averse to marriage that she entreated her father to allow her to lead a
life of celibacy, and devote herself to the chase, which she loved to the
exclusion of all other pursuits. But one day, soon after his victory over
the Python, Apollo happened to see Eros bending his bow, and proud of his
own superior strength and skill, he laughed at the efforts of the little
archer, saying that such a weapon was more suited to the one who had just
killed the terrible serpent. Eros angrily replied that his arrow should
pierce the heart of the mocker himself, and flying off to the summit of
Mount Parnassus, he drew from his quiver two darts of different
workmanship--one of gold, which had the effect of inspiring love; the other
of lead, which created aversion. Taking aim at Apollo, he pierced his
breast with the golden shaft, whilst the leaden one he discharged into the
bosom of the beautiful Daphne. The son of Leto instantly felt the most
ardent affection for the nymph, who, on her part, evinced the greatest
dislike towards her divine lover, and, at his approach, fled from him like
a hunted deer. He called upon her in the most endearing accents to stay,
but she still sped on, until at length, becoming faint with fatigue, and
fearing that she was about to succumb, she called upon the gods to come to
her aid. Hardly had she uttered her prayer before a heavy torpor seized her
limbs, and just as Apollo threw out his arms to embrace her, she became
transformed {75} into a laurel-bush. He sorrowfully crowned his head with
its leaves, and declared, that in memory of his love, it should henceforth
remain evergreen, and be held sacred to him.
He next sought the love of Marpessa, the daughter of Evenus; but though her
father approved his suit, the maiden preferred a youth named Idas, who
contrived to carry her off in a winged chariot which he had procured from
Poseidon. Apollo pursued the fugitives, whom he quickly overtook, and
forcibly seizing the bride, refused to resign her. Zeus then interfered,
and declared that Marpessa herself must decide which of her lovers should
claim her as his wife. After due reflection she accepted Idas as her
husband, judiciously concluding that although the attractions of the divine
Apollo were superior to those of her lover, it would be wiser to unite
herself to a mortal, who, growing old with herself, would be less likely to
forsake her, when advancing years should rob her of her charms.
Cassandra, daughter of Priam, king of Troy, was another object of the love
of Apollo. She feigned to return his affection, and promised to marry him,
provided he would confer upon her the gift of prophecy; but having received
the boon she desired, the treacherous maiden refused to comply with the
conditions upon which it had been granted. Incensed at her breach of faith,
Apollo, unable to recall the gift he had bestowed, rendered it useless by
causing her predictions to fail in obtaining credence. Cassandra became
famous in history for her prophetic powers, but her prophecies were never
believed. For instance, she warned her brother Paris that if he brought
back a wife from Greece he would cause the destruction of his father's
house and kingdom; she also warned the Trojans not to admit the wooden
horse within the walls of the city, and foretold to Agamemnon all the
disasters which afterwards befell him.
Apollo afterwards married Coronis, a nymph of Larissa, and thought himself
happy in the possession of her faithful love; but once more he was doomed
to {76} disappointment, for one day his favourite bird, the crow, flew to
him with the intelligence that his wife had transferred her affections to a
youth of Haemonia. Apollo, burning with rage, instantly destroyed her with
one of his death-bringing darts. Too late he repented of his rashness, for
she had been tenderly beloved by him, and he would fain have recalled her
to life; but, although he exerted all his healing powers, his efforts were
in vain. He punished the crow for its garrulity by changing the colour of
its plumage from pure white to intense black, and forbade it to fly any
longer among the other birds.
Coronis left an infant son named Asclepius, who afterwards became god of
medicine. His powers were so extraordinary that he could not only cure the
sick, but could even restore the dead to life. At last Aides complained to
Zeus that the number of shades conducted to his dominions was daily
decreasing, and the great ruler of Olympus, fearing that mankind, thus
protected against sickness and death, would be able to defy the gods
themselves, killed Asclepius with one of his thunderbolts. The loss of his
highly gifted son so exasperated Apollo that, being unable to vent his
anger on Zeus, he destroyed the Cyclops, who had forged the fatal
thunderbolts. For this offence, Apollo would have been banished by Zeus to
Tartarus, but at the earnest intercession of Leto he partially relented,
and contented himself with depriving him of all power and dignity, and
imposing on him a temporary servitude in the house of Admetus, king of
Thessaly. Apollo faithfully served his royal master for nine years in the
humble capacity of a shepherd, and was treated by him with every kindness
and consideration. During the period of his service the king sought the
hand of Alcestis, the beautiful daughter of Pelias, son of Poseidon; but
her father declared that he would only resign her to the suitor who should
succeed in yoking a lion and a wild boar to his chariot. By the aid of his
divine herdsman, Admetus accomplished this difficult task, and gained his
bride. Nor was this the only favour which the king received from the exiled
god, for Apollo obtained from {77} the Fates the gift of immortality for
his benefactor, on condition that when his last hour approached, some
member of his own family should be willing to die in his stead. When the
fatal hour arrived, and Admetus felt that he was at the point of death, he
implored his aged parents to yield to him their few remaining days. But
"life is sweet" even to old age, and they both refused to make the
sacrifice demanded of them. Alcestis, however, who had secretly devoted
herself to death for her husband, was seized with a mortal sickness, which
kept pace with his rapid recovery. The devoted wife breathed her last in
the arms of Admetus, and he had just consigned her to the tomb, when
Heracles chanced to come to the palace. Admetus held the rites of
hospitality so sacred, that he at first kept silence with regard to his
great bereavement; but as soon as his friend heard what had occurred, he
bravely descended into the tomb, and when death came to claim his prey, he
exerted his marvellous strength, and held him in his arms, until he
promised to restore the beautiful and heroic queen to the bosom of her
family.
Whilst pursuing the peaceful life of a shepherd, Apollo formed a strong
friendship with two youths named Hyacinthus and Cyparissus, but the great
favour shown to them by the god did not suffice to shield them from
misfortune. The former was one day throwing the discus with Apollo, when,
running too eagerly to take up the one thrown by the god, he was struck on
the head with it and killed on the spot. Apollo was overcome with grief at
the sad end of his young favourite, but being unable to restore him to
life, he changed him into the flower called after him the Hyacinth.
Cyparissus had the misfortune to kill by accident one of Apollo's favourite
stags, which so preyed on his mind that he gradually pined away, and died
of a broken heart. He was transformed by the god into a cypress-tree, which
owes its name to this story.
After these sad occurrences Apollo quitted Thessaly and repaired to
Phrygia, in Asia Minor, where he met Poseidon, who, like himself, was in
exile, and condemned {78} to a temporary servitude on earth. The two gods
now entered the service of Laomedon, king of Troy, Apollo undertaking to
tend his flocks, and Poseidon to build the walls of the city. But Apollo
also contributed his assistance in the erection of those wonderful walls,
and, by the aid of his marvellous musical powers, the labours of his
fellow-worker, Poseidon, were rendered so light and easy that his otherwise
arduous task advanced with astonishing celerity; for, as the master-hand of
the god of music grasped the chords of his lyre,[30] the huge blocks of
stone moved of their own accord, adjusting themselves with the utmost
nicety into the places designed for them.
But though Apollo was so renowned in the art of music, there were two
individuals who had the effrontery to consider themselves equal to him in
this respect, and, accordingly, each challenged him to compete with them in
a musical contest. These were Marsyas and Pan. Marsyas was a satyr, who,
having picked up the flute which Athene had thrown away in disgust,
discovered, to his great delight and astonishment, that, in consequence of
its having touched the lips of a goddess, it played of itself in the most
charming manner. Marsyas, who was a great lover of music, and much beloved
on this account by all the elf-like denizens of the woods and glens, was so
intoxicated with joy at this discovery, that he foolishly challenged Apollo
to compete with him in a musical contest. The challenge being accepted, the
Muses were chosen umpires, and it was decided that the unsuccessful
candidate should suffer the punishment of being flayed alive. For a long
time the merits of both claimants remained so equally balanced, that it was
impossible to award the palm of victory to either, seeing which, Apollo,
resolved to conquer, added the sweet tones of his melodious voice to the
strains of his lyre, {79} and this at once turned the scale in his favour.
The unhappy Marsyas being defeated, had to undergo the terrible penalty,
and his untimely fate was universally lamented; indeed the Satyrs and
Dryads, his companions, wept so incessantly at his fate, that their tears,
uniting together, formed a river in Phrygia which is still known by the
name of Marsyas.
The result of the contest with Pan was by no means of so serious a
character. The god of shepherds having affirmed that he could play more
skilfully on his flute of seven reeds (the syrinx or Pan's pipe), than
Apollo on his world-renowned lyre, a contest ensued, in which Apollo was
pronounced the victor by all the judges appointed to decide between the
rival candidates. Midas, king of Phrygia, alone demurred at this decision,
having the bad taste to prefer the uncouth tones of the Pan's pipe to the
refined melodies of Apollo's lyre. Incensed at the obstinacy and stupidity
of the Phrygian king, Apollo punished him by giving him the ears of an ass.
Midas, horrified at being thus disfigured, determined to hide his disgrace
from his subjects by means of a cap; his barber, however, could not be kept
in ignorance of the fact, and was therefore bribed with rich gifts never to
reveal it. Finding, however, that he could not keep the secret any longer,
he dug a hole in the ground into which he whispered it; then closing up the
aperture he returned home, feeling greatly relieved at having thus eased
his mind of its burden. But after all, this very humiliating secret was
revealed to the world, for some reeds which sprung up from the spot
murmured incessantly, as they waved to and fro in the wind: "King Midas has
the ears of an ass."
In the sad and beautiful story of Niobe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of
Amphion, king of Thebes, we have another instance of the severe punishments
meted out by Apollo to those who in any way incurred his displeasure. Niobe
was the proud mother of seven sons and seven daughters, and exulting in the
number of her children, she, upon one occasion, ridiculed the worship of
Leto, {80} because she had but one son and daughter, and desired the
Thebans, for the future, to give to her the honours and sacrifices which
they had hitherto offered to the mother of Apollo and Artemis. The
sacrilegious words had scarcely passed her lips before Apollo called upon
his sister Artemis to assist him in avenging the insult offered to their
mother, and soon their invisible arrows sped through the air. Apollo slew
all the sons, and Artemis had already slain all the daughters save one, the
youngest and best beloved, whom Niobe clasped in her arms, when the
agonized mother implored the enraged deities to leave her, at least, one
out of all her beautiful children; but, even as she prayed, the deadly
arrow reached the heart of this child also. Meanwhile the unhappy father,
unable to bear the loss of his children, had destroyed himself, and his
dead body lay beside the lifeless corpse of his favourite son. Widowed and
childless, the heart-broken mother sat among her dead, and the gods, in
pity for her unutterable woe, turned her into a stone, which they
transferred to Siphylus, her native Phrygian mountain, where it still
continues to shed tears.
[Illustration]
The punishment of Niobe forms the subject of a magnificent marble group,
which was found at Rome in the year 1553, and is now in the gallery of
Uffizi, at Florence.
The renowned singer Orpheus was the son of Apollo and Calliope, the muse of
epic poetry, and, as might be expected with parents so highly gifted, was
endowed with most distinguished intellectual qualifications. He was a poet,
a teacher of the religious doctrines known as the Orphic mysteries, and a
great musician, having inherited from his father an extraordinary genius
for music. {81} When he sang to the sweet tones of his lyre, he charmed all
nature, and summoned round him the wild beasts of the forests, who, under
the influence of his music, became tame and gentle as lambs. The madly
rushing torrents stopped their rapid course, and the very mountains and
trees moved from their places at the sound of his entrancing melodies.
Orpheus became united to a lovely nymph named Eurydice, the daughter of the
sea-god Nereus, whom he fondly loved. She was no less attached to him, and
their married life was full of joy and happiness. But it was only
short-lived; for Aristaeus,[31] the half-brother of Orpheus, having fallen
in love with the beautiful Eurydice, forcibly endeavoured to take her from
her husband, and as she fled across some fields to elude his pursuit, she
was bitten in the foot by a venomous snake, which lay concealed in the long
grass. Eurydice died of the wound, and her sorrowing husband filled the
groves and valleys with his piteous and unceasing lamentations.
His longing to behold her once more became at last so unconquerable, that
he determined to brave the horrors of the lower world, in order to entreat
Aides to restore to him his beloved wife. Armed only with his golden lyre,
the gift of Apollo, he descended into the gloomy depths of Hades, where his
heavenly music arrested for a while the torments of the unhappy sufferers.
The stone of Sisyphus remained motionless; Tantalus forgot his perpetual
thirst; the wheel of Ixion ceased to revolve; and even the Furies shed
tears, and withheld for a time their persecutions. Undismayed at the scenes
of horror and suffering which met his view on every side, he pursued his
way until he arrived at the palace of Aides. Presenting himself before the
throne on which sat the stony-hearted king and his consort Persephone,
Orpheus recounted his woes to the sound of his lyre. Moved to pity by his
sweet strains, they listened to his {82} melancholy story, and consented to
release Eurydice on condition that he should not look upon her until they
reached the upper world. Orpheus gladly promised to comply with this
injunction, and, followed by Eurydice, ascended the steep and gloomy path
which led to the realms of life and light. All went well until he was just
about to pass the extreme limits of Hades, when, forgetting for the moment
the hard condition, he turned to convince himself that his beloved wife was
really behind him. The glance was fatal, and destroyed all his hopes of
happiness; for, as he yearningly stretched out his arms to embrace her, she
was caught back, and vanished from his sight for ever. The grief of Orpheus
at this second loss was even more intense than before, and he now avoided
all human society. In vain did the nymphs, his once chosen companions,
endeavour to win him back to his accustomed haunts; their power to charm
was gone, and music was now his sole consolation. He wandered forth alone,
choosing the wildest and most secluded paths, and the hills and vales
resounded with his pathetic melodies. At last he happened to cross the path
of some Thracian women, who were performing the wild rites of Dionysus
(Bacchus), and in their mad fury at his refusing to join them, they
furiously attacked him, and tore him in pieces. In pity for his unhappy
fate, the Muses collected his remains, which they buried at the foot of
Mount Olympus, and the nightingale warbled a funeral dirge over his grave.
His head was thrown into the river Hebrus, and as it floated down the
stream, the lips still continued to murmur the beloved name of Eurydice.
The chief seat of the worship of Apollo was at Delphi, and here was the
most magnificent of all his temples, the foundation of which reaches far
beyond all historical knowledge, and which contained immense riches, the
offerings of kings and private persons, who had received favourable replies
from the oracle. The Greeks believed Delphi to be the central point of the
earth, because two eagles sent forth by Zeus, one from the east, the other
{83} from the west, were said to have arrived there at the same moment.
The Pythian games, celebrated in honour of the victory of Apollo over the
Python, took place at Delphi every four years. At the first celebration of
these games, gods, goddesses, and heroes contended for the prizes, which
were at first of gold or silver, but consisted, in later times, of simple
laurel wreaths.
On account of its being the place of his birth, the whole island of Delos
was consecrated to Apollo, where he was worshipped with great solemnity;
the greatest care was taken to preserve the sanctity of the spot, for which
reason no one was suffered to be buried there. At the foot of Mount Cynthus
was a splendid temple of Apollo which possessed an oracle, and was enriched
with magnificent offerings from all parts of Greece. Even foreign nations
held this island sacred, for when the Persians passed it on their way to
attack Greece, they not only sailed by, leaving it uninjured, but sent rich
presents to the temple. Games, called Delia, instituted by Theseus, were
celebrated at Delos every four years.
A festival termed the Gymnopedaea was held at Sparta in honour of Apollo, in
which boys sang the praises of the gods, and of the three hundred
Lacedaemonians who fell at the battle of Thermopylae.
Wolves and hawks were sacrificed to Apollo, and the birds sacred to him
were the hawk, raven, and swan.
ROMAN APOLLO.
The worship of Apollo never occupied the all-important position in Rome
which it held in Greece, nor was it introduced till a comparatively late
period. There was no sanctuary erected to this divinity until B.C. 430,
when the Romans, in order to avert a plague, built a temple in his honour;
but we do not find the worship of Apollo becoming in any way prominent
until the time of Augustus, who, having called upon this god for aid before
the famous battle of Actium, ascribed the victory which he {84} gained, to
his influence, and accordingly erected a temple there, which he enriched
with a portion of the spoil.
Augustus afterwards built another temple in honour of Apollo, on the
Palatine Hill, in which at the foot of his statue, were deposited two gilt
chests, containing the Sibylline oracles. These oracles were collected to
replace the Sibylline books originally preserved in the temple of Jupiter,
which were destroyed when that edifice was burned.
[Illustration]
The Sibyls were maidens who had received the gift of prophecy, and the
privilege of living to an incredible age. One of these Sibyls (known as the
Cumaean) appeared to Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome, offering
for sale nine books, which she informed him had been written by herself.
Not knowing who she was, Tarquin refused to buy them, upon which she burned
three, and returned with six, demanding the same price as before. Being
again driven away as an impostor, she again retired and burned three more,
returning with the remaining three, for which she still asked the same
price as at first. Tarquin, amazed at her inconsistency, now consulted the
Augurs, who blamed him for not having bought the nine books when they were
first offered to him, and desired him to secure the remaining three, at
whatever price they were to be had. He, accordingly, purchased the volumes,
which were found to contain predictions of great importance to the Romans.
After the disposal of the books, the Sibyl vanished, and was seen no more.
The most beautiful and renowned of all the statues of Apollo now in
existence, is that known as the Apollo Belvedere, which was found in 1503
among the ruins of {85} ancient Antium. It was purchased by Pope Julius
II., who removed it to the Belvedere of the Vatican, from whence it takes
its name, and where it has been, for more than three hundred years, the
admiration of the world. When Rome was taken, and plundered by the French,
this celebrated statue was transported to Paris, and placed in the museum
there, but in 1815 it was restored to its former place in the Vatican. The
attitude of the figure, which is more than seven feet high, is inimitable
in its freedom, grace, and majesty. The forehead is noble and intellectual,
and the whole countenance so exquisite in its beauty, that one pauses
spell-bound to gaze on so perfect a conception. The god has a very youthful
appearance, as is usual in all his representations, and with the exception
of a short mantle which falls from his shoulders, is unclothed. He stands
against the trunk of a tree, up which a serpent is creeping, and his left
arm is outstretched, as though about to punish.
HECATE.
Hecate would appear to have been originally a moon-goddess worshipped by
the Thracians. She became confounded, and eventually identified with Selene
and Persephone, and is one of those divinities of whom the ancients had
various conflicting accounts.
Hecate was the daughter of Perses and "gold-wreathed" Astraea (the starry
night[32]), and her sway extended over earth, heaven, and hell, for which
reason she is represented in works of art as a triple divinity, having
three female bodies, all young and beautiful, and united together.
In later times, when this divinity becomes identified with Persephone, she
is supposed to inhabit the lower world as a malignant deity, and
henceforward it is the gloomy, awe-inspiring side of her character which
alone {86} develops itself. She now presides over all practices connected
with witchcraft and enchantments, haunts sepulchres, and the point where
two roads cross, and lonely spots where murders have been committed. She
was supposed to be connected with the appearance of ghosts and spectres, to
possess unlimited influence over the powers of the lower world, and to be
able to lay to rest unearthly apparitions by her magic spells and
incantations.
Hecate appears as a gigantic woman, bearing a torch and a sword. Her feet
and hair are formed of snakes, and her passage is accompanied by voices of
thunder, weird shrieks and yells, and the deep baying and howling of dogs.
Her favour was propitiated by offerings and sacrifices, principally
consisting of black lambs. Her festivals were celebrated at night, by
torchlight, when these animals were offered to her, accompanied by many
peculiar ceremonies. These ceremonies were carried out with the minutest
attention to details, as it was believed that the omission of the slightest
particular would afford to her ministers, the evil spirits of the lower
world, who hovered round the worshippers, an opportunity for entering among
them, and exerting their baneful influence. At the end of every month food
was placed wherever two roads met, in readiness for her and other malignant
divinities.
In studying the peculiar characteristics which Hecate assumes when she
usurps the place of Persephone, the rightful mistress of the lower world,
we are reminded of the various superstitions with regard to spectres,
witchcraft, &c., which have, even down to our own times, exerted so
powerful an influence over the minds of the ignorant, and which would
appear to owe their origin to a remote pagan source.
SELENE (LUNA).
Just as Helios personified the sun, so his sister Selene represented the
moon, and was supposed to drive her {87} chariot across the sky whilst her
brother was reposing after the toils of the day.
When the shades of evening began to enfold the earth, the two milk-white
steeds of Selene rose out of the mysterious depths of Oceanus. Seated in a
silvery chariot, and accompanied by her daughter Herse, the goddess of the
dew, appeared the mild and gentle queen of the night, with a crescent on
her fair brow, a gauzy veil flowing behind, and a lighted torch in her
hand.
Selene greatly admired a beautiful young shepherd named Endymion, to whom
Zeus had accorded the privilege of eternal youth, combined with the faculty
of sleeping whenever he desired, and as long as he wished. Seeing this
lovely youth fast asleep on Mount Latmus, Selene was so struck with his
beauty, that she came down every night from heaven to watch over and
protect him.
ARTEMIS (DIANA).
Artemis was worshipped by the Greeks under various appellations, to each of
which belonged special characteristics. Thus she is known as the Arcadian,
Ephesian and Brauronian Artemis, and also as Selene-Artemis, and in order
fully to comprehend the worship of this divinity, we must consider her
under each aspect.
ARCADIAN ARTEMIS.
The Arcadian Artemis (the real Artemis of the Greeks) was the daughter of
Zeus and Leto, and twin-sister of Apollo. She was the goddess of Hunting
and Chastity, and having obtained from her father permission to lead a life
of celibacy, she ever remained a maiden-divinity. Artemis is the feminine
counterpart of her brother, the glorious god of Light, and, like him,
though she deals out destruction and sudden death to men and animals, she
is also able to alleviate suffering and cure diseases. Like Apollo also,
she is skilled in the use of the bow, but in a far more eminent degree, for
in the character of Artemis, who devoted herself to the chase with
passionate {88} ardour, this becomes an all-distinguishing feature. Armed
with her bow and quiver, and attended by her train of huntresses, who were
nymphs of the woods and springs, she roamed over the mountains in pursuit
of her favourite exercise, destroying in her course the wild animals of the
forest. When the chase was ended, Artemis and her maidens loved to assemble
in a shady grove, or on the banks of a favourite stream, where they joined
in the merry song, or graceful dance, and made the hills resound with their
joyous shouts.
As the type of purity and chastity, Artemis was especially venerated by
young maidens, who, before marrying, sacrificed their hair to her. She was
also the patroness of those vowed to celibacy, and punished severely any
infringement of their obligation.
The huntress-goddess is represented as being a head taller than her
attendant nymphs, and always appears as a youthful and slender maiden. Her
features are beautiful, but wanting in gentleness of expression; her hair
is gathered negligently into a knot at the back of her well-shaped head;
and her figure, though somewhat masculine, is most graceful in its attitude
and proportions. The short robe she wears, leaves her limbs free for the
exercise of the chase, her devotion to which is indicated by the quiver
which is slung over her shoulder, and the bow which she bears in her hand.
There are many famous statues of this divinity; but the most celebrated is
that known as the Diana of Versailles, now in the Louvre, which forms a not
unworthy companion to the Apollo-Belvedere of the Vatican. In this statue,
the goddess appears in the act of rescuing a hunted deer from its pursuers,
on whom she is turning with angry mien. One hand is laid protectingly on
the head of the stag, whilst with the other she draws an arrow from the
quiver which hangs over her shoulder.
Her attributes are the bow, quiver, and spear. The animals sacred to her
are the hind, dog, bear, and wild boar.
Artemis promptly resented any disregard or neglect of {89} her worship; a
remarkable instance of this is shown in the story of the Calydonian
boar-hunt, which is as follows:--
[Illustration]
Oeneus, king of Calydon in AEtolia, had incurred the displeasure of Artemis
by neglecting to include her in a general sacrifice to the gods which he
had offered up, out of gratitude for a bountiful harvest. The goddess,
enraged at this neglect, sent a wild boar of extraordinary size and
prodigious strength, which destroyed the sprouting grain, laid waste the
fields, and threatened the inhabitants with famine and death. At this
juncture, Meleager, the brave son of Oeneus, returned from the Argonautic
expedition, and finding his country ravaged by this dreadful scourge,
entreated the assistance of all the celebrated heroes of the age to join
him in hunting the ferocious monster. Among the most famous of those who
responded to his call were Jason, Castor and Pollux, Idas and Lynceus,
Peleus, Telamon, Admetus, Perithous, and Theseus. The brothers of Althea,
wife of Oeneus, joined the hunters, and Meleager also enlisted into his
service the fleet-footed huntress Atalanta.
The father of this maiden was Schoeneus, an Arcadian, who, disappointed at
the birth of a daughter when he had particularly desired a son, had exposed
her on the Parthenian Hill, where he left her to perish. Here she was
nursed by a she-bear, and at last found by some hunters, who reared her,
and gave her the name of Atalanta. As the maiden grew up, she became an
ardent {90} lover of the chase, and was alike distinguished for her beauty
and courage. Though often wooed, she led a life of strict celibacy, an
oracle having predicted that inevitable misfortune awaited her, should she
give herself in marriage to any of her numerous suitors.
Many of the heroes objected to hunt in company with a maiden; but Meleager,
who loved Atalanta, overcame their opposition, and the valiant band set out
on their expedition. Atalanta was the first to wound the boar with her
spear, but not before two of the heroes had met their death from his fierce
tusks. After a long and desperate encounter, Meleager succeeded in killing
the monster, and presented the head and hide to Atalanta, as trophies of
the victory. The uncles of Meleager, however, forcibly took the hide from
the maiden, claiming their right to the spoil as next of kin, if Meleager
resigned it. Artemis, whose anger was still unappeased, caused a violent
quarrel to arise between uncles and nephew, and, in the struggle which
ensued, Meleager killed his mother's brothers, and then restored the hide
to Atalanta. When Althea beheld the dead bodies of the slain heroes, her
grief and anger knew no bounds. She swore to revenge the death of her
brothers on her own son, and unfortunately for him, the instrument of
vengeance lay ready to her hand.
At the birth of Meleager, the Moirae, or Fates, entered the house of
Oeneus, and pointing to a piece of wood then burning on the hearth,
declared that as soon as it was consumed the babe would surely die. On
hearing this, Althea seized the brand, laid it up carefully in a chest, and
henceforth preserved it as her most precious possession. But now, love for
her son giving place to the resentment she felt against the murderer of her
brothers, she threw the fatal brand into the devouring flames. As it
consumed, the vigour of Meleager wasted away, and when it was reduced to
ashes, he expired. Repenting too late the terrible effects of her rash
deed, Althea, in remorse and despair, took away her own life.
The news of the courage and intrepidity displayed by {91} Atalanta in the
famous boar-hunt, being carried to the ears of her father, caused him to
acknowledge his long-lost child. Urged by him to choose one of her numerous
suitors, she consented to do so, but made it a condition that he alone, who
could outstrip her in the race, should become her husband, whilst those she
defeated should be put to death by her, with the lance which she bore in
her hand. Thus many suitors had perished, for the maiden was unequalled for
swiftness of foot, but at last a beautiful youth, named Hippomenes, who had
vainly endeavoured to win her love by his assiduous attentions in the
chase, ventured to enter the fatal lists. Knowing that only by stratagem
could he hope to be successful, he obtained, by the help of Aphrodite,
three golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides, which he threw down
at intervals during his course. Atalanta, secure of victory, stooped to
pick up the tempting fruit, and, in the meantime, Hippomenes arrived at the
goal. He became the husband of the lovely Atalanta, but forgot, in his
newly found happiness, the gratitude which he owed to Aphrodite, and the
goddess withdrew her favour from the pair. Not long after, the prediction
which foretold misfortune to Atalanta, in the event of her marriage, was
verified, for she and her husband, having strayed unsanctioned into a
sacred grove of Zeus, were both transformed into lions.
The trophies of the ever-memorable boar-hunt had been carried by Atalanta
into Arcadia, and, for many centuries, the identical hide and enormous
tusks of the Calydonian boar hung in the temple of Athene at Tegea. The
tusks were afterwards conveyed to Rome, and shown there among other
curiosities.
A forcible instance of the manner in which Artemis resented any intrusion
on her retirement, is seen in the fate which befell the famous hunter
Actaeon, who happening one day to see Artemis and her attendants bathing,
imprudently ventured to approach the spot. The goddess, incensed at his
audacity, sprinkled him with water, and transformed him into a stag,
whereupon he was torn in pieces and devoured by his own dogs. {92}
EPHESIAN ARTEMIS.
The Ephesian Artemis, known to us as "Diana of the Ephesians," was a very
ancient Asiatic divinity of Persian origin called Metra,[33] whose worship
the Greek colonists found already established, when they first settled in
Asia Minor, and whom they identified with their own Greek Artemis, though
she really possessed but one single attribute in common with their home
deity.
Metra was a twofold divinity, and represented, in one phase of her
character, all-pervading love; in the other she was the light of heaven;
and as Artemis, in her character as Selene, was the only Greek female
divinity who represented celestial light, the Greek settlers, according to
their custom of fusing foreign deities into their own, seized at once upon
this point of resemblance, and decided that Metra should henceforth be
regarded as identical with Artemis.
In her character as the love which pervades all nature, and penetrates
everywhere, they believed her also to be present in the mysterious Realm of
Shades, where she exercised her benign sway, replacing to a certain extent
that ancient divinity Hecate, and partly usurping also the place of
Persephone, as mistress of the lower world. Thus they believed that it was
she who permitted the spirits of the departed to revisit the earth, in
order to communicate with those they loved, and to give them timely warning
of coming evil. In fact, this great, mighty, and omnipresent power of love,
as embodied in the Ephesian Artemis, was believed by the great thinkers of
old, to be the ruling spirit of the universe, and it was to her influence,
that all the mysterious and beneficent workings of nature were ascribed.
There was a magnificent temple erected to this divinity at Ephesus (a city
of Asia Minor), which was ranked among the seven wonders of the world, and
was unequalled in beauty and grandeur. The interior of this {93} edifice
was adorned with statues and paintings, and contained one hundred and
twenty-seven columns, sixty feet in height, each column having been placed
there by a different king. The wealth deposited in this temple was
enormous, and the goddess was here worshipped with particular awe and
solemnity. In the interior of the edifice stood a statue of her, formed of
ebony, with lions on her arms and turrets on her head, whilst a number of
breasts indicated the fruitfulness of the earth and of nature. Ctesiphon
was the principal architect of this world-renowned structure, which,
however, was not entirely completed till two hundred and twenty years after
the foundation-stone was laid. But the labour of centuries was destroyed in
a single night; for a man called Herostratus, seized with the insane desire
of making his name famous to all succeeding generations, set fire to it and
completely destroyed it.[34] So great was the indignation and sorrow of the
Ephesians at this calamity, that they enacted a law, forbidding the
incendiary's name to be mentioned, thereby however, defeating their own
object, for thus the name of Herostratus has been handed down to posterity,
and will live as long as the memory of the famous temple of Ephesus.
BRAURONIAN ARTEMIS.
In ancient times, the country which we now call the Crimea, was known by
the name of the Taurica Chersonnesus. It was colonized by Greek settlers,
who, finding that the Scythian inhabitants had a native divinity somewhat
resembling their own Artemis, identified her with the huntress-goddess of
the mother-country. The worship of this Taurian Artemis was attended with
the most barbarous practices, for, in accordance with a law which she had
enacted, all strangers, whether male or female, landing, or shipwrecked on
her shores, were sacrificed upon her altars. It is supposed that this
decree was {94} issued by the Taurian goddess of Chastity, to protect the
purity of her followers, by keeping them apart from foreign influences.
The interesting story of Iphigenia, a priestess in the temple of Artemis at
Tauris, forms the subject of one of Schiller's most beautiful plays. The
circumstances occurred at the commencement of the Trojan war, and are as
follows:--The fleet, collected by the Greeks for the siege of Troy, had
assembled at Aulis, in Boeotia, and was about to set sail, when Agamemnon,
the commander-in-chief, had the misfortune to kill accidentally a stag
which was grazing in a grove, sacred to Artemis. The offended goddess sent
continuous calms that delayed the departure of the fleet, and Calchas, the
soothsayer, who had accompanied the expedition, declared that nothing less
than the sacrifice of Agamemnon's favorite daughter, Iphigenia, would
appease the wrath of the goddess. At these words, the heroic heart of the
brave leader sank within him, and he declared that rather than consent to
so fearful an alternative, he would give up his share in the expedition and
return to Argos. In this dilemma Odysseus and other great generals called a
council to discuss the matter, and, after much deliberation, it was decided
that private feeling must yield to the welfare of the state. For a long
time the unhappy Agamemnon turned a deaf ear to their arguments, but at
last they succeeded in persuading him that it was his duty to make the
sacrifice. He, accordingly, despatched a messenger to his wife,
Clytemnaestra, begging her to send Iphigenia to him, alleging as a pretext
that the great hero Achilles desired to make her his wife. Rejoicing at the
brilliant destiny which awaited her beautiful daughter, the fond mother at
once obeyed the command, and sent her to Aulis. When the maiden arrived at
her destination, and discovered, to her horror, the dreadful fate which
awaited her, she threw herself in an agony of grief at her father's feet,
and with sobs and tears entreated him to have mercy on her, and to spare
her young life. But alas! her doom was sealed, and her now repentant and
{95} heart-broken father was powerless to avert it. The unfortunate victim
was bound to the altar, and already the fatal knife was raised to deal the
death-blow, when suddenly Iphigenia disappeared from view, and in her place
on the altar, lay a beautiful deer ready to be sacrificed. It was Artemis
herself, who, pitying the youth and beauty of her victim, caused her to be
conveyed in a cloud to Taurica, where she became one of her priestesses,
and intrusted with the charge of her temple; a dignity, however, which
necessitated the offering of those human sacrifices presented to Artemis.
Many years passed away, during which time the long and wearisome siege of
Troy had come to an end, and the brave Agamemnon had returned home to meet
death at the hands of his wife and Aegisthus. But his daughter, Iphigenia,
was still an exile from her native country, and continued to perform the
terrible duties which her office involved. She had long given up all hopes
of ever being restored to her friends, when one day two Greek strangers
landed on Taurica's inhospitable shores. These were Orestes and Pylades,
whose romantic attachment to each other has made their names synonymous for
devoted self-sacrificing friendship. Orestes was Iphigenia's brother, and
Pylades her cousin, and their object in undertaking an expedition fraught
with so much peril, was to obtain the statue of the Taurian Artemis.
Orestes, having incurred the anger of the Furies for avenging the murder of
his father Agamemnon, was pursued by them wherever he went, until at last
he was informed by the oracle of Delphi that, in order to pacify them, he
must convey the image of the Taurian Artemis from Tauris to Attica. This he
at once resolved to do, and accompanied by his faithful friend Pylades, who
insisted on sharing the dangers of the undertaking, he set out for Taurica.
But the unfortunate youths had hardly stepped on shore before they were
seized by the natives, who, as usual, conveyed them for sacrifice to the
temple of Artemis. Iphigenia, discovering that they were Greeks, though
unaware of their near relationship to herself, thought the {96} opportunity
a favourable one for sending tidings of her existence to her native
country, and, accordingly, requested one of the strangers to be the bearer
of a letter from her to her family. A magnanimous dispute now arose between
the friends, and each besought the other to accept the precious privilege
of life and freedom. Pylades, at length overcome by the urgent entreaties
of Orestes, agreed to be the bearer of the missive, but on looking more
closely at the superscription, he observed, to his intense surprise, that
it was addressed to Orestes. Hereupon an explanation followed; the brother
and sister recognized each other, amid joyful tears and loving embraces,
and assisted by her friends and kinsmen, Iphigenia escaped with them from a
country where she had spent so many unhappy days, and witnessed so many
scenes of horror and anguish.
The fugitives, having contrived to obtain the image of the Taurian Artemis,
carried it with them to Brauron in Attica. This divinity was henceforth
known as the Brauronian Artemis, and the rites which had rendered her
worship so infamous in Taurica were now introduced into Greece, and human
victims bled freely under the sacrificial knife, both in Athens and Sparta.
The revolting practice of offering human sacrifices to her, was continued
until the time of Lycurgus, the great Spartan lawgiver, who put an end to
it by substituting in its place one, which was hardly less barbarous,
namely, the scourging of youths, who were whipped on the altars of the
Brauronian Artemis in the most cruel manner; sometimes indeed they expired
under the lash, in which case their mothers, far from lamenting their fate,
are said to have rejoiced, considering this an honourable death for their
sons.
SELENE-ARTEMIS.
Hitherto we have seen Artemis only in the various phases of her terrestrial
character; but just as her brother Apollo drew into himself by degrees the
attributes of that more ancient divinity Helios, the sun-god, so, in like
manner, she came to be identified in later times {97} with Selene, the
moon-goddess, in which character she is always represented as wearing on
her forehead a glittering crescent, whilst a flowing veil, bespangled with
stars, reaches to her feet, and a long robe completely envelops her.
DIANA.
The Diana of the Romans was identified with the Greek Artemis, with whom
she shares that peculiar tripartite character, which so strongly marks the
individuality of the Greek goddess. In heaven she was Luna (the moon), on
earth Diana (the huntress-goddess), and in the lower world Proserpine; but,
unlike the Ephesian Artemis, Diana, in her character as Proserpine, carries
with her into the lower world no element of love or sympathy; she is, on
the contrary, characterized by practices altogether hostile to man, such as
the exercise of witchcraft, evil charms, and other antagonistic influences,
and is, in fact, the Greek Hecate, in her later development.
The statues of Diana were generally erected at a point where three roads
met, for which reason she is called Trivia (from _tri_, three, and _via_,
way).
A temple was dedicated to her on the Aventine hill by Servius Tullius, who
is said to have first introduced the worship of this divinity into Rome.
The Nemoralia, or Grove Festivals, were celebrated in her honour on the
13th of August, on the Lacus Nemorensis, or forest-buried lake, near
Aricia. The priest who officiated in her temple on this spot, was always a
fugitive slave, who had gained his office by murdering his predecessor, and
hence was constantly armed, in order that he might thus be prepared to
encounter a new aspirant.
HEPHAESTUS (VULCAN).
Hephaestus, the son of Zeus and Hera, was the god of fire in its beneficial
aspect, and the presiding deity over all workmanship accomplished by means
of this useful element. He was universally honoured, not only as the {98}
god of all mechanical arts, but also as a house and hearth divinity, who
exercised a beneficial influence on civilized society in general. Unlike
the other Greek divinities, he was ugly and deformed, being awkward in his
movements, and limping in his gait. This latter defect originated, as we
have already seen, in the wrath of his father Zeus, who hurled him down
from heaven[35] in consequence of his taking the part of Hera, in one of
the domestic disagreements, which so frequently arose between this royal
pair. Hephaestus was a whole day falling from Olympus to the earth, where he
at length alighted on the island of Lemnos. The inhabitants of the country,
seeing him descending through the air, received him in their arms; but in
spite of their care, his leg was broken by the fall, and he remained ever
afterwards lame in one foot. Grateful for the kindness of the Lemnians, he
henceforth took up his abode in their island, and there built for himself a
superb palace, and forges for the pursuit of his avocation. He instructed
the people how to work in metals, and also taught them other valuable and
useful arts.
It is said that the first work of Hephaestus was a most ingenious throne of
gold, with secret springs, which he presented to Hera. It was arranged in
such a manner that, once seated, she found herself unable to move, and
though all the gods endeavoured to extricate her, their efforts were
unavailing. Hephaestus thus revenged himself on his mother for the cruelty
she had always displayed towards him, on account of his want of comeliness
and grace. Dionysus, the wine god, contrived, however, to intoxicate
Hephaestus, and then induced him to return to Olympus, where, after having
released the {99} queen of heaven from her very undignified position, he
became reconciled to his parents.
He now built for himself a glorious palace on Olympus, of shining gold, and
made for the other deities those magnificent edifices which they inhabited.
He was assisted in his various and exquisitely skilful works of art, by two
female statues of pure gold, formed by his own hand, which possessed the
power of motion, and always accompanied him wherever he went. With the
assistance of the Cyclops, he forged for Zeus his wonderful thunderbolts,
thus investing his mighty father with a new power of terrible import. Zeus
testified his appreciation of this precious gift, by bestowing upon
Hephaestus the beautiful Aphrodite in marriage,[36] but this was a
questionable boon; for the lovely Aphrodite, who was the personification of
all grace and beauty, felt no affection for her ungainly and unattractive
spouse, and amused herself by ridiculing his awkward movements and
unsightly person. On one occasion especially, when Hephaestus good-naturedly
took upon himself the office of cup-bearer to the gods, his hobbling gait
and extreme awkwardness created the greatest mirth amongst the celestials,
in which his disloyal partner was the first to join, with unconcealed
merriment.
Aphrodite greatly preferred Ares to her husband, and this preference
naturally gave rise to much jealousy on the part of Hephaestus, and caused
them great unhappiness.
Hephaestus appears to have been an indispensable member of the Olympic
Assembly, where he plays the part of smith, armourer, chariot-builder, &c.
As already mentioned, he constructed the palaces where the gods resided,
fashioned the golden shoes with which they trod the air or water, built for
them their wonderful chariots, and shod with brass the horses of celestial
breed, which conveyed these glittering equipages over land and sea. He also
made the tripods which moved of themselves in and out of the celestial
halls, formed for Zeus the {100} far-famed aegis, and erected the
magnificent palace of the sun. He also created the brazen-footed bulls of
Aetes, which breathed flames from their nostrils, sent forth clouds of
smoke, and filled the air with their roaring.
Among his most renowned works of art for the use of mortals were: the
armour of Achilles and AEneas, the beautiful necklace of Harmonia, and the
crown of Ariadne; but his masterpiece was Pandora, of whom a detailed
account has already been given.
[Illustration]
There was a temple on Mount Etna erected in his honour, which none but the
pure and virtuous were permitted to enter. The entrance to this temple was
guarded by dogs, which possessed the extraordinary faculty of being able to
discriminate between the righteous and the unrighteous, fawning upon and
caressing the good, whilst they rushed upon all evil-doers and drove them
away.
Hephaestus is usually represented as a powerful, brawny, and very muscular
man of middle height and mature age; his strong uplifted arm is raised in
the act of striking the anvil with a hammer, which he holds in one hand,
whilst with the other he is turning a thunderbolt, which an eagle beside
him is waiting to carry to Zeus. The principal seat of his worship was the
island of Lemnos, where he was regarded with peculiar veneration.
VULCAN.
The Roman Vulcan was merely an importation from Greece, which never at any
time took firm root in Rome, nor entered largely into the actual life and
sympathies of the nation, his worship being unattended by the devotional
feeling and enthusiasm which characterized the religious rites of the other
deities. He still, however, retained in Rome his {101} Greek attributes as
god of fire, and unrivalled master of the art of working in metals, and was
ranked among the twelve great gods of Olympus, whose gilded statues were
arranged consecutively along the Forum. His Roman name, Vulcan, would seem
to indicate a connection with the first great metal-working artificer of
Biblical history, Tubal-Cain.
POSEIDON (NEPTUNE).
Poseidon was the son of Kronos and Rhea, and the brother of Zeus. He was
god of the sea, more particularly of the Mediterranean, and, like the
element over which he presided, was of a variable disposition, now
violently agitated, and now calm and placid, for which reason he is
sometimes represented by the poets as quiet and composed, and at others as
disturbed and angry.
[Illustration]
In the earliest ages of Greek mythology, he merely symbolized the watery
element; but in later times, as navigation and intercourse with other
nations engendered greater traffic by sea, Poseidon gained in importance,
and came to be regarded as a distinct divinity, holding indisputable
dominion over the sea, and over all sea-divinities, who acknowledged him as
their sovereign ruler. He possessed the power of causing at will, mighty
and destructive tempests, in which the billows rise mountains high, the
wind becomes a hurricane, land and sea being enveloped in thick mists,
whilst destruction assails the unfortunate mariners exposed to their fury.
On the other hand, his alone was the power of stilling the angry {102}
waves, of soothing the troubled waters, and granting safe voyages to
mariners. For this reason, Poseidon was always invoked and propitiated by a
libation before a voyage was undertaken, and sacrifices and thanksgivings
were gratefully offered to him after a safe and prosperous journey by sea.
The symbol of his power was the fisherman's fork or trident,[37] by means
of which he produced earthquakes, raised up islands from the bottom of the
sea, and caused wells to spring forth out of the earth.
Poseidon was essentially the presiding deity over fishermen, and was on
that account, more particularly worshipped and revered in countries
bordering on the sea-coast, where fish naturally formed a staple commodity
of trade. He was supposed to vent his displeasure by sending disastrous
inundations, which completely destroyed whole countries, and were usually
accompanied by terrible marine monsters, who swallowed up and devoured
those whom the floods had spared. It is probable that these sea-monsters
are the poetical figures which represent the demons of hunger and famine,
necessarily accompanying a general inundation.
Poseidon is generally represented as resembling his brother Zeus in
features, height, and general aspect; but we miss in the countenance of the
sea-god the kindness and benignity which so pleasingly distinguish his
mighty brother. The eyes are bright and piercing, and the contour of the
face somewhat sharper in its outline than that of Zeus, thus corresponding,
as it were, with his more angry and violent nature. His hair waves in dark,
disorderly masses over his shoulders; his chest is broad, and his frame
powerful and stalwart; he wears a short, curling beard, and a band round
his head. He usually appears standing erect in a graceful shell-chariot,
drawn by hippocamps, or sea-horses, with golden manes and brazen hoofs, who
bound over the dancing waves with such wonderful swiftness, that the
chariot scarcely touches {103} the water. The monsters of the deep,
acknowledging their mighty lord, gambol playfully around him, whilst the
sea joyfully smooths a path for the passage of its all-powerful ruler.
[Illustration]
He inhabited a beautiful palace at the bottom of the sea at AEgea in Euboea,
and also possessed a royal residence on Mount Olympus, which, however, he
only visited when his presence was required at the council of the gods.
His wonderful palace beneath the waters was of vast extent; in its lofty
and capacious halls thousands of his followers could assemble. The exterior
of the building was of bright gold, which the continual wash of the waters
preserved untarnished; in the interior, lofty and graceful columns
supported the gleaming dome. Everywhere fountains of glistening, silvery
water played; everywhere groves and arbours of feathery-leaved sea-plants
appeared, whilst rocks of pure crystal glistened with all the varied
colours of the rainbow. Some of the paths were strewn with white sparkling
sand, interspersed with jewels, pearls, and amber. This delightful abode
was surrounded on all sides by wide fields, where there were whole groves
of dark purple coralline, and tufts of beautiful scarlet-leaved plants, and
sea-anemones of every tint. Here grew bright, pinky sea-weeds, mosses of
all hues and shades, and tall grasses, which, growing upwards, formed
emerald caves and grottoes such as the Nereides love, whilst fish of
various kinds playfully darted in and out, in the full enjoyment of their
native element. Nor was illumination wanting in this fairy-like region,
which at night was lit up by the glow-worms of the deep.
But although Poseidon ruled with absolute power over the ocean and its
inhabitants, he nevertheless bowed submissively to the will of the great
ruler of Olympus, and appeared at all times desirous of conciliating him.
We {104} find him coming to his aid when emergency demanded, and frequently
rendering him valuable assistance against his opponents. At the time when
Zeus was harassed by the attacks of the Giants, he proved himself a most
powerful ally, engaging in single combat with a hideous giant named
Polybotes, whom he followed over the sea, and at last succeeded in
destroying, by hurling upon him the island of Cos.
These amicable relations between the brothers were, however, sometimes
interrupted. Thus, for instance, upon one occasion Poseidon joined Hera and
Athene in a secret conspiracy to seize upon the ruler of heaven, place him
in fetters, and deprive him of the sovereign power. The conspiracy being
discovered, Hera, as the chief instigator of this sacrilegious attempt on
the divine person of Zeus, was severely chastised, and even beaten, by her
enraged spouse, as a punishment for her rebellion and treachery, whilst
Poseidon was condemned, for the space of a whole year, to forego his
dominion over the sea, and it was at this time that, in conjunction with
Apollo, he built for Laomedon the walls of Troy.
Poseidon married a sea-nymph named Amphitrite, whom he wooed under the form
of a dolphin. She afterwards became jealous of a beautiful maiden called
Scylla, who was beloved by Poseidon, and in order to revenge herself she
threw some herbs into a well where Scylla was bathing, which had the effect
of metamorphosing her into a monster of terrible aspect, having twelve
feet, six heads with six long necks, and a voice which resembled the bark
of a dog. This awful monster is said to have inhabited a cave at a very
great height in the famous rock which still bears her name,[38] and was
supposed to swoop down from her rocky eminence upon every ship that passed,
and with each of her six heads to secure a victim.
Amphitrite is often represented assisting Poseidon in attaching the
sea-horses to his chariot.
{105}
The Cyclops, who have been already alluded to in the history of Cronus,
were the sons of Poseidon and Amphitrite. They were a wild race of gigantic
growth, similar in their nature to the earth-born Giants, and had only one
eye each in the middle of their foreheads. They led a lawless life,
possessing neither social manners nor fear of the gods, and were the
workmen of Hephaestus, whose workshop was supposed to be in the heart of the
volcanic mountain AEtna.
Here we have another striking instance of the manner in which the Greeks
personified the powers of nature, which they saw in active operation around
them. They beheld with awe, mingled with astonishment, the fire, stones,
and ashes which poured forth from the summit of this and other volcanic
mountains, and, with their vivacity of imagination, found a solution of the
mystery in the supposition, that the god of Fire must be busy at work with
his men in the depths of the earth, and that the mighty flames which they
beheld, issued in this manner from his subterranean forge.
The chief representative of the Cyclops was the man-eating monster
Polyphemus, described by Homer as having been blinded and outwitted at last
by Odysseus. This monster fell in love with a beautiful nymph called
Galatea; but, as may be supposed, his addresses were not acceptable to the
fair maiden, who rejected them in favour of a youth named Acis, upon which
Polyphemus, with his usual barbarity, destroyed the life of his rival by
throwing upon him a gigantic rock. The blood of the murdered Acis, gushing
out of the rock, formed a stream which still bears his name.
Triton, Rhoda,[39] and Benthesicyme were also children of Poseidon and
Amphitrite.
The sea-god was the father of two giant sons called Otus and Ephialtes.[40]
When only nine years old they {106} were said to be twenty-seven cubits[41]
in height and nine in breadth. These youthful giants were as rebellious as
they were powerful, even presuming to threaten the gods themselves with
hostilities. During the war of the Gigantomachia, they endeavoured to scale
heaven by piling mighty mountains one upon another. Already had they
succeeded in placing Mount Ossa on Olympus and Pelion on Ossa, when this
impious project was frustrated by Apollo, who destroyed them with his
arrows. It was supposed that had not their lives been thus cut off before
reaching maturity, their sacrilegious designs would have been carried into
effect.
Pelias and Neleus were also sons of Poseidon. Their mother Tyro was
attached to the river-god Enipeus, whose form Poseidon assumed, and thus
won her love. Pelias became afterwards famous in the story of the
Argonauts, and Neleus was the father of Nestor, who was distinguished in
the Trojan War.
The Greeks believed that it was to Poseidon they were indebted for the
existence of the horse, which he is said to have produced in the following
manner: Athene and Poseidon both claiming the right to name Cecropia (the
ancient name of Athens), a violent dispute arose, which was finally settled
by an assembly of the Olympian gods, who decided that whichever of the
contending parties presented mankind with the most useful gift, should
obtain the privilege of naming the city. Upon this Poseidon struck the
ground with his trident, and the horse sprang forth in all his untamed
strength and graceful beauty. From the spot which Athene touched with her
wand, issued the olive-tree, whereupon the gods unanimously awarded to her
the victory, declaring her gift to be the emblem of peace and plenty,
whilst that of Poseidon was thought to be the symbol of war and {107}
bloodshed. Athene accordingly called the city Athens, after herself, and it
has ever since retained this name.
Poseidon tamed the horse for the use of mankind, and was believed to have
taught men the art of managing horses by the bridle. The Isthmian games (so
named because they were held on the Isthmus of Corinth), in which horse and
chariot races were a distinguishing feature, were instituted in honour of
Poseidon.
He was more especially worshipped in the Peloponnesus, though universally
revered throughout Greece and in the south of Italy. His sacrifices were
generally black and white bulls, also wild boars and rams. His usual
attributes are the trident, horse, and dolphin.
In some parts of Greece this divinity was identified with the sea-god
Nereus, for which reason the Nereides, or daughters of Nereus, are
represented as accompanying him.
NEPTUNE.
The Romans worshipped Poseidon under the name of Neptune, and invested him
with all the attributes which belong to the Greek divinity.
The Roman commanders never undertook any naval expedition without
propitiating Neptune by a sacrifice.
His temple at Rome was in the Campus Martius, and the festivals
commemorated in his honour were called Neptunalia.
* * * * *
SEA DIVINITIES.
OCEANUS.
Oceanus was the son of Uranus and Gaea. He was the personification of the
ever-flowing stream, which, according to the primitive notions of the early
Greeks, encircled the world, and from which sprang all the rivers and
streams that watered the earth. He was married to Tethys, one of the
Titans, and was the father of a {108} numerous progeny called the
Oceanides, who are said to have been three thousand in number. He alone, of
all the Titans, refrained from taking part against Zeus in the
Titanomachia, and was, on that account, the only one of the primeval
divinities permitted to retain his dominion under the new dynasty.
NEREUS.
Nereus appears to have been the personification of the sea in its calm and
placid moods, and was, after Poseidon, the most important of the
sea-deities. He is represented as a kind and benevolent old man, possessing
the gift of prophecy, and presiding more particularly over the AEgean Sea,
of which he was considered to be the protecting spirit. There he dwelt with
his wife Doris and their fifty blooming daughters, the Nereides, beneath
the waves in a beautiful grotto-palace, and was ever ready to assist
distressed mariners in the hour of danger.
PROTEUS.
Proteus, more familiarly known as "The Old Man of the Sea," was a son of
Poseidon, and gifted with prophetic power. But he had an invincible
objection to being consulted in his capacity as seer, and those who wished
him to foretell events, watched for the hour of noon, when he was in the
habit of coming up to the island of Pharos,[42] with Poseidon's flock of
seals, which he tended at the bottom of the sea. Surrounded by these
creatures of the deep, he used to slumber beneath the grateful shade of the
rocks. This was the favourable moment to seize the prophet, who, in order
to avoid importunities, would change himself into an infinite variety of
forms. But patience gained the day; for if he were only held long enough,
he became wearied at last, and, resuming his true form, gave the
information desired, after which he dived down again to the bottom of the
sea, accompanied by the animals he tended.
{109}
[Illustration]
TRITON and the TRITONS.
Triton was the only son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, but he possessed little
influence, being altogether a minor divinity. He is usually represented as
preceding his father and acting as his trumpeter, using a conch-shell for
this purpose. He lived with his parents in their beautiful golden palace
beneath the sea at AEgea, and his favourite pastime was to ride over the
billows on horses or sea-monsters. Triton is always represented as half
man, half fish, the body below the waist terminating in the tail of a
dolphin. We frequently find mention of Tritons who are either the offspring
or kindred of Triton.
GLAUCUS.
Glaucus is said to have become a sea-divinity in the following manner.
While angling one day, he observed that the fish he caught and threw on the
bank, at once nibbled at the grass and then leaped back into the water. His
curiosity was naturally excited, and he proceeded to gratify it by taking
up a few blades and tasting them. No sooner was this done than, obeying an
irresistible impulse, he precipitated himself into the deep, and became a
sea-god.
Like most sea-divinities he was gifted with prophetic power, and each year
visited all the islands and coasts with a train of marine monsters,
foretelling all kinds of evil. Hence fishermen dreaded his approach, and
endeavoured, by prayer and fasting, to avert the misfortunes which he
prophesied. He is often represented floating on the billows, his body
covered with mussels, sea-weed, and shells, wearing a full beard and long
flowing hair, and bitterly bewailing his immortality.
{110}
THETIS.
The silver-footed, fair-haired Thetis, who plays an important part in the
mythology of Greece, was the daughter of Nereus, or, as some assert, of
Poseidon. Her grace and beauty were so remarkable that Zeus and Poseidon
both sought an alliance with her; but, as it had been foretold that a son
of hers would gain supremacy over his father, they relinquished their
intentions, and she became the wife of Peleus, son of AEacus. Like Proteus,
Thetis possessed the power of transforming herself into a variety of
different shapes, and when wooed by Peleus she exerted this power in order
to elude him. But, knowing that persistence would eventually succeed, he
held her fast until she assumed her true form. Their nuptials were
celebrated with the utmost pomp and magnificence, and were honoured by the
presence of all the gods and goddesses, with the exception of Eris. How the
goddess of discord resented her exclusion from the marriage festivities has
already been shown.
Thetis ever retained great influence over the mighty lord of heaven, which,
as we shall see hereafter, she used in favour of her renowned son,
Achilles, in the Trojan War.
When Halcyone plunged into the sea in despair after the shipwreck and death
of her husband King Ceyx, Thetis transformed both husband and wife into the
birds called kingfishers (halcyones), which, with the tender affection
which characterized the unfortunate couple, always fly in pairs. The idea
of the ancients was that these birds brought forth their young in nests,
which float on the surface of the sea in calm weather, before and after the
shortest day, when Thetis was said to keep the waters smooth and tranquil
for their especial benefit; hence the term "halcyon-days," which signifies
a period of rest and untroubled felicity.
{111}
THAUMAS, PHORCYS, and CETO.
The early Greeks, with their extraordinary power of personifying all and
every attribute of Nature, gave a distinct personality to those mighty
wonders of the deep, which, in all ages, have afforded matter of
speculation to educated and uneducated alike. Among these personifications
we find Thaumas, Phorcys, and their sister Ceto, who were the offspring of
Pontus.
Thaumas (whose name signifies Wonder) typifies that peculiar, translucent
condition of the surface of the sea when it reflects, mirror-like, various
images, and appears to hold in its transparent embrace the flaming stars
and illuminated cities, which are so frequently reflected on its glassy
bosom.
Thaumas married the lovely Electra (whose name signifies the sparkling
light produced by electricity), daughter of Oceanus. Her amber-coloured
hair was of such rare beauty that none of her fair-haired sisters could
compare with her, and when she wept, her tears, being too precious to be
lost, formed drops of shining amber.
Phorcys and Ceto personified more especially the hidden perils and terrors
of the ocean. They were the parents of the Gorgons, the Graea, and the
Dragon which guarded the golden apples of the Hesperides.
[Illustration]
LEUCOTHEA.
Leucothea was originally a mortal named Ino, daughter of Cadmus, king of
Thebes. She married Athamas, king of Orchomenus, who, incensed at her
unnatural conduct to her step-children,[43] pursued her and her son to the
sea-shore, when, seeing no hope of escape, she flung herself with her child
into the deep. They were kindly received by the Nereides, and became
sea-divinities under the name of Leucothea and Palaemon.
{112}
THE SIRENS.
The Sirens would appear to have been personifications of those numerous
rocks and unseen dangers, which abound on the S.W. coast of Italy. They
were sea-nymphs, with the upper part of the body that of a maiden and the
lower that of a sea-bird, having wings attached to their shoulders, and
were endowed with such wonderful voices, that their sweet songs are said to
have lured mariners to destruction.
ARES (MARS).
Ares, the son of Zeus and Hera, was the god of war, who gloried in strife
for its own sake; he loved the tumult and havoc of the battlefield, and
delighted in slaughter and extermination; in fact he presents no benevolent
aspect which could possibly react favourably upon human life.
Epic poets, in particular, represent the god of battles as a wild
ungovernable warrior, who passes through the armies like a whirlwind,
hurling to the ground the brave and cowardly alike; destroying chariots and
helmets, and triumphing over the terrible desolation which he produces.
In all the myths concerning Ares, his sister Athene ever appears in
opposition to him, endeavouring by every means in her power to defeat his
bloodthirsty designs. Thus she assists the divine hero Diomedes at the
siege of Troy, to overcome Ares in battle, and so well does he profit by
her timely aid, that he succeeds in wounding the sanguinary war-god, who
makes his exit from the field, roaring like ten thousand bulls.
{113}
Ares appears to have been an object of aversion to all the gods of Olympus,
Aphrodite alone excepted. As the son of Hera, he had inherited from his
mother the strongest feelings of independence and contradiction, and as he
took delight in upsetting that peaceful course of state-life which it was
pre-eminently the care of Zeus to establish, he was naturally disliked and
even hated by him.
When wounded by Diomedes, as above related, he complains to his father, but
receives no sympathy from the otherwise kindly and beneficent ruler of
Olympus, who thus angrily addresses him: "Do not trouble me with thy
complaints, thou who art of all the gods of Olympus most hateful to me, for
thou delightest in nought save war and strife. The very spirit of thy
mother lives in thee, and wert thou not my son, long ago wouldst thou have
lain deeper down in the bowels of the earth than the son of Uranus."
[Illustration]
Ares, upon one occasion, incurred the anger of Poseidon by slaying his son
Halirrhothios, who had insulted Alcippe, the daughter of the war-god. For
this deed, Poseidon summoned Ares to appear before the tribunal of the
Olympic gods, which was held upon a hill in Athens. Ares was acquitted, and
this event is supposed to have given rise to the name Areopagus (or Hill of
Ares), which afterwards became so famous as a court of justice. In the
Gigantomachia, Ares was defeated by the Aloidae, the two giant-sons of
Poseidon, who put him in chains, and kept him in prison for thirteen
months.
Ares is represented as a man of youthful appearance; his tall muscular form
combines great strength with wonderful agility. In his right hand he bears
a sword or a mighty lance, while on the left arm he carries his round
shield (see next page). His demoniacal surroundings are Terror and
Fear;[44] Enyo, the goddess of the war-cry; Keidomos, the demon of the
noise of battles; and Eris (Contention), his twin-sister and companion, who
always {114} precedes his chariot when he rushes to the fight, the latter
being evidently a simile of the poets to express the fact that war follows
contention.
Eris is represented as a woman of florid complexion, with dishevelled hair,
and her whole appearance angry and menacing. In one hand she brandishes a
poniard and a hissing adder, whilst in the other she carries a burning
torch. Her dress is torn and disorderly, and her hair intertwined with
venomous snakes. This divinity was never invoked by mortals, except when
they desired her assistance for the accomplishment of evil purposes.
MARS.
The Roman divinity most closely resembling the Greek Ares, and identified
with him, was called Mars, Mamers, and Marspiter or Father Mars.
The earliest Italian tribes, who were mostly engaged in the pursuit of
husbandry, regarded this deity more especially as the god of spring, who
vanquished the powers of winter, and encouraged the peaceful arts of
agriculture. But with the Romans, who were an essentially warlike nation,
Mars gradually loses his peaceful character, and, as god of war, attains,
after Jupiter, the highest position among the Olympic gods. The Romans
looked upon him as their special protector, and declared him to have been
the father of Romulus and Remus, the founders of their city. But although
he was especially {115} worshipped in Rome as god of war, he still
continued to preside over agriculture, and was also the protecting deity
who watched over the welfare of the state.
As the god who strode with warlike step to the battlefield, he was called
Gradivus (from _gradus_, a step), it being popularly believed by the Romans
that he himself marched before them to battle, and acted as their invisible
protector. As the presiding deity over agriculture, he was styled Sylvanus,
whilst in his character as guardian of the state, he bore the name of
Quirinus.[45]
The priests of Mars were twelve in number, and were called Salii, or the
dancers, from the fact that sacred dances, in full armour, formed an
important item in their peculiar ceremonial. This religious order, the
members of which were always chosen from the noblest families in Rome, was
first instituted by Numa Pompilius, who intrusted to their special charge
the Anciliae, or sacred shields. It is said that one morning, when Numa was
imploring the protection of Jupiter for the newly-founded city of Rome, the
god of heaven, as though in answer to his prayer, sent down an oblong
brazen shield, and, as it fell at the feet of the king, a voice was heard
announcing that on its preservation depended the future safety and
prosperity of Rome. In order, therefore, to lessen the chances of this
sacred treasure being abstracted, Numa caused eleven more to be made
exactly like it, which were then given into the care of the Salii.
The assistance and protection of the god of war was always solemnly invoked
before the departure of a Roman army for the field of battle, and any
reverses of fortune were invariably ascribed to his anger, which was
accordingly propitiated by means of extraordinary sin-offerings and
prayers.
In Rome a field, called the Campus Martius, was dedicated to Mars. It was a
large, open space, in which armies were collected and reviewed, general
assemblies of {116} the people held, and the young nobility trained to
martial exercises.
The most celebrated and magnificent of the numerous temples built by the
Romans in honour of this deity was the one erected by Augustus in the
Forum, to commemorate the overthrow of the murderers of Caesar.
Of all existing statues of Mars the most renowned is that in the Villa
Ludovisi at Rome, in which he is represented as a powerful, muscular man in
the full vigour of youth. The attitude is that of thoughtful repose, but
the short, curly hair, dilated nostrils, and strongly marked features leave
no doubt as to the force and turbulence of his character. At his feet, the
sculptor has placed the little god of love, who looks up all undaunted at
the mighty war-god, as though mischievously conscious that this unusually
quiet mood is attributable to his influence.
Religious festivals in honour of Mars were generally held in the month of
March; but he had also a festival on the Ides of October, when
chariot-races took place, after which, the right-hand horse of the team
which had drawn the victorious chariot, was sacrificed to him. In ancient
times, human sacrifices, more especially prisoners of war, were offered to
him; but, at a later period, this cruel practice was discontinued.
The attributes of this divinity are the helmet, shield, and spear. The
animals consecrated to him were the wolf, horse, vulture, and woodpecker.
Intimately associated with Mars in his character as god of war, was a
goddess called BELLONA, who was evidently the female divinity of battle
with one or other of the primitive nations of Italy (most probably the
Sabines), and is usually seen accompanying Mars, whose war-chariot she
guides. Bellona appears on the battle-field, inspired with mad rage,
cruelty, and the love of extermination. She is in full armour, her hair is
dishevelled, and she bears a scourge in one hand, and a lance in the other.
A temple was erected to her on the Campus Martius. Before the entrance to
this edifice stood a pillar, over which a spear was thrown when war was
publicly declared. {117}
NIKE (VICTORIA).
Nike, the goddess of victory, was the daughter of the Titan Pallas, and of
Styx, the presiding nymph of the river of that name in the lower world.
In her statues, Nike somewhat resembles Athene, but may easily be
recognized by her large, graceful wings and flowing drapery, which is
negligently fastened on the right shoulder, and only partially conceals her
lovely form. In her left hand, she holds aloft a crown of laurel, and in
the right, a palm-branch. In ancient sculpture, Nike is usually represented
in connection with colossal statues of Zeus or Pallas-Athene, in which case
she is life-sized, and stands on a ball, held in the open palm of the deity
she accompanies. Sometimes she is represented engaged in inscribing the
victory of a conqueror on his shield, her right foot being slightly raised
and placed on a ball.
A celebrated temple was erected to this divinity on the Acropolis at
Athens, which is still to be seen, and is in excellent preservation.
VICTORIA.
Under the name of Victoria, Nike was highly honoured by the Romans, with
whom love of conquest was an all-absorbing characteristic. There were
several sanctuaries in Rome dedicated to her, the principal of which was on
the Capitol, where it was the custom of generals, after success had
attended their arms, to erect statues of the goddess in commemoration of
their victories. The most magnificent of these statues, was that raised by
Augustus after the battle of Actium. A festival was celebrated in honour of
Nike on the 12th of April.
HERMES (MERCURY).
Hermes was the swift-footed messenger, and trusted ambassador of all the
gods, and conductor of shades to Hades. He presided over the rearing and
education of {118} the young, and encouraged gymnastic exercises and
athletic pursuits, for which reason, all gymnasiums and wrestling schools
throughout Greece were adorned with his statues. He is said to have
invented the alphabet, and to have taught the art of interpreting foreign
languages, and his versatility, sagacity, and cunning were so
extraordinary, that Zeus invariably chose him as his attendant, when,
disguised as a mortal, he journeyed on earth.
Hermes was worshipped as god of eloquence, most probably from the fact
that, in his office as ambassador, this faculty was indispensable to the
successful issue of the negotiations with which he was intrusted. He was
regarded as the god who granted increase and prosperity to flocks and
herds, and, on this account, was worshipped with special veneration by
herdsmen.
In ancient times, trade was conducted chiefly by means of the exchange of
cattle. Hermes, therefore, as god of herdsmen, came to be regarded as the
protector of merchants, and, as ready wit and adroitness are valuable
qualities both in buying and selling, he was also looked upon as the patron
of artifice and cunning. Indeed, so deeply was this notion rooted in the
minds of the Greek people, that he was popularly believed to be also god of
thieves, and of all persons who live by their wits.
[Illustration]
As the patron of commerce, Hermes was naturally supposed to be the promoter
of intercourse among nations; hence, he is essentially the god of
travellers, over whose safety he presided, and he severely punished those
who refused assistance to the lost or weary wayfarer. He was also guardian
of streets and roads, and his statues, called Hermae (which were pillars of
stone surmounted by a head of Hermes), were placed at cross-roads, and
frequently in streets and public squares.
Being the god of all undertakings in which gain was a feature, he was
worshipped as the giver of wealth and {119} good luck, and any unexpected
stroke of fortune was attributed to his influence. He also presided over
the game of dice, in which he is said to have been instructed by Apollo.
Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia, the eldest and most beautiful of the
seven Pleiades (daughters of Atlas), and was born in a cave of Mount
Cyllene in Arcadia. As a mere babe, he exhibited an extraordinary faculty
for cunning and dissimulation; in fact, he was a thief from his cradle,
for, not many hours after his birth, we find him creeping stealthily out of
the cave in which he was born, in order to steal some oxen belonging to his
brother Apollo, who was at this time feeding the flocks of Admetus. But he
had not proceeded very far on his expedition before he found a tortoise,
which he killed, and, stretching seven strings across the empty shell,
invented a lyre, upon which he at once began to play with exquisite skill.
When he had sufficiently amused himself with the instrument, he placed it
in his cradle, and then resumed his journey to Pieria, where the cattle of
Admetus were grazing. Arriving at sunset at his destination, he succeeded
in separating fifty oxen from his brother's herd, which he now drove before
him, taking the precaution to cover his feet with sandals made of twigs of
myrtle, in order to escape detection. But the little rogue was not
unobserved, for the theft had been witnessed by an old shepherd named
Battus, who was tending the flocks of Neleus, king of Pylos (father of
Nestor). Hermes, frightened at being discovered, bribed him with the finest
cow in the herd not to betray him, and Battus promised to keep the secret.
But Hermes, astute as he was dishonest, determined to test the shepherd's
integrity. Feigning to go away, he assumed the form of Admetus, and then
returning to the spot offered the old man two of his best oxen if he would
disclose the author of the theft. The ruse succeeded, for the avaricious
shepherd, unable to resist the tempting bait, gave the desired information,
upon which Hermes, exerting his divine power, changed him into a lump of
touchstone, as a {120} punishment for his treachery and avarice. Hermes now
killed two of the oxen, which he sacrificed to himself and the other gods,
concealing the remainder in the cave. He then carefully extinguished the
fire, and, after throwing his twig shoes into the river Alpheus, returned
to Cyllene.
Apollo, by means of his all-seeing power, soon discovered who it was that
had robbed him, and hastening to Cyllene, demanded restitution of his
property. On his complaining to Maia of her son's conduct, she pointed to
the innocent babe then lying, apparently fast asleep, in his cradle,
whereupon, Apollo angrily aroused the pretended sleeper, and charged him
with the theft; but the child stoutly denied all knowledge of it, and so
cleverly did he play his part, that he even inquired in the most naive
manner what sort of animals cows were. Apollo threatened to throw him into
Tartarus if he would not confess the truth, but all to no purpose. At last,
he seized the babe in his arms, and brought him into the presence of his
august father, who was seated in the council chamber of the gods. Zeus
listened to the charge made by Apollo, and then sternly desired Hermes to
say where he had hidden the cattle. The child, who was still in
swaddling-clothes, looked up bravely into his father's face and said, "Now,
do I look capable of driving away a herd of cattle; I, who was only born
yesterday, and whose feet are much too soft and tender to tread in rough
places? Until this moment, I lay in sweet sleep on my mother's bosom, and
have never even crossed the threshold of our dwelling. You know well that I
am not guilty; but, if you wish, I will affirm it by the most solemn
oaths." As the child stood before him, looking the picture of innocence,
Zeus could not refrain from smiling at his cleverness and cunning, but,
being perfectly aware of his guilt, he commanded him to conduct Apollo to
the cave where he had concealed the herd, and Hermes, seeing that further
subterfuge was useless, unhesitatingly obeyed. But when the divine shepherd
was about to drive his cattle back into Pieria, Hermes, as though by
chance, touched the chords of his {121} lyre. Hitherto Apollo had heard
nothing but the music of his own three-stringed lyre and the syrinx, or
Pan's pipe, and, as he listened entranced to the delightful strains of this
new instrument, his longing to possess it became so great, that he gladly
offered the oxen in exchange, promising at the same time, to give Hermes
full dominion over flocks and herds, as well as over horses, and all the
wild animals of the woods and forests. The offer was accepted, and, a
reconciliation being thus effected between the brothers, Hermes became
henceforth god of herdsmen, whilst Apollo devoted himself enthusiastically
to the art of music.
[Illustration]
They now proceeded together to Olympus, where Apollo introduced Hermes as
his chosen friend and companion, and, having made him swear by the Styx,
that he would never steal his lyre or bow, nor invade his sanctuary at
Delphi, he presented him with the Caduceus, or golden wand. This wand was
surmounted by wings, and on presenting it to Hermes, Apollo informed him
that it possessed the faculty of uniting in love, all beings divided by
hate. Wishing to prove the truth of this assertion, Hermes threw it down
between two snakes which were fighting, whereupon the angry combatants
clasped each other in a loving embrace, and curling round the staff,
remained ever after permanently attached to it. The wand itself typified
power; the serpents, wisdom; and the wings, despatch--all qualities
characteristic of a trustworthy ambassador.
The young god was now presented by his father with a winged silver cap
(Petasus), and also with silver wings for his feet (Talaria), and was
forthwith appointed herald of the gods, and conductor of shades to Hades,
which office had hitherto been filled by Aides.
As messenger of the gods, we find him employed on all occasions requiring
special skill, tact, or despatch. Thus he conducts Hera, Athene, and
Aphrodite to Paris, leads Priam to Achilles to demand the body of Hector,
{122} binds Prometheus to Mount Caucasus, secures Ixion to the eternally
revolving wheel, destroys Argus, the hundred-eyed guardian of Io, &c. &c.
As conductor of shades, Hermes was always invoked by the dying to grant
them a safe and speedy passage across the Styx. He also possessed the power
of bringing back departed spirits to the upper world, and was, therefore,
the mediator between the living and the dead.
The poets relate many amusing stories of the youthful tricks played by this
mischief-loving god upon the other immortals. For instance, he had the
audacity to extract the Medusa's head from the shield of Athene, which he
playfully attached to the back of Hephaestus; he also stole the girdle of
Aphrodite; deprived Artemis of her arrows, and Ares of his spear, but these
acts were always performed with such graceful dexterity, combined with such
perfect good humour, that even the gods and goddesses he thus provoked,
were fain to pardon him, and he became a universal favourite with them all.
It is said that Hermes was one day flying over Athens, when, looking down
into the city, he beheld a number of maidens returning in solemn procession
from the temple of Pallas-Athene. Foremost among them was Herse, the
beautiful daughter of king Cecrops, and Hermes was so struck with her
exceeding loveliness that he determined to seek an interview with her. He
accordingly presented himself at the royal palace, and begged her sister
Agraulos to favour his suit; but, being of an avaricious turn of mind, she
refused to do so without the payment of an enormous sum of money. It did
not take the messenger of the gods long to obtain the means of fulfilling
this condition, and he soon returned with a well-filled purse. But
meanwhile Athene, to punish the cupidity of Agraulos, had caused the demon
of envy to take possession of her, and the consequence was, that, being
unable to contemplate the happiness of her sister, she sat down before the
door, and resolutely refused to allow Hermes to enter. He tried every
persuasion and blandishment in his power, but she still remained obstinate.
At last, his patience {123} being exhausted, he changed her into a mass of
black stone, and, the obstacle to his wishes being removed, he succeeded in
persuading Herse to become his wife.
[Illustration]
In his statues, Hermes is represented as a beardless youth, with broad
chest and graceful but muscular limbs; the face is handsome and
intelligent, and a genial smile of kindly benevolence plays round the
delicately chiselled lips.
As messenger of the gods he wears the Petasus and Talaria, and bears in his
hand the Caduceus or herald's staff.
As god of eloquence, he is often represented with chains of gold hanging
from his lips, whilst, as the patron of merchants, he bears a purse in his
hand.
The wonderful excavations in Olympia, to which allusion has already been
made, have brought to light an exquisite marble group of Hermes and the
infant Bacchus, by Praxiteles. In this great work of art, Hermes is
represented as a young and handsome man, who is looking down kindly and
affectionately at the child resting on his arm, but unfortunately nothing
remains of the infant save the right hand, which is laid lovingly on the
shoulder of his protector.
The sacrifices to Hermes consisted of incense, honey, cakes, pigs, and
especially lambs and young goats. As god of eloquence, the tongues of
animals were sacrificed to him.
MERCURY.
Mercury was the Roman god of commerce and gain. We find mention of a temple
having been erected to him {124} near the Circus Maximus as early as B.C.
495; and he had also a temple and a sacred fount near the Porta Capena.
Magic powers were ascribed to the latter, and on the festival of Mercury,
which took place on the 25th of May, it was the custom for merchants to
sprinkle themselves and their merchandise with this holy water, in order to
insure large profits from their wares.
The Fetiales (Roman priests whose duty it was to act as guardians of the
public faith) refused to recognize the identity of Mercury with Hermes, and
ordered him to be represented with a sacred branch as the emblem of peace,
instead of the Caduceus. In later times, however, he was completely
identified with the Greek Hermes.
DIONYSUS (BACCHUS).
Dionysus, also called Bacchus (from _bacca_, berry), was the god of wine,
and the personification of the blessings of Nature in general.
[Illustration]
The worship of this divinity, which is supposed to have been introduced
into Greece from Asia (in all probability from India), first took root in
Thrace, whence it gradually spread into other parts of Greece.
Dionysus was the son of Zeus and Semele, and was snatched by Zeus from the
devouring flames in which his mother perished, when he appeared to her in
all the splendour of his divine glory. The motherless child was intrusted
to the charge of Hermes, who conveyed him to Semele's sister, Ino. But
Hera, still implacable in her vengeance, visited Athamas, the husband of
Ino, with madness, {125} and the child's life being no longer safe, he was
transferred to the fostering care of the nymphs of Mount Nysa. An aged
satyr named Silenus, the son of Pan, took upon himself the office of
guardian and preceptor to the young god, who, in his turn, became much
attached to his kind tutor; hence we see Silenus always figuring as one of
the chief personages in the various expeditions of the wine-god.
Dionysus passed an innocent and uneventful childhood, roaming through the
woods and forests, surrounded by nymphs, satyrs, and shepherds. During one
of these rambles, he found a fruit growing wild, of a most refreshing and
cooling nature. This was the vine, from which he subsequently learnt to
extract a juice which formed a most exhilarating beverage. After his
companions had partaken freely of it, they felt their whole being pervaded
by an unwonted sense of pleasurable excitement, and gave full vent to their
overflowing exuberance, by shouting, singing, and dancing. Their numbers
were soon swelled by a crowd, eager to taste a beverage productive of such
extraordinary results, and anxious to join in the worship of a divinity to
whom they were indebted for this new enjoyment. Dionysus, on his part,
seeing how agreeably his discovery had affected his immediate followers,
resolved to extend the boon to mankind in general. He saw that wine, used
in moderation, would enable man to enjoy a happier, and more sociable
existence, and that, under its invigorating influence, the sorrowful might,
for a while, forget their grief and the sick their pain. He accordingly
gathered round him his zealous followers, and they set forth on their
travels, planting the vine and teaching its cultivation wherever they went.
We now behold Dionysus at the head of a large army composed of men, women,
fauns, and satyrs, all bearing in their hands the Thyrsus (a staff entwined
with vine-branches surmounted by a fir-cone), and clashing together cymbals
and other musical instruments. Seated in a chariot drawn by panthers, and
accompanied by thousands of enthusiastic followers, Dionysus made a
triumphal {126} progress through Syria, Egypt, Arabia, India, &c.,
conquering all before him, founding cities, and establishing on every side
a more civilized and sociable mode of life among the inhabitants of the
various countries through which he passed.
When Dionysus returned to Greece from his Eastern expedition, he
encountered great opposition from Lycurgus, king of Thrace, and Pentheus,
king of Thebes. The former, highly disapproving of the wild revels which
attended the worship of the wine-god, drove away his attendants, the nymphs
of Nysa, from that sacred mountain, and so effectually intimidated
Dionysus, that he precipitated himself into the sea, where he was received
into the arms of the ocean-nymph, Thetis. But the impious king bitterly
expiated his sacrilegious conduct. He was punished with the loss of his
reason, and, during one of his mad paroxysms, killed his own son Dryas,
whom he mistook for a vine.
Pentheus, king of Thebes, seeing his subjects so completely infatuated by
the riotous worship of this new divinity, and fearing the demoralizing
effects of the unseemly nocturnal orgies held in honour of the wine-god,
strictly prohibited his people from taking any part in the wild
Bacchanalian revels. Anxious to save him from the consequences of his
impiety, Dionysus appeared to him under the form of a youth in the king's
train, and earnestly warned him to desist from his denunciations. But the
well-meant admonition failed in its purpose, for Pentheus only became more
incensed at this interference, and, commanding Dionysus to be cast into
prison, caused the most cruel preparations to be made for his immediate
execution. But the god soon freed himself from his ignoble confinement, for
scarcely had his jailers departed, ere the prison-doors opened of
themselves, and, bursting asunder his iron chains, he escaped to rejoin his
devoted followers.
Meanwhile, the mother of the king and her sisters, inspired with
Bacchanalian fury, had repaired to Mount Cithaeron, in order to join the
worshippers of the {127} wine-god in those dreadful orgies which were
solemnized exclusively by women, and at which no man was allowed to be
present. Enraged at finding his commands thus openly disregarded by the
members of his own family, Pentheus resolved to witness for himself the
excesses of which he had heard such terrible reports, and for this purpose,
concealed himself behind a tree on Mount Cithaeron; but his hiding-place
being discovered, he was dragged out by the half-maddened crew of
Bacchantes and, horrible to relate, he was torn in pieces by his own mother
Agave and her two sisters.
An incident which occurred to Dionysus on one of his travels has been a
favourite subject with the classic poets. One day, as some Tyrrhenian
pirates approached the shores of Greece, they beheld Dionysus, in the form
of a beautiful youth, attired in radiant garments. Thinking to secure a
rich prize, they seized him, bound him, and conveyed him on board their
vessel, resolved to carry him with them to Asia and there sell him as a
slave. But the fetters dropped from his limbs, and the pilot, who was the
first to perceive the miracle, called upon his companions to restore the
youth carefully to the spot whence they had taken him, assuring them that
he was a god, and that adverse winds and storms would, in all probability,
result from their impious conduct. But, refusing to part with their
prisoner, they set sail for the open sea. Suddenly, to the alarm of all on
board, the ship stood still, masts and sails were covered with clustering
vines and wreaths of ivy-leaves, streams of fragrant wine inundated the
vessel, and heavenly strains of music were heard around. The terrified
crew, too late repentant, crowded round the pilot for protection, and
entreated him to steer for the shore. But the hour of retribution had
arrived. Dionysus assumed the form of a lion, whilst beside him appeared a
bear, which, with a terrific roar, rushed upon the captain and tore him in
pieces; the sailors, in an agony of terror, leaped overboard, and were
changed into dolphins. The discreet and pious steersman was alone permitted
to escape the fate of his companions, {128} and to him Dionysus, who had
resumed his true form, addressed words of kind and affectionate
encouragement, and announced his name and dignity. They now set sail, and
Dionysus desired the pilot to land him at the island of Naxos, where he
found the lovely Ariadne, daughter of Minos, king of Crete. She had been
abandoned by Theseus on this lonely spot, and, when Dionysus now beheld
her, was lying fast asleep on a rock, worn out with sorrow and weeping.
Wrapt in admiration, the god stood gazing at the beautiful vision before
him, and when she at length unclosed her eyes, he revealed himself to her,
and, in gentle tones, sought to banish her grief. Grateful for his kind
sympathy, coming as it did at a moment when she had deemed herself forsaken
and friendless, she gradually regained her former serenity, and, yielding
to his entreaties, consented to become his wife.
Dionysus, having established his worship in various parts of the world,
descended to the realm of shades in search of his ill-fated mother, whom he
conducted to Olympus, where, under the name of Thyone, she was admitted
into the assembly of the immortal gods.
Among the most noted worshippers of Dionysus was Midas,[46] the wealthy
king of Phrygia, the same who, as already related, gave judgment against
Apollo. Upon one occasion Silenus, the preceptor and friend of Dionysus,
being in an intoxicated condition, strayed into the rose-gardens of this
monarch, where he was found by some of the king's attendants, who bound him
with roses and conducted him to the presence of their royal master. Midas
treated the aged satyr with the greatest consideration, and, after
entertaining him hospitably for ten days, led him back to Dionysus, who was
so grateful for the kind attention shown to his old friend, that he offered
to grant Midas any favour he chose to demand; whereupon the avaricious
monarch, not content with his boundless wealth, and still thirsting for
more, desired that everything he touched might turn to gold. The request
was {129} complied with in so literal a sense, that the now wretched Midas
bitterly repented his folly and cupidity, for, when the pangs of hunger
assailed him, and he essayed to appease his cravings, the food became gold
ere he could swallow it; as he raised the cup of wine to his parched lips,
the sparkling draught was changed into the metal he had so coveted, and
when at length, wearied and faint, he stretched his aching frame on his
hitherto luxurious couch, this also was transformed into the substance
which had now become the curse of his existence. The despairing king at
last implored the god to take back the fatal gift, and Dionysus, pitying
his unhappy plight, desired him to bathe in the river Pactolus, a small
stream in Lydia, in order to lose the power which had become the bane of
his life. Midas joyfully obeying the injunction, was at once freed from the
consequences of his avaricious demand, and from this time forth the sands
of the river Pactolus have ever contained grains of gold.
Representations of Dionysus are of two kinds. According to the earliest
conceptions, he appears as a grave and dignified man in the prime of life;
his countenance is earnest, thoughtful, and benevolent; he wears a full
beard, and is draped from head to foot in the garb of an Eastern monarch.
But the sculptors of a later period represent him as a youth of singular
beauty, though of somewhat effeminate appearance; the expression of the
countenance is gentle and winning; the limbs are supple and gracefully
moulded; and the hair, which is adorned by a wreath of vine or ivy leaves,
falls over the shoulders in long curls. In one hand he bears the Thyrsus,
and in the other a drinking-cup with two handles, these being his
distinguishing attributes. He is often represented riding on a panther, or
seated in a chariot drawn by lions, tigers, panthers, or lynxes.
Being the god of wine, which is calculated to promote sociability, he
rarely appears alone, but is usually accompanied by Bacchantes, satyrs, and
mountain-nymphs.
The finest modern representation of Ariadne is that by Danneker, at
Frankfort-on-the-Maine. In this statue she {130} appears riding on a
panther; the beautiful upturned face inclines slightly over the left
shoulder; the features are regular and finely cut, and a wreath of
ivy-leaves encircles the well-shaped head. With her right hand she
gracefully clasps the folds of drapery which fall away negligently from her
rounded form, whilst the other rests lightly and caressingly on the head of
the animal.
Dionysus was regarded as the patron of the drama, and at the state festival
of the Dionysia, which was celebrated with great pomp in the city of
Athens, dramatic entertainments took place in his honour, for which all the
renowned Greek dramatists of antiquity composed their immortal tragedies
and comedies.
He was also a prophetic divinity, and possessed oracles, the principal of
which was that on Mount Rhodope in Thrace.
The tiger, lynx, panther, dolphin, serpent, and ass were sacred to this
god. His favourite plants were the vine, ivy, laurel, and asphodel. His
sacrifices consisted of goats, probably on account of their being
destructive to vineyards.
BACCHUS OR LIBER.
The Romans had a divinity called Liber who presided over vegetation, and
was, on this account, identified with the Greek Dionysus, and worshipped
under the name of Bacchus.
The festival of Liber, called the Liberalia, was celebrated on the 17th of
March.
AIDES (PLUTO).
Aides, Aidoneus, or Hades, was the son of Cronus and Rhea, and the youngest
brother of Zeus and Poseidon. He was the ruler of that subterranean region
called Erebus, which was inhabited by the shades or spirits of the dead,
and also by those dethroned and exiled deities who had been vanquished by
Zeus and his allies. Aides, the grim and gloomy monarch of this lower
world, was the {131} successor of Erebus, that ancient primeval divinity
after whom these realms were called.
The early Greeks regarded Aides in the light of their greatest foe, and
Homer tells us that he was "of all the gods the most detested," being in
their eyes the grim robber who stole from them their nearest and dearest,
and eventually deprived each of them of their share in terrestrial
existence. His name was so feared that it was never mentioned by mortals,
who, when they invoked him, struck the earth with their hands, and in
sacrificing to him turned away their faces.
The belief of the people with regard to a future state was, in the Homeric
age, a sad and cheerless one. It was supposed that when a mortal ceased to
exist, his spirit tenanted the shadowy outline of the human form it had
quitted. These shadows, or shades as they were called, were driven by Aides
into his dominions, where they passed their time, some in brooding over the
vicissitudes of fortune which they had experienced on earth, others in
regretting the lost pleasures they had enjoyed in life, but all in a
condition of semi-consciousness, from which the intellect could only be
roused to full activity by drinking of the blood of the sacrifices offered
to their shades by living friends, which, for a time, endowed them with
their former mental vigour. The only beings supposed to enjoy any happiness
in a future state were the heroes, whose acts of daring and deeds of
prowess had, during their life, reflected honour on the land of their
birth; and even these, according to Homer, pined after their career of
earthly activity. He tells us that when Odysseus visited the lower world at
the command of Circe, and held communion with the shades of the heroes of
the Trojan war, Achilles assured him that he would rather be the poorest
day-labourer on earth than reign supreme over the realm of shades.
The early Greek poets offer but scanty allusions to Erebus. Homer appears
purposely to envelop these realms in vagueness and mystery, in order,
probably, to heighten the sensation of awe inseparably connected with {132}
the lower world. In the Odyssey he describes the entrance to Erebus as
being beyond the furthermost edge of Oceanus, in the far west, where dwelt
the Cimmerians, enveloped in eternal mists and darkness.
In later times, however, in consequence of extended intercourse with
foreign nations, new ideas became gradually introduced, and we find
Egyptian theories with regard to a future state taking root in Greece,
which become eventually the religious belief of the whole nation. It is now
that the poets and philosophers, and more especially the teachers of the
Eleusinian Mysteries, begin to inculcate the doctrine of the future reward
and punishment of good and bad deeds. Aides, who had hitherto been regarded
as the dread enemy of mankind, who delights in his grim office, and keeps
the shades imprisoned in his dominions after withdrawing them from the joys
of existence, now receives them with hospitality and friendship, and Hermes
replaces him as conductor of shades to Hades. Under this new aspect Aides
usurps the functions of a totally different divinity called Plutus (the god
of riches), and is henceforth regarded as the giver of wealth to mankind,
in the shape of those precious metals which lie concealed in the bowels of
the earth.
The later poets mention various entrances to Erebus, which were for the
most part caves and fissures. There was one in the mountain of Taenarum,
another in Thesprotia, and a third, the most celebrated of all, in Italy,
near the pestiferous Lake Avernus, over which it is said no bird could fly,
so noxious were its exhalations.
In the dominions of Aides there were four great rivers, three of which had
to be crossed by all the shades. These three were Acheron (sorrow), Cocytus
(lamentation), and Styx (intense darkness), the sacred stream which flowed
nine times round these realms.
The shades were ferried over the Styx by the grim, unshaven old boatman
Charon, who, however, only took those whose bodies had received funereal
rites on earth, and who had brought with them his indispensable toll, which
was a small coin or obolus, usually placed under the {133} tongue of a dead
person for this purpose. If these conditions had not been fulfilled, the
unhappy shades were left behind to wander up and down the banks for a
hundred years as restless spirits.
On the opposite bank of the Styx was the tribunal of Minos, the supreme
judge, before whom all shades had to appear, and who, after hearing full
confession of their actions whilst on earth, pronounced the sentence of
happiness or misery to which their deeds had entitled them. This tribunal
was guarded by the terrible triple-headed dog Cerberus, who, with his three
necks bristling with snakes, lay at full length on the ground;--a
formidable sentinel, who permitted all shades to enter, but none to return.
The happy spirits, destined to enjoy the delights of Elysium, passed out on
the right, and proceeded to the golden palace where Aides and Persephone
held their royal court, from whom they received a kindly greeting, ere they
set out for the Elysian Fields which lay beyond.[47] This blissful region
was replete with all that could charm the senses or please the imagination;
the air was balmy and fragrant, rippling brooks flowed peacefully through
the smiling meadows, which glowed with the varied hues of a thousand
flowers, whilst the groves resounded with the joyous songs of birds. The
occupations and amusements of the happy shades were of the same nature as
those which they had delighted in whilst on earth. Here the warrior found
his horses, chariots, and arms, the musician his lyre, and the hunter his
quiver and bow.
In a secluded vale of Elysium there flowed a gentle, silent stream, called
Lethe (oblivion), whose waters had the effect of dispelling care, and
producing utter forgetfulness of former events. According to the
Pythagorean doctrine of the transmigration of souls, it was supposed that
after the shades had inhabited Elysium for a thousand years they were
destined to animate other bodies on {134} earth, and before leaving Elysium
they drank of the river Lethe, in order that they might enter upon their
new career without any remembrance of the past.
The guilty souls, after leaving the presence of Minos, were conducted to
the great judgment-hall of Hades, whose massive walls of solid adamant were
surrounded by the river Phlegethon, the waves of which rolled flames of
fire, and lit up, with their lurid glare, these awful realms. In the
interior sat the dread judge Rhadamanthus, who declared to each comer the
precise torments which awaited him in Tartarus. The wretched sinners were
then seized by the Furies, who scourged them with their whips, and dragged
them along to the great gate, which closed the opening to Tartarus, into
whose awful depths they were hurled, to suffer endless torture.
Tartarus was a vast and gloomy expanse, as far below Hades as the earth is
distant from the skies. There the Titans, fallen from their high estate,
dragged out a dreary and monotonous existence; there also were Otus and
Ephialtes, those giant sons of Poseidon, who, with impious hands, had
attempted to scale Olympus and dethrone its mighty ruler. Principal among
the sufferers in this abode of gloom were Tityus, Tantalus, Sisyphus,
Ixion, and the Danaides.
TITYUS, one of the earth-born giants, had insulted Hera on her way to
Peitho, for which offence Zeus flung him into Tartarus, where he suffered
dreadful torture, inflicted by two vultures, which perpetually gnawed his
liver.
TANTALUS was a wise and wealthy king of Lydia, with whom the gods
themselves condescended to associate; he was even permitted to sit at table
with Zeus, who delighted in his conversation, and listened with interest to
the wisdom of his observations. Tantalus, however, elated at these
distinguished marks of divine favour, presumed upon his position, and used
unbecoming language to Zeus himself; he also stole nectar and ambrosia from
the table of the gods, with which he regaled his friends; but his greatest
crime consisted in killing his own son, {135} Pelops, and serving him up at
one of the banquets to the gods, in order to test their omniscience. For
these heinous offences he was condemned by Zeus to eternal punishment in
Tartarus, where, tortured with an ever-burning thirst, he was plunged up to
the chin in water, which, as he stooped to drink, always receded from his
parched lips. Tall trees, with spreading branches laden with delicious
fruits, hung temptingly over his head; but no sooner did he raise himself
to grasp them, than a wind arose, and carried them beyond his reach.
SISYPHUS was a great tyrant who, according to some accounts, barbarously
murdered all travellers who came into his dominions, by hurling upon them
enormous pieces of rock. In punishment for his crimes he was condemned to
roll incessantly a huge block of stone up a steep hill, which, as soon as
it reached the summit, always rolled back again to the plain below.
IXION was a king of Thessaly to whom Zeus accorded the privilege of joining
the festive banquets of the gods; but, taking advantage of his exalted
position, he presumed to aspire to the favour of Hera, which so greatly
incensed Zeus, that he struck him with his thunderbolts, and commanded
Hermes to throw him into Tartarus, and bind him to an ever-revolving wheel.
The DANAIDES were the fifty daughters of Danaus, king of Argos, who had
married their fifty cousins, the sons of AEgyptus. By the command of their
father, who had been warned by an oracle that his son-in-law would cause
his death, they all killed their husbands in one night, Hypermnestra alone
excepted. Their punishment in the lower world was to fill with water a
vessel full of holes,--a never-ending and useless task.
[Illustration]
Aides is usually represented as a man of mature years and stern majestic
mien, bearing a striking resemblance to his brother Zeus; but the gloomy
and inexorable expression of the face contrasts forcibly with that peculiar
benignity which so characterizes the countenance of the mighty ruler of
heaven. He is seated on a throne of ebony, with his queen, the grave and
sad Persephone, {136} beside him, and wears a full beard, and long flowing
black hair, which hangs straight down over his forehead; in his hand he
either bears a two-pronged fork or the keys of the lower world, and at his
feet sits Cerberus. He is sometimes seen in a chariot of gold, drawn by
four black horses, and wearing on his head a helmet made for him by the
Cyclops, which rendered the wearer invisible. This helmet he frequently
lent to mortals and immortals.
Aides, who was universally worshipped throughout Greece, had temples
erected to his honour in Elis, Olympia, and also at Athens.
His sacrifices, which took place at night, consisted of black sheep, and
the blood, instead of being sprinkled on the altars or received in vessels,
as at other sacrifices, was permitted to run down into a trench, dug for
this purpose. The officiating priests wore black robes, and were crowned
with cypress.
The narcissus, maiden-hair, and cypress were sacred to this divinity.
PLUTO.
Before the introduction into Rome of the religion and literature of Greece,
the Romans had no belief in a realm of future happiness or misery,
corresponding to the Greek Hades; hence they had no god of the lower world
identical with Aides. They supposed that there was, in the centre of the
earth, a vast, gloomy, and impenetrably dark cavity called Orcus, which
formed a place of eternal rest for the dead. But with the introduction of
Greek mythology, the Roman Orcus became the Greek Hades, and {137} all the
Greek notions with regard to a future state now obtained with the Romans,
who worshipped Aides under the name of Pluto, his other appellations being
Dis (from _dives_, rich) and Orcus from the dominions over which he ruled.
In Rome there were no temples erected to this divinity.
PLUTUS.
Plutus, the son of Demeter and a mortal called Iasion, was the god of
wealth, and is represented as being lame when he makes his appearance, and
winged when he takes his departure. He was supposed to be both blind and
foolish, because he bestows his gifts without discrimination, and
frequently upon the most unworthy objects.
Plutus was believed to have his abode in the bowels of the earth, which was
probably the reason why, in later times, Aides became confounded with this
divinity.
* * * * *
MINOR DIVINITIES.
THE HARPIES.
[Illustration]
The Harpies, who, like the Furies, were employed by the gods as instruments
for the punishment of the guilty, were three female divinities, daughters
of Thaumas and Electra, called Aello, Ocypete, and Celaeno.
They were represented with the head of a fair-haired maiden and the body of
a vulture, and were perpetually devoured by the pangs of insatiable hunger,
which caused them to torment their victims by robbing them of their food;
this they either devoured with great {138} gluttony, or defiled in such a
manner as to render it unfit to be eaten.
Their wonderfully rapid flight far surpassed that of birds, or even of the
winds themselves. If any mortal suddenly and unaccountably disappeared, the
Harpies were believed to have carried him off. Thus they were supposed to
have borne away the daughters of King Pandareos to act as servants to the
Erinyes.
The Harpies would appear to be personifications of sudden tempests, which,
with ruthless violence, sweep over whole districts, carrying off or
injuring all before them.
ERINYES, EUMENIDES (FURIAE, DIRAE).
The Erinyes or Furies were female divinities who personified the torturing
pangs of an evil conscience, and the remorse which inevitably follows
wrong-doing.
Their names were Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone, and their origin was
variously accounted for. According to Hesiod, they sprang from the blood of
Uranus, when wounded by Cronus, and were hence supposed to be the
embodiment of all the terrible imprecations, which the defeated deity
called down upon the head of his rebellious son. According to other
accounts they were the daughters of Night.
Their place of abode was the lower world, where they were employed by Aides
and Persephone to chastise and torment those shades who, during their
earthly career, had committed crimes, and had not been reconciled to the
gods before descending to Hades.
But their sphere of action was not confined to the realm of shades, for
they appeared upon earth as the avenging deities who relentlessly pursued
and punished murderers, perjurers, those who had failed in duty to their
parents, in hospitality to strangers, or in the respect due to old age.
Nothing escaped the piercing glance of these terrible divinities, from whom
flight was unavailing, for no corner of the earth was so remote as {139} to
be beyond their reach, nor did any mortal dare to offer to their victims an
asylum from their persecutions.
The Furies are frequently represented with wings; their bodies are black,
blood drips from their eyes, and snakes twine in their hair. In their hands
they bear either a dagger, scourge, torch, or serpent.
When they pursued Orestes they constantly held up a mirror to his horrified
gaze, in which he beheld the face of his murdered mother.
These divinities were also called Eumenides, which signifies the
"well-meaning" or "soothed goddesses;" This appellation was given to them
because they were so feared and dreaded that people dared not call them by
their proper title, and hoped by this means to propitiate their wrath.
In later times the Furies came to be regarded as salutary agencies, who, by
severely punishing sin, upheld the cause of morality and social order, and
thus contributed to the welfare of mankind. They now lose their
awe-inspiring aspect, and are represented, more especially in Athens, as
earnest maidens, dressed, like Artemis, in short tunics suitable for the
chase, but still retaining, in their hands, the wand of office in the form
of a snake.
Their sacrifices consisted of black sheep and a libation composed of a
mixture of honey and water, called Nephalia. A celebrated temple was
erected to the Eumenides at Athens, near the Areopagus.
MOIRAE OR FATES (PARCAE).
The ancients believed that the duration of human existence and the
destinies of mortals were regulated by three sister-goddesses, called
Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, who were the daughters of Zeus and Themis.
The power which they wielded over the fate of man was significantly
indicated under the figure of a thread, which they spun out for the life of
each human being from his birth to the grave. This occupation they divided
between them. Clotho wound the flax round the distaff, {140} ready for her
sister Lachesis, who span out the thread of life, which Atropos, with her
scissors, relentlessly snapt asunder, when the career of an individual was
about to terminate.
Homer speaks of one Moira only, the daughter of Night, who represents the
moral force by which the universe is governed, and to whom both mortals and
immortals were forced to submit, Zeus himself being powerless to avert her
decrees; but in later times this conception of one inexorable,
all-conquering fate became amplified by the poets into that above
described, and the Moirae are henceforth the special presiding deities over
the life and death of mortals.
The Moirae are represented by the poets as stern, inexorable female
divinities, aged, hideous, and also lame, which is evidently meant to
indicate the slow and halting march of destiny, which they controlled.
Painters and sculptors, on the other hand, depicted them as beautiful
maidens of a grave but kindly aspect.