval campaigns. Suffren (q.v.) was perhaps the ablest sea-commander

that France ever produced, but his subordinates were factious and

unskilful; Hughes on the other hand, whose ability was that born of long

experience rather than genius, was well supported. No fewer than five

fiercely contested general actions were fought by two fleets, neither of

them gaining a decisive advantage. In the end Hughes held his ground.

After the peace he returned to England, and, though further promotions

came to him, he never again hoisted his flag. He had accumulated

considerable wealth during his Indian service, which for the most part

he spent in unostentatious charity. He died at his seat of Luxborough in

Essex in 1794.

HUGHES, HUGH PRICE (1847-1902), British Nonconformist divine, was born

at Carmarthen on the 8th of February 1847, the son of a surgeon. He

began to preach when he was fourteen, and in 1865 entered Richmond

College to study for the Wesleyan Methodist ministry under the Rev.

Alfred Barrett, one of whose daughters he married in 1873. He graduated

at London University in 1869, the last year of his residence. He

established in 1887 the West London Mission, holding popular services on

Sunday in St James's Hall, Piccadilly, when he preached from time to

time on the housing of the poor, sweating, gambling and other subjects

of social interest. In connexion with this mission he founded a

sisterhood to forward the social side of the work, which was presided

over by Mrs Hughes. He had started in 1885 the _Methodist Times_, and

rapidly made it a leading organ of Nonconformist opinion. He was a born

fighter, and carried the fire and eloquence he showed on the platform

and in the pulpit into journalism. He supported Mr W. T. Stead in 1885,

as he had earlier supported Mrs Josephine Butler in a similar cause; he

attacked the trade in alcohol; was an anti-vivisectionist; he advocated

arbitration; and his vehement attacks on Sir Charles Dilke and Charles

Stewart Parnell originated the phrase the "Nonconformist conscience." He

differed strongly, however, from a large section of Nonconformist

opinion in his defence of the South African War. He was long regarded

with some distrust by the more conservative section of his own church,

but in 1898 he was made president of the Wesleyan Conference He raised

large sums for church work, amounting it is said to over a quarter of a

million of money. His energies were largely devoted to co-operation

among the various Nonconformist bodies, and he was one of the founders

and most energetic members of the National Council of the Evangelical

Free Churches. He had long been in failing health when he died suddenly

in London on the 17th of November 1902.

See his _Life_ (1904) by his daughter, Dorothea Price Hughes.

HUGHES, JOHN (1677-1720), English poet and miscellaneous writer, was

born at Marlborough, Wiltshire, on the 29th of January 1677. His father

was a clerk in a city office, and his grandfather was ejected from the

living of Marlborough in 1662 for his Nonconformist opinions. Hughes was

educated at a dissenting academy in London, where Isaac Watts was among

his fellow scholars. He became a clerk in the Ordnance Office, and

served on several commissions for the purchase of land for the royal

dockyards. In 1717 Lord Chancellor Cowper made him secretary to the

commissions of the peace in the court of chancery. He died on the night

of the production of his most celebrated work, _The Siege of Damascus_,

the 17th of February 1720.

His poems include occasional pieces in honour of William III.,

imitations of Horace, and a translation of the tenth book of the

_Pharsalia_ of Lucan. He was an amateur of the violin, and played in the

concerts of Thomas Britton, the "musical small-coal man." He wrote some

of the libretti of the cantatas (2 vols., 1712) set to music by Dr John

Christopher Pepusch. To these he prefixed an essay advocating the claims

of English libretti, and insisting on the value of recitative. Others of

his pieces were set to music by Ernest Galliard and by Handel. In the

masque of _Apollo and Daphne_ (1716) he was associated with Pepusch, and

in his opera of _Calypso and Telemachus_ (1712) with John E. Galliard.

He was a contributor to the _Tatler_, the _Spectator_ and the

_Guardian_, and he collaborated with Sir Richard Blackmore in a series

of essays entitled _The Lay Monastery_ (1713-1714). He persuaded Joseph

Addison to stage Cato. Addison had requested Hughes to write the last

act, but eventually completed the play himself. He wrote a version of

the _Letters of Abelard and Heloise ..._ (1714) chiefly from the French

translation printed at the Hague in 1693, which went through several

editions, and is notable as the basis of Pope's "Eloisa to Abelard"

(1717). He also made translations from Moliere, Fontenelle and the Abbe

Vertot, and in 1715 edited _The Works of Edmund Spenser ..._ (another

edition, 1750). His last work, the tragedy of _The Siege of Damascus_,

is his best. It remained on the list of acting plays for a long time,

and is to be found in various collected editions of British drama.

His _Poems on Several Occasions, with some Select Essays in Prose ..._

were edited with a memoir in 1735, by William Duncombe, who had

married his sister Elizabeth. See also _Letters by several eminent

persons_ (2 vols., 1772) and _The Correspondence of John Hughes, Esq.

... and Several of his Friends ..._ (2 vols., 1773), with some

additional poems. There is a long and eulogistic account of Hughes,

with some letters, in the _Biographia Britannica_.

HUGHES, JOHN (1797-1864), American Roman Catholic divine, was born in

Annaloghan, Co. Tyrone, Ireland, on the 24th of June 1797. In 1817 he

followed his father to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. He was ordained

deacon in 1825 and priest in 1826; and as vicar in St Augustine's and

other churches in Philadelphia he took a prominent part in the defence

of ecclesiastical authority against the lay trustee system. In 1837 he

was consecrated coadjutor to Bishop Dubois in New York. In the New York

diocese, of which he was made administrator in 1839 and bishop in 1842,

besides suppressing (1841) church control by lay trustees, he proved

himself an active, almost pugnacious, leader. His unsuccessful attempt

to build in Lafargeville, Jefferson county, a seminary of St Vincent de

Paul, was followed by the transfer of the school to Fordham, where St

John's College (now Fordham University) was established (1841), largely

out of funds collected by him in Europe in 1839-1840. His demand for

state support for parochial schools was favoured by Governor Seward and

was half victorious: it was in this controversy that he was first

accused of forming a Catholic party in politics. John McCloskey was

consecrated his coadjutor in 1844; in 1847 the diocese of New York was

divided; and in 1850 Hughes was named the first archbishop of New York,

with suffragan bishops of Boston, Hartford, Albany and Buffalo. In the

meantime, during the "Native American" disturbances of 1844, he had been

viciously attacked together with his Church; he kept his parishioners in

check, but bade them protect their places of worship. His attitude was

much the same at the time of the Anti-Popery outcry of the

"Know-Nothings" in 1854. His early anti-slavery views had been made much

less radical by his travels in the South and in the West Indies, but at

the outbreak of the Civil War he was strongly pro-Union, and in 1861 he

went to France to counteract the influence of the Slidell mission. He

met with success not only in France, but at Rome and in Ireland, where,

however, he made strong anti-English speeches. He died in New York City

on the 3rd of January 1864. Hughes was a hard fighter and delighted in

controversy. In 1826 he wrote _An Answer to Nine Objections Made by an

Anonymous Writer Against the Catholic Religion_; he was engaged in a

bitter debate with Dr John Breckenridge (Presbyterian), partly in

letters published in 1833 and partly in a public discussion in

Philadelphia in 1835, on the subject of civil and religious liberty as

affected by the Roman Catholic and the Presbyterian "religions"; in

1856, through his organ, the _Metropolitan Record_, he did his best to

discredit any attempts by the Catholic press to forward either the

movement to "Americanize" the Catholic Church or that to disseminate the

principles of "Young Ireland."

His works were edited by Laurence Kehoe (2 vols., New York,

1864-1865). See John R. G. Hassard, _Life of the Most Rev. John

Hughes_ (New York, 1866); and Henry A. Brann, _John Hughes_ (New York,

1894), a briefer sketch, in "The Makers of America" series.

HUGHES, THOMAS, English dramatist, a native of Cheshire, entered Queens'

College, Cambridge, in 1571. He graduated and became a fellow of his

college in 1576, and was afterwards a member of Gray's Inn. He wrote

_The Misfortunes of Arthur Uther Pendragon's son reduced into tragical

notes by Thomas Hughes_, which was performed at Greenwich in the Queen's

presence on the 28th of February 1588. Nicholas Trotte provided the

introduction, Francis Flower the choruses of Acts I. and II., William

Fulbeck two speeches, while three other gentlemen of Gray's Inn, one of

whom was Francis Bacon, undertook the care of the dumb show. The

argument of the play, based on a story of incest and crime, was

borrowed, in accordance with Senecan tradition, from mythical history,

and the treatment is in close accordance with the model. The ghost of

Gorlois, who was slain by Uther Pendragon, opens the play with a speech

that reproduces passages spoken by the ghost of Tantalus in the

_Thyestes_; the tragic events are announced by a messenger, and the

chorus comments on the course of the action. Dr W. J. Cunliffe has

proved that Hughes's memory was saturated with Seneca, and that the play

may be resolved into a patchwork of translations, with occasional

original lines. Appendix II. to his exhaustive essay _On the Influence

of Seneca on Elizabethan Tragedy_ (1893) gives a long list of parallel

passages.

_The Misfortunes of Arthur_ was reprinted in J. P. Collier's

supplement to Dodsley's _Old Plays_; and by Harvey Carson Grumline

(Berlin, 1900), who points out that Hughes's source was Geoffrey of

Monmouth's _Historia Britonum_, not the _Morte D'Arthur_.

HUGHES, THOMAS (1822-1896), English lawyer and author, second son of

John Hughes of Donnington Priory, editor of _The Boscobel Tracts_

(1830), was born at Uffington, Berks, on the 20th of October 1822. In

February 1834 he went to Rugby School, to be under Dr Arnold, a

contemporary of his father at Oriel. He rose steadily to the sixth form,

where he came into contact with the headmaster whom he afterwards

idealized; but he excelled rather in sports than in scholarship, and his

school career culminated in a cricket match at Lord's. In 1842 he

proceeded to Oriel, Oxford, and graduated B.A. in 1845. He was called to

the bar in 1848, became Q.C. in 1869, a bencher in 1870, and was

appointed to a county court judgeship in the Chester district in July

1882. While at Lincoln's Inn he came under the dominating influence of

his life, that of Frederick Denison Maurice. In 1848 he joined the

Christian Socialists, under Maurice's banner, among his closest allies

being Charles Kingsley. In January 1854 he was one of the original

promoters of the Working Men's College in Great Ormond Street, and

whether he was speaking on sanitation, sparring or singing his favourite

ditty of "Little Billee," his work there continued one of his chief

interests to the end of his life. After Maurice's death he held the

principalship of the college. His _Manliness of Christ_ (1879) grew out

of a Bible class which he held there. Hughes had been influenced

mentally by Arnold, Carlyle, Thackeray, Lowell and Maurice, and had

developed into a liberal churchman, extremely religious, with strong

socialistic leanings; but the substratum was still and ever the manly

country squire of old-fashioned, sport-loving England. In Parliament,

where he sat for Lambeth (1865-1868), and for Frome (1868-1874), he

reproduced some of the traits of Colonel Newcome. Hughes was an

energetic supporter of the claims of the working classes, and introduced

a trades union Bill which, however, only reached its second reading. Of

Mr Gladstone's home rule policy he was an uncompromising opponent.

Thrice he visited America and received a warm welcome, less as a

propagandist of social reform than as a friend of Lowell and of the

North, and an author. In 1879, in a sanguine humour worthy of Mark

Tapley, he planned a cooperative settlement, "Rugby," in Tennessee, over

which he lost money. In 1848 Hughes had married Frances, niece of

Richard Ford, of Spanish _Handbook_ fame. They settled in 1853 at

Wimbledon, and there was written his famous story, _Tom Brown's

School-Days_, "by an Old Boy" (dedicated to Mrs Arnold of Fox Howe),

which came out in April 1857. It is probably impossible to depict the

schoolboy in his natural state and in a realistic manner; it is

extremely difficult to portray him at all in such a way as to interest

the adult. Yet this last has certainly been achieved twice in English

literature--by Dickens in _Nicholas Nickleby_, and by Hughes in _Tom

Brown_. In both cases interest is concentrated upon the master, in the

first a demon, in the second a demigod. _Tom Brown_ did a great deal to

fix the English concept of what a public school should be. Hughes also

wrote _The Scouring of the White Horse_ (1859), _Tom Brown at Oxford_

(1861), _Religio laici_ (1868), _Life of Alfred the Great_ (1869) and

the _Memoir of a Brother_. The brother was George Hughes, who was in the

main the original "Tom Brown," just as Dean Stanley was in the main the

original of "Arthur." Hughes died at Brighton, on 22nd March 1896. He

was English of the English, a typical broad-churchman, full of "muscular

Christianity," straightforward and unsuspicious to a fault, yet

attaching a somewhat exorbitant value to "earnestness"--a favourite

expression of Doctor Arnold. (T. Se.)

HUGLI, or HOOGHLY, the most westerly and commercially the most important

channel by which the Ganges enters the Bay of Bengal. It takes its

distinctive name near the town of Santipur, about 120 m. from the sea.

The stream now known as the Hugli represents three western deltaic

distributaries of the Ganges--viz. (1) the Bhagirathi, (2) the Jalangi

and (3) part of the Matabhanga. The Bhagirathi and Jalangi unite at

Nadia, above the point of their junction with the lower waters of the

Matabhanga, which has taken the name of the Churni before the point of

junction and thrown out new distributaries of its own. These three

western distributaries are known as the Nadia rivers, and are important,

not only as great highways for internal traffic, but also as the

headwaters of the Hugli. Like other deltaic distributaries, they are

subject to sudden changes in their channels, and to constant silting up.

The supervising and keeping open of the Nadia rivers, therefore, forms

one of the great tasks of fluvial engineering in Bengal. Proceeding

south from Santipur, with a twist to the east, the Hugli river divides

Nadia from Hugli district, until it touches the district of the

Twenty-Four Parganas. It then proceeds almost due south to Calcutta,

next twists to the south-west and finally turns south, entering the Bay

of Bengal in 21 deg. 41' N., 88 deg. E.

In the 40 miles of its course above Calcutta, the channels of the Hugli

are under no supervision, and the result is that they have silted up and

shifted to such an extent as to be no longer navigable for sea-going

ships. Yet it was upon this upper section that all the famous ports of

Bengal lay in olden times. From Calcutta to the sea (about 80 m.) the

river is a record of engineering improvement and success. A minute

supervision, with steady dredging and constant readjustment of buoys,

now renders it a safe waterway to Calcutta for ships of the largest

tonnage. Much attention has also been paid to the port of Calcutta

(q.v.).

The tide runs rapidly on the Hugli, and produces a remarkable example

of the fluvial phenomenon known as a "bore." This consists of the

head-wave of the advancing tide, hemmed in where the estuary narrows

suddenly into the river, and often exceeds 7 ft. in height. It is felt

as high up as Calcutta, and frequently destroys small boats. The

difference from the lowest point of low-water in the dry season to the

highest point of high-water in the rains is reported to be 20 ft. 10

in. The greatest mean rise of tide, about 16 ft., takes place in

March, April or May--with a declining range during the rainy season to

a mean of 10 ft., and a minimum during freshets of 3 ft. 6 in.

HUGLI, or HOOGHLY, a town and district of British India, in the Burdwan

division of Bengal, taking their name from the river Hugli. The town,

situated on the right bank of the Hugli, 24 m. above Calcutta by rail,

forms one municipality with Chinsura, the old Dutch settlement, lower

down the river. Pop. (1901) 29,383. It contains the Hooghly College at

Chinsura, a Mahommedan college, two high schools and a hospital with a

Lady Dufferin branch for female patients. The principal building is a

handsome _imambara_, or mosque, constructed out of funds which had

accumulated from an endowment originally left for the purpose by a

wealthy Shia gentleman, Mahommed Mohsin. The town was founded by the

Portuguese in 1537, on the decay of Satgaon, the royal port of Bengal.

Upon establishing themselves, they built a fort at a place called

Gholghat (close to the present jail), vestiges of which are still

visible in the bed of the river. This fort gradually grew into the town

and port of Hugli.

The DISTRICT comprises an area of 1191 sq. m. In 1901 the population was

1,049,282, showing an increase of 1% in the decade. It is flat, with a

gradual ascent to the north and north-west. The scenery along the

high-lying bank of the Hugli has a quiet beauty of its own, presenting

the appearance of a connected series of orchards and gardens,

interspersed with factories, villages and temples. The principal rivers,

besides the Hugli, are the Damodar and the Rupnarayan. As in other

deltaic districts, the highest land lies nearest the rivers, and the

lowest levels are found midway between two streams. There are in

consequence considerable marshes both between the Hugli and the Damodar

and between the latter river and the Rupnarayan. The district is

traversed by the main line of the East Indian railway, with a branch to

the pilgrim resort of Tarakeswar, whence a steam tramway has been

constructed for a further distance of 31 m. The Eden canal furnishes

irrigation, and there are several embankments and drainage works. Silk

and indigo are both decaying industries, but the manufacture of brass

and bell-metal ware is actively carried on at several places. There are

several jute mills, a large flour mill, bone-crushing mills and a brick

and tile works.

From an historical point of view the district possesses as much interest

as any in Bengal. In the early period of Mahommedan rule Satgaon was the

seat of the governors of Lower Bengal and a mint town. It was also a

place of great commercial importance. In consequence of the silting up

of the Saraswati, the river on which Satgaon was situated, the town

became inaccessible to large ships, and the Portuguese settled at Hugli.

In 1632 the latter place, having been taken from the Portuguese by the

Mahommedans, was made the royal port of Bengal; and all the public

offices and records were withdrawn from Satgaon, which rapidly fell into

decay. In 1640 the East India Company established a factory at Hugli,

their first settlement in Lower Bengal. In 1685, a dispute having taken

place between the English factors and the nawab, the town was bombarded

and burned to the ground. This was not the first time that Hugli had

been the scene of a struggle deciding the fate of a European power in

India. In 1629, when held by the Portuguese, it was besieged for three

months and a half by a large Mahommedan force sent by the emperor Shah

Jahan. The place was carried by storm; more than 1000 Portuguese were

killed, upwards of 4000 prisoners taken, and of 300 vessels only 3

escaped. But Hugli district possesses historical interest for other

European nations besides England and Portugal. The Dutch established

themselves at Chinsura in the 17th century, and held the place till

1825, when it was ceded to Great Britain in exchange for the island of

Sumatra. The Danes settled at Serampur in 1616, where they remained till

1845, when all Danish possessions in India were transferred to the East

India Company. Chandernagore became a French settlement in 1688. The

English captured this town twice, but since 1816 it has remained in the

possession of the French.

See D. G. Crawford, _A Brief History of the Hooghly District_

(Calcutta, 1903).

HUGO, GUSTAV VON (1764-1844), German jurist, was born at Lorrach in

Baden, on the 23rd of November 1764. From the gymnasium at Carlsruhe he

passed in 1782 to the university of Gottingen, where he studied law for

three years. Having received the appointment of tutor to the prince of

Anhalt-Dessau, he took his doctor's degree at the university of Halle in

1788. Recalled in this year to Gottingen as extraordinary professor of

law, he became ordinary professor in 1792. In the preface to his

_Beitrage zur zivilistischen Bucherkenntnis der letzten vierzig Jahre_

(1828-1829) he gives a sketch of the condition of the civil law teaching

at Gottingen at that time. The Roman Canon and German elements of the

existing law were, without criticism or differentiation, welded into an

ostensible whole for practical needs, with the result that it was

difficult to say whether historical truth or practical ends were most

prejudiced. One man handed on the inert mass to the next in the same

condition as he had received it, new errors crept in, and even the best

of teachers could not escape from the false method which had become

traditional. These were the evils which Hugo set himself to combat, and

he became the founder of that historical school of jurisprudence which

was continued and further developed by Savigny. His _magna opera_ are

the _Lehrbuch eines zivilistischen Kursus_ (7 vols., 1792-1821), in

which his method is thoroughly worked out, and the _Zivilistisches

Magazin_ (6 vols., 1790-1837). He died at Gottingen on the 15th of

September 1844.

For an account of his life see Eyssenhardt, _Zur Erinnerung an Gustav

Hugo_ (Berlin, 1845).

HUGO, VICTOR MARIE (1802-1885), French poet, dramatist and

romance-writer, youngest son of General J. L. S. Hugo (1773-1828), a

distinguished soldier in Napoleon's service, was born at Besancon on the

26th of February 1802. The all but still-born child was only kept alive

and reared by the indefatigable devotion of his mother Sophie Trebuchet

(d. 1821), a royalist of La Vendee. Educated first in Spain and

afterwards in France, the boy whose infancy had followed the fortunes of

the imperial camp grew up a royalist and a Catholic. His first work in

poetry and in fiction was devoted to the passionate proclamation of his

faith in these principles.

The precocious eloquence and ardour of these early works made him famous

before his time. The odes which he published at the age of twenty,

admirable for their spontaneous fervour and fluency, might have been

merely the work of a marvellous boy; the ballads which followed them two

years later revealed him as a great poet, a natural master of lyric and

creative song. In 1823, at the age of twenty-one, he married his cousin

Adele Foucher (d. 1868). In the same year his first romance, _Han

d'Islande_, was given to the press; his second, _Bug-Jargal_, appeared

three years later. In 1827 he published the great dramatic poem of

_Cromwell_, a masterpiece at all points except that of fitness for the

modern stage. Two years afterwards he published _Les Orientales_, a

volume of poems so various in style, so noble in spirit, so perfect in

workmanship, in music and in form, that they might alone suffice for the

foundation of an immortal fame. In the course of nine years, from 1831

to 1840, he published _Les Feuilles d'automne_, _Les Chants du

crepuscule_, _Les Voix interieures_ and _Les Rayons et les ombres_.

That their author was one of the greatest elegiac and lyric poets ever

born into the world, any one of these volumes would amply suffice to

prove. That he was the greatest tragic and dramatic poet born since the

age of Shakespeare, the appearance of _Hernani_ in 1830 made evident for

ever to all but the meanest and most perverse of dunces and malignants.

The earlier and even greater tragedy of _Marion de Lorme_ (1828) had

been proscribed on the ground that it was impossible for royalty to

tolerate the appearance of a play in which a king was represented as the

puppet of a minister. In all the noble and glorious life of the greatest

poet of his time there is nothing on record more chivalrous and

characteristic than the fact that Victor Hugo refused to allow the play

which had been prohibited by the government of Charles X. to be

instantly produced under the government of his supersessor. _Le Roi

s'amuse_ (1832), the next play which Hugo gave to the stage, was

prohibited by order of Louis Philippe after a tumultuous first night--to

reappear fifty years later on the very same day of the same month, under

the eyes of its author, with atoning acclamation from a wider audience

than the first. Terror and pity had never found on the stage word or

expression which so exactly realized the ideal aim of tragic poetry

among the countrymen of Aeschylus and Sophocles since the time or since

the passing of Shakespeare, of Marlowe and of Webster. The tragedy of

_Lucrece Borgia_, coequal in beauty and power with its three precursors,

followed next year in the humbler garb of prose; but the prose of Victor

Hugo stands higher on the record of poetry than the verse of any lesser

dramatist or poet. _Marie Tudor_ (1833), his next play, was hardly more

daring in its Shakespearean defiance of historic fact, and hardly more

triumphant in its Shakespearean loyalty to the everlasting truth of

human character and passion. _Angelo, Tyran de Padoue_ (1835), the last

of the tragic triad to which their creator denied the transfiguration of

tragic verse, is inferior to neither in power of imagination and of

style, in skill of invention and construction, and in mastery over all

natural and noble sources of pity and of terror. _La Esmeralda_, the

libretto of an opera founded on his great tragic romance of _Notre-Dame

de Paris_, is a miracle of lyric melody and of skilful adaptation. _Ruy

Blas_ (1838) was written in verse, and in such verse as none but he

could write. In command and in expression of passion and of pathos, of

noble and of evil nature, it equals any other work of this great

dramatic poet; in the lifelike fusion of high comedy with deep tragedy

it excels them all. _Les Burgraves_, a tragic poem of transcendent

beauty in execution and imaginative audacity in conception, found so

little favour on the stage that the author refused to submit his

subsequent plays to the verdict of a public audience.

Victor Hugo's first mature work in prose fiction, _Le Dernier Jour d'un

condamne_, has appeared thirteen years earlier (1829). As a tragic

monodrama it is incomparable for sustained power and terrible beauty.

The story of _Claude Gueux_, published five years later (1834), another

fervent protest against the infliction of capital punishment, was

followed by many other eloquent and passionate appeals to the same

effect, written or spoken on various occasions which excited the pity or

the indignation of the orator or the poet. In 1831 appeared the greatest

of all tragic or historic or romantic poems in the form of prose

narrative, _Notre-Dame de Paris_. Three years afterwards the author

published, under the title of _Litterature et philosophie melees_, a

compilation or selection of notes and essays ranging and varying in date

and in style from his earliest effusions of religious royalism to the

magnificent essay on Mirabeau which represents at once the historical

opinion and the critical capacity of Victor Hugo at the age of

thirty-two. Next year he published _Le Rhin_, a series of letters from

Germany, brilliant and vivid beyond all comparison, containing one of

the most splendid stories for children ever written, and followed by a

political supplement rather pathetically unprophetic in its predictions.

At the age of thirty-eight he honoured the French Academy by taking his

place among its members; the speech delivered on the occasion was

characteristically generous in its tribute to an undeserving memory, and

significantly enthusiastic in its glorification of Napoleon. Idolatry of

his father's hero and leader had now superseded the earlier superstition

inculcated by his mother. In 1846 his first speech in the chamber of

peers--Louis Philippe's House of Lords--was delivered on behalf of

Poland; his second, on the subject of coast defence, is memorable for

the evidence it bears of careful research and practical suggestion. His

pleading on behalf of the exiled family of Bonaparte induced Louis

Philippe to cancel the sentence which excluded its members from France.

After the fall and flight of the house of Orleans, his parliamentary

eloquence was never less generous in aim and always as fervent in its

constancy to patriotic and progressive principle. When the conspiring

forces of clerical venality and political prostitution had placed a

putative Bonaparte in power attained by perjury after perjury, and

supported by massacre after massacre, Victor Hugo, in common with all

honourable men who had ever taken part in political or public life under

the government superseded by force of treason and murder, was driven

from his country into an exile of well-nigh twenty years. Next year he

published _Napoleon le petit_; twenty-five years afterwards, _Histoire

d'un crime_. In these two books his experience and his opinion of the

tactics which founded the second French empire stand registered for all

time. In the deathless volume of _Chatiments_, which appeared in 1853,

his indignation, his genius, and his faith found such utterance and such

expression as must recall to the student alternately the lyric

inspiration of Coleridge and Shelley, the prophetic inspiration of Dante

and Isaiah, the satiric inspiration of Juvenal and Dryden. Three years

after _Les Chatiments_, a book written in lightning, appeared _Les

Contemplations_, a book written in sunlight and starlight. Of the six

parts into which it is divided, the first translates into many-sided

music the joys and sorrows, the thoughts and fancies, the studies and

ardours and speculations of youth; the second, as full of light and

colour, grows gradually deeper in tone of thought and music; the third

is yet riper and more various in form of melody and in fervour of

meditation; the fourth is the noblest of all tributes ever paid by song

to sorrow--a series of poems consecrated to the memory of the poet's

eldest daughter, who was drowned, together with her husband, by the

upsetting of a boat off the coast of Normandy, a few months after their

wedding-day, in 1843; the fifth and the sixth books, written during his

first four years of exile (all but one noble poem which bears date nine

years earlier than its epilogue or postscript), contain more than a few

poems unsurpassed and unsurpassable for depth and clarity and trenchancy

of thought, for sublimity of inspiration, for intensity of faith, for

loyalty in translation from nature, and for tenderness in devotion to

truth; crowned and glorified and completed by their matchless dedication

to the dead. Three years later again, in 1859, Victor Hugo gave to the

world the first instalment of the greatest book published in the 19th

century, _La Legende des siecles_. Opening with a vision of Eve in

Paradise which eclipses Milton's in beauty no less than in sublimity--a

dream of the mother of mankind at the hour when she knew the first sense

of dawning motherhood, it closes with a vision of the trumpet to be

sounded on the day of judgment which transcends the imagination of Dante

by right of a realized idea which was utterly impossible of conception

to a believer in Dante's creed: the idea of real and final equity; the

concept of absolute and abstract righteousness. Between this opening and

this close the pageant of history and of legend, marshalled and vivified

by the will and the hand of the poet, ranges through an infinite variety

of action and passion, of light and darkness, of terror and pity, of

lyric rapture and of tragic triumph.

After yet another three years' space the author of _La Legende des

siecles_ reappeared as the author of _Les Miserables_, the greatest epic

and dramatic work of fiction ever created or conceived: the epic of a

soul transfigured and redeemed, purified by heroism and glorified

through suffering; the tragedy and the comedy of life at its darkest and

its brightest, of humanity at its best and at its worst. Two years

afterwards the greatest man born since the death of Shakespeare paid

homage to the greatest of his predecessors in a volume of magnificent

and discursive eloquence which bore the title of _William Shakespeare_,

and might, as its author admitted and suggested, more properly have been

entitled _A propos de Shakespeare_. It was undertaken with the simple

design of furnishing a preface to his younger son's translation of

Shakespeare; a monument of perfect scholarship, of indefatigable

devotion, and of literary genius, which eclipses even Urquhart's

Rabelais--its only possible competitor; and to which the translator's

father prefixed a brief and admirable note of introduction in the year

after the publication of the volume which had grown under his hand into

the bulk and the magnificence of an epic poem in prose. In the same year

_Les Chansons des rues el des bois_ gave evidence of new power and fresh

variety in the exercise and display of an unequalled skill and a subtle

simplicity of metre and of style employed on the everlasting theme of

lyric and idyllic fancy, and touched now and then with a fire more

sublime than that of youth and love. Next year the exile of Guernsey

published his third great romance, _Les Travailleurs de la mer_, a work

unsurpassed even among the works of its author for splendour of

imagination and of style, for pathos and sublimity of truth. Three years

afterwards the same theme was rehandled with no less magnificent mastery

in _L'Homme qui rit_; the theme of human heroism confronted with the

superhuman tyranny of blind and unimaginable chance, overpowered and

unbroken, defeated and invincible. Between the dates of these two great

books appeared _La Voix de Guernesey_, a noble and terrible poem on the

massacre of Mentana which branded and commemorated for ever the papal

and imperial infamy of the colleagues in that crime. In 1872 Victor Hugo

published in imperishable verse his record of the year which followed

the collapse of the empire, _L'Annee terrible_. All the poet and all the

man spoke out and stood evident in the perfervid patriotism, the filial

devotion, the fatherly tenderness, the indignation and the pity, which

here find alternate expression in passionate and familiar and majestic

song. In 1874 he published his last great romance, the tragic and

historic poem in prose called _Quatrevingt-treize_; a work as rich in

thought, in tenderness, in wisdom and in humour and in pathos, as ever

was cast into the mould of poetry or of fiction.