Persians, who burnt several of the villages which lay in their forward
line of march, the Greeks became seriously embarrassed whither to direct
their steps; for on their left flank was the Tigris, so deep that their
spears found no bottom,--and on their right, mountains of exceeding
height. As the generals and the captains were taking counsel, a Rhodian
soldier came to them with a proposition for transporting the whole army
across to the other bank of the river by means of inflated skins, which
could be furnished in abundance by the animals in their possession. But
this ingenious scheme, in itself feasible, was put out of the question
by the view of the Persian cavalry on the opposite bank; and as the
villages in their front had been burnt, the army had no choice except to
return back one day's march to those in which they had before halted.
Here the generals again deliberated, questioning all their prisoners as
to the different bearings of the country. The road from the south was
that in which they had already marched from Babylon and Media; that to
the westward, going to Lydia and Ionia, was barred to them by the
interposing Tigris; eastward (they were informed) was the way to
Ekbatana and Susa; northward, lay the rugged and inhospitable mountains
of the Karduchians,--fierce freemen who despised the Great King, and
defied all his efforts to conquer them; having once destroyed a Persian
invading army of 120,000 men. On the other side of Karduchia, however,
lay the rich Persian satrapy of Armenia, wherein both the Euphrates and
the Tigris could be crossed near their sources, and from whence they
could choose their farther course easily towards Greece. Like Mysia,
Pisidia, and other mountainous regions, Karduchia was a free territory
surrounded on all sides by the dominions of the Great King, who reigned
only in the cities and on the plains.
Sec. 7. The Greeks fight their way across the Karduchian mountains.
Determining to fight their way across these difficult mountains into
Armenia, but refraining from any public announcement, for fear that the
passes should be occupied beforehand--the generals sacrificed[56]
forthwith, in order that they might be ready for breaking up at a
moment's notice. They then began their march a little after midnight, so
that soon after daybreak they reached the first of the Karduchian
mountain-passes, which they found undefended. Cheirisophus, with his
front division and all the light troops, made haste to ascend the pass,
and having got over the first mountain, descended on the other side to
some villages in the valley or nooks beneath; while Xenophon, with the
heavy-armed and the baggage, followed at a slower pace,--not reaching
the villages until dark, as the road was both steep and narrow. The
Karduchians, taken completely by surprise, abandoned the villages as the
Greeks approached, and took refuge on the mountains; leaving to the
intruders plenty of provisions, comfortable houses, and especially,
abundance of copper vessels. At first the Greeks were careful to do no
damage, trying to invite the natives to amicable colloquy. But none of
the latter would come near, and at length necessity drove the Greeks to
take what was necessary for refreshment. It was just when Xenophon and
the rear-guard were coming in at night, that some few Karduchians first
set upon them; by surprise and with considerable success--so that if
their numbers had been greater, serious mischief might have ensued.
Many fires were discovered burning on the mountains, an indication of
resistance during the next day; which satisfied the Greek generals that
they must lighten the army, in order to ensure greater expedition as
well as a fuller complement of available hands during the coming march.
They therefore gave orders to burn all the baggage except what was
indispensable, and to dismiss all the prisoners; planting themselves in
a narrow strait, through which the army had to pass, in order to see
that their directions were executed. The women, however, of whom there
were many with the army, could not be abandoned; and it seems farther
that a considerable stock of baggage was still retained: nor could the
army make more than slow advance, from the narrowness of the road and
the harassing attack of the Karduchians, who were now assembled in
considerable numbers. Their attack was renewed with double vigor on the
ensuing day, when the Greeks were forced, from want of provisions, to
hasten forward their march, though in the midst of a terrible
snow-storm. Both Cheirisophus in the front and Xenophon in the rear,
were hard pressed by the Karduchian slingers and bowmen; the latter, men
of consummate skill, having bows three cubits[57] in length, and arrows
of more than two cubits, so strong that the Greeks when they took them
could dart them as javelins. These archers, amidst the rugged ground and
narrow paths, approached so near and drew the bow with such surprising
force, resting one extremity of it on the ground, that several Greek
warriors were mortally wounded even through both shield and corselet[58]
into the reins,[59] and through the brazen helmet into their heads;
among them especially, two distinguished men, a Lacedaemonian named
Kleonymus and an Arcadian named Basias. The rear division, more roughly
handled than the rest, was obliged continually to halt to repel the
enemy, under all the difficulties of the ground, which made it scarcely
possible to act against nimble mountaineers. On one occasion, however, a
body of these latter were entrapped into an ambush, driven back with
loss, and (what was still more fortunate) two of their number were made
prisoners.
Thus impeded, Xenophon sent frequent messages entreating Cheirisophus to
slacken the march of the van division; but instead of obeying,
Cheirisophus only hastened the faster, urging Xenophon to follow him.
The march of the army became little better than a rout, so that the rear
division reached the halting place in extreme confusion; upon which
Xenophon proceeded to remonstrate with Cheirisophus for prematurely
hurrying forward and neglecting his comrades behind. But the
other--pointing out to his attention the hill before them, and the steep
path ascending it, forming their future line of march, which was beset
with numerous Karduchians--defended himself by saying that he had
hastened forward in hopes of being able to reach this pass before the
enemy, in which attempt however he had not succeeded.
To advance farther on this road appeared hopeless; yet the guides
declared that no other could be taken. Xenophon then bethought him of
the two prisoners whom he had just captured, and proposed that these two
should be questioned also. They were accordingly interrogated apart; and
the first of them--having persisted in denying, notwithstanding all
menaces, that there was any road except that before them--was put to
death under the eyes of the second prisoner. This latter, on being then
questioned, gave more comfortable intelligence; saying that he knew of a
different road, more circuitous, but easier and practicable even for
beasts of burden, whereby the pass before them and the occupying enemy
might be turned; but that there was one particular high position
commanding the road, which it was necessary to master beforehand by
surprise, as the Karduchians were already on guard there. Two thousand
Greeks, having the guide bound along with them, were accordingly
despatched late in the afternoon, to surprise this post by a
night-march; while Xenophon, in order to distract the attention of the
Karduchians in front, made a feint of advancing as if about to force the
direct pass. As soon as he was seen crossing the ravine which led to
this mountain, the Karduchians on the top immediately began to roll down
vast masses of rock, which bounded and dashed down the roadway in such a
manner as to render it unapproachable. They continued to do this all
night, and the Greeks heard the noise of the descending masses long
after they had returned to their camp for supper and rest.
Meanwhile the detachment of 2000, marching by the circuitous road, and
reaching in the night the elevated position (though there was another
above yet more commanding) held by the Karduchians, surprised and
dispersed them, passing the night by their fires. At daybreak, and under
favor of a mist, they stole silently towards the position occupied by
the other Karduchians in front of the main Grecian army. On coming near
they suddenly sounded their trumpets, shouted aloud, and commenced the
attack, which proved completely successful. The defenders, taken
unprepared, fled with little resistance, and scarcely any loss, from
their activity and knowledge of the country; while Cheirisophus and the
main Grecian force, on hearing the trumpet which had been previously
concerted as the signal, rushed forward and stormed the height in front;
some along the regular path; others climbing up as they could and
pulling each other up by means of their spears. The two bodies of Greeks
thus joined each other on the summit, so that the road became open for
farther advance.
Xenophon, however, with the rear-guard marched on the circuitous road
taken by the 2000, as the most practicable for the baggage animals, whom
he placed in the centre of his division--the whole array covering a
great length of ground, since the road was very narrow. During this
interval the dispersed Karduchians had rallied, and reoccupied two or
three high peaks, commanding the road--from whence it was necessary to
drive them. Xenophon's troops stormed successively these three
positions, the Karduchians not daring to come to close combat, yet
making destructive use of their missiles. A Grecian guard was left on
the hindermost of the three peaks, until all the baggage train should
have passed by. But the Karduchians, by a sudden and well-timed
movement, contrived to surprise this guard, slew two out of the three
leaders with several soldiers, and forced the rest to jump down the
crags as they could, in order to join their comrades in the road.
Encouraged by such success the assailants pressed nearer to the marching
army, occupying a crag over against that lofty summit on which Xenophon
was posted. As it was within speaking distance, he endeavored to open a
negotiation with them in order to get back the bodies of the slain. To
this demand the Karduchians at first acceded, on condition that their
villages should not be burnt; but finding their numbers every moment
increasing, they resumed the offensive. When Xenophon with the army had
begun his descent from the last summit, they hurried onward in crowds to
occupy it; beginning again to roll down masses of rock, and renew their
fire of missiles, upon the Greeks. Xenophon himself was here in some
danger, having been deserted by his shield-bearer; but he was rescued by
an Arcadian heavy-armed foot-soldier named Eurylochus, who ran to give
him the benefit of his own shield as a protection for both in the
retreat.
After a march thus painful and perilous, the rear division at length
found themselves in safety among their comrades, in villages with
well-stocked houses and abundance of corn and wine. So eager however
were Xenophon and Cheirisophus to obtain the bodies of the slain for
burial, that they consented to purchase them by surrendering the guide,
and to march onward without any guide: a heavy sacrifice in this unknown
country, attesting their great anxiety about the burial.[60]
For three more days did they struggle and fight their way through the
narrow and rugged paths of the Karduchian mountains, beset throughout by
these formidable bowmen and slingers; whom they had to dislodge at every
difficult turn, and against whom their own Kretan[61] bowmen were found
inferior indeed, but still highly useful. Their seven days' march
through this country, with its free and warlike inhabitants, were days
of the utmost fatigue, suffering, and peril; far more intolerable than
any thing which they had experienced from Tissaphernes and the Persians.
Right glad were they once more to see a plain, and to find themselves
near the banks of the river Kentrites, which divided these mountains
from the hillocks and plains of Armenia--enjoying comfortable quarters
in villages, with the satisfaction of talking over past miseries.
Such were the apprehensions of Karduchian invasion, that the Armenian
side of the Kentrites for a breadth of 15 miles was unpeopled and
destitute of villages. But the approach of the Greeks having become
known to Tiribazus, satrap of Armenia, the banks of the river were lined
with his cavalry and infantry to oppose their passage; a precaution,
which if Tissaphernes had taken at the Great Zab at the moment when he
perfidiously seized Klearchus and his colleagues, the Greeks would
hardly have reached the northern bank of that river. In the face of such
obstacles, the Greeks nevertheless attempted the passage of the
Kentrites, seeing a regular road on the other side. But the river was
200 feet in breadth (only half the breadth of the Zab), above their
breasts in depth, extremely rapid, and with a bottom full of slippery
stones; insomuch that they could not hold their shields in the proper
position, from the force of the stream; while if they lifted the shields
above their heads, they were exposed defenceless to the arrows of the
satrap's troops. After various trials, the passage was found
impracticable, and they were obliged to resume their encampment on the
left bank. To their great alarm, they saw the Karduchians assembling on
the hills in their rear, so that their situation, during this day and
night, appeared nearly desperate. In the night Xenophon had a dream--the
first which he has told us since his dream on the terrific night after
the seizure of the generals--but on this occasion, of augury[62] more
unequivocally good. He dreamt that he was bound in chains, but that his
chains on a sudden dropt off spontaneously; on the faith of which, he
told Cheirisophus at daybreak that he had good hopes of preservation;
and when the generals offered sacrifice, the victims were at once
favorable. As the army were taking their morning meal, two young Greeks
ran to Xenophon with the auspicious news that they had accidentally
found another ford near half a mile up the river, where the water was
not even up to their middle, and where the rocks came so close on the
right bank that the enemy's horse could offer no opposition. Xenophon,
starting from his meal in delight, immediately offered libations[63] to
those gods who had revealed both the dream to himself in the night, and
the unexpected ford afterwards to these youths; two revelations which he
ascribed to the same gods.
Presently they marched in their usual order, Cheirisophus commanding the
van and Xenophon the rear, along the river to the newly-discovered ford;
the enemy marching parallel with them on the opposite bank. Having
reached the ford, halted, and grounded arms, Cheirisophus placed a
wreath on his head, took off his clothes, and then resumed his arms,
ordering all the rest to resume their arms also. Each company of 100 men
was then arranged in column or single file, with Cheirisophus himself in
the centre. Meanwhile the prophets were offering sacrifice to the river.
So soon as the signs were pronounced to be favorable, all the soldiers
shouted the paean, and all the women joined in chorus with their feminine
yell. Cheirisophus then, at the head of the army, entered the river and
began to ford it; while Xenophon, with a large portion of the rear
division, made a feint of hastening back to the original ford, as if he
were about to attempt the passage there. This distracted the attention
of the enemy's horse; who became afraid of being attacked on both sides,
galloped off to guard the passage at the other point, and opposed no
serious resistance to Cheirisophus. As soon as the latter had reached
the other side, and put his division into order, he marched up to
attack the Armenian infantry, who were on the high banks a little way
above; but this infantry, deserted by its cavalry, dispersed without
awaiting his approach. The handful of Grecian cavalry, attached to the
division of Cheirisophus, pursued and took some valuable spoils.
As soon as Xenophon saw his colleague successfully established on the
opposite bank, he brought back his detachment to the ford over which the
baggage and attendants were still passing, and proceeded to take
precautions against the Karduchians on his own side who were assembling
in the rear. He found some difficulty in keeping his rear division
together, for many of them, in spite of orders, quitted their ranks and
went to look after the women or their baggage in the crossing of the
water. The light-armed foot-soldiers and bowmen, who had gone over with
Cheirisophus, but whom that general now no longer needed, were directed
to hold themselves prepared on both flanks of the army crossing, and to
advance a little way in the water in the attitude of men just about to
recross. When Xenophon was left with only the diminished rear-guard, the
rest having got over,--the Karduchians rushed upon him, and began to
shoot and sling. But on a sudden, the Grecian heavy-armed foot-soldiers
charged with their accustomed paean, upon which the Karduchians took to
flight--having no arms for close combat on the plain. The trumpet now
being heard to sound, they ran away so much the faster; while this was
the signal, according to orders before given by Xenophon, for the Greeks
to suspend their charge, to turn back, and to cross the river as
speedily as possible. By favor of this able manoeuvre, the passage was
accomplished by the whole army with little or no loss, about midday.
Sec. 8. March through Armenia. Great suffering from cold and hunger.
They now found themselves in Armenia; a country of even, undulating
surface, but very high above the level of the sea, and extremely cold at
the season when they entered it--December. Though the strip of land
bordering on Karduchia furnished no supplies, one long march brought
them to a village, containing abundance of provisions, together with a
residence of the satrap Tiribazus; after which, in two farther marches
they reached the river Teleboas, with many villages on its banks. Here
Tiribazus himself, appearing with a division of cavalry, sent forward
his interpreter to request a conference with the leaders; which being
held, it was agreed that the Greeks should proceed unmolested through
his territory, taking such supplies as they required,--but should
neither burn nor damage the villages. They accordingly advanced onward
for three days, computed at about 52 miles, or three pretty full days'
march; without any hostility from the satrap, though he was hovering
within less than two miles of them. They then found themselves amidst
several villages, wherein were regal or satrapical residences with a
plentiful stock of bread, meat, wine, and all sorts of vegetables. Here,
during their nightly bivouac,[64] they were overtaken by so heavy a fall
of snow that the generals on the next day distributed the troops into
separate quarters among the villages. No enemy appeared near, while the
snow seemed to forbid any rapid surprise. Yet at night, the scouts
reported that many fires were discernible, together with traces of
military movements around; insomuch that the generals thought it prudent
to put themselves on their guard, and again collected the army into one
bivouac. Here in the night they were overwhelmed by a second fall of
snow still heavier than the preceding; sufficient to cover over the
sleeping men and their arms, and to benumb the cattle. The men however
lay warm under the snow and were unwilling to rise, until Xenophon
himself set the example of rising and employing himself without his arms
in cutting wood and kindling a fire. Others followed his example, and
great comfort was found in rubbing themselves with pork-fat, oil of
almonds or of sesame,[65] or turpentine. Having sent out a clever scout
named Demokrates, who captured a native prisoner, they learned that
Tiribazus was laying plans to intercept them in a lofty mountain pass
lying farther on in their route; upon which they immediately set forth,
and by two days of forced march, surprising in their way the camp of
Tiribazus, got over the difficult pass in safety. Three days of
additional march brought them to the Euphrates river--that is, to its
eastern branch, now called Murad. They found a ford and crossed it,
without having the water higher than the waist; and they were informed
that its sources were not far off.
Their four days of march, next on the other side of the Euphrates, were
toilsome and distressing in the extreme; through a plain covered with
deep snow (in some places six feet deep), and at times in the face of a
north wind so intolerably chilling and piercing, that at length one of
the prophets urged the necessity of offering sacrifices to Boreas[66];
upon which (says Xenophon), the severity of the wind abated
conspicuously, to the evident consciousness of all. Many of the slaves
and beasts of burthen, and a few even of the soldiers, perished: some
had their feet frost-bitten, others became blinded by the snow, others
again were exhausted by hunger. Several of these unhappy men were
unavoidably left behind; others lay down to perish, near a warm spring
which had melted the snow around, from extremity of fatigue and sheer
wretchedness, though the enemy were close upon the rear. It was in vain
that Xenophon, who commanded the rear-guard, employed his earnest
exhortations, prayers, and threats, to induce them to move forward. The
sufferers, miserable and motionless, answered only by entreating him to
kill them at once. So greatly was the army disorganized by wretchedness,
that we hear of one case in which a soldier, ordered to carry a disabled
comrade, disobeyed the order, and was about to bury him alive. Xenophon
made a sally, with loud shouts and clatter of spear with shield, in
which even the exhausted men joined,--against the pursuing enemy. He was
fortunate enough to frighten them away, and drive them to take shelter
in a neighboring wood. He then left the sufferers lying down, with
assurance that relief should be sent to them on the next day,--and went
forward; seeing all along the line of march the exhausted soldiers lying
on the snow, without even the protection of a watch. He and his
rear-guard as well as the rest were obliged thus to pass the night
without either food or fire, distributing scouts in the best way that
the case admitted. Meanwhile Cheirisophus with the van division had got
into a village, which they reached so unexpectedly, that they found the
women fetching water from a fountain outside the wall, and the head-man
of the village in his house within. This division here obtained rest and
refreshment, and at daybreak some of their soldiers were sent to look
after the rear. It was with delight that Xenophon saw them approach, and
sent them back to bring up in their arms, into the neighboring village,
those exhausted soldiers who had been left behind.