PART I.--MYTHS.

* * * * *

INTRODUCTION.

Before entering upon the many strange beliefs of the ancient Greeks, and

the extraordinary number of gods they worshipped, we must first consider

what kind of beings these divinities were.

In appearance, the gods were supposed to resemble mortals, whom, however,

they far surpassed in beauty, grandeur, and strength; they were also more

commanding in stature, height being considered by the Greeks an attribute

of beauty in man or woman. They resembled human beings in their feelings

and habits, intermarrying and having children, and requiring daily

nourishment to recruit their strength, and refreshing sleep to restore

their energies. Their blood, a bright ethereal fluid called Ichor, never

engendered disease, and, when shed, had the power of producing new life.

The Greeks believed that the mental qualifications of their gods were of a

much higher order than those of men, but nevertheless, as we shall see,

they were not considered to be exempt from human passions, and we

frequently behold them actuated by revenge, deceit, and jealousy. They,

however, always punish the evil-doer, and visit with dire calamities any

impious mortal who dares to neglect their worship or despise their rites.

We often hear of them visiting mankind and partaking of their hospitality,

and not unfrequently both gods and goddesses {8} become attached to

mortals, with whom they unite themselves, the offspring of these unions

being called heroes or demi-gods, who were usually renowned for their great

strength and courage. But although there were so many points of resemblance

between gods and men, there remained the one great characteristic

distinction, viz., that the gods enjoyed immortality. Still, they were not

invulnerable, and we often hear of them being wounded, and suffering in

consequence such exquisite torture that they have earnestly prayed to be

deprived of their privilege of immortality.

The gods knew no limitation of time or space, being able to transport

themselves to incredible distances with the speed of thought. They

possessed the power of rendering themselves invisible at will, and could

assume the forms of men or animals as it suited their convenience. They

could also transform human beings into trees, stones, animals, &c., either

as a punishment for their misdeeds, or as a means of protecting the

individual, thus transformed, from impending danger. Their robes were like

those worn by mortals, but were perfect in form and much finer in texture.

Their weapons also resembled those used by mankind; we hear of spears,

shields, helmets, bows and arrows, &c., being employed by the gods. Each

deity possessed a beautiful chariot, which, drawn by horses or other

animals of celestial breed, conveyed them rapidly over land and sea

according to their pleasure. Most of these divinities lived on the summit

of Mount Olympus, each possessing his or her individual habitation, and all

meeting together on festive occasions in the council-chamber of the gods,

where their banquets were enlivened by the sweet strains of Apollo's lyre,

whilst the beautiful voices of the Muses poured forth their rich melodies

to his harmonious accompaniment. Magnificent temples were erected to their

honour, where they were worshipped with the greatest solemnity; rich gifts

were presented to them, and animals, and indeed sometimes human beings,

were sacrificed on their altars.

In the study of Grecian mythology we meet with some {9} curious, and what

may at first sight appear unaccountable notions. Thus we hear of terrible

giants hurling rocks, upheaving mountains, and raising earthquakes which

engulf whole armies; these ideas, however, may be accounted for by the

awful convulsions of nature, which were in operation in pre-historic times.

Again, the daily recurring phenomena, which to us, who know them to be the

result of certain well-ascertained laws of nature, are so familiar as to

excite no remark, were, to the early Greeks, matter of grave speculation,

and not unfrequently of alarm. For instance, when they heard the awful roar

of thunder, and saw vivid flashes of lightning, accompanied by black clouds

and torrents of rain, they believed that the great god of heaven was angry,

and they trembled at his wrath. If the calm and tranquil sea became

suddenly agitated, and the crested billows rose mountains high, dashing

furiously against the rocks, and threatening destruction to all within

their reach, the sea-god was supposed to be in a furious rage. When they

beheld the sky glowing with the hues of coming day they thought that the

goddess of the dawn, with rosy fingers, was drawing aside the dark veil of

night, to allow her brother, the sun-god, to enter upon his brilliant

career. Thus personifying all the powers of nature, this very imaginative

and highly poetical nation beheld a divinity in every tree that grew, in

every stream that flowed, in the bright beams of the glorious sun, and the

clear, cold rays of the silvery moon; for them the whole universe lived and

breathed, peopled by a thousand forms of grace and beauty.

The most important of these divinities may have been something more than

the mere creations of an active and poetical imagination. They were

possibly human beings who had so distinguished themselves in life by their

preeminence over their fellow-mortals that after death they were deified by

the people among whom they lived, and the poets touched with their magic

wand the details of lives, which, in more prosaic times, would simply have

been recorded as illustrious. {10}

It is highly probable that the reputed actions of these deified beings were

commemorated by bards, who, travelling from one state to another,

celebrated their praise in song; it therefore becomes exceedingly

difficult, nay almost impossible, to separate bare facts from the

exaggerations which never fail to accompany oral traditions.

In order to exemplify this, let us suppose that Orpheus, the son of Apollo,

so renowned for his extraordinary musical powers, had existed at the

present day. We should no doubt have ranked him among the greatest of our

musicians, and honoured him as such; but the Greeks, with their vivid

imagination and poetic license, exaggerated his remarkable gifts, and

attributed to his music supernatural influence over animate and inanimate

nature. Thus we hear of wild beasts tamed, of mighty rivers arrested in

their course, and of mountains being moved by the sweet tones of his voice.

The theory here advanced may possibly prove useful in the future, in

suggesting to the reader the probable basis of many of the extraordinary

accounts we meet with in the study of classical mythology.

And now a few words will be necessary concerning the religious beliefs of

the Romans. When the Greeks first settled in Italy they found in the

country they colonized a mythology belonging to the Celtic inhabitants,

which, according to the Greek custom of paying reverence to all gods, known

or unknown, they readily adopted, selecting and appropriating those

divinities which had the greatest affinity to their own, and thus they

formed a religious belief which naturally bore the impress of its ancient

Greek source. As the primitive Celts, however, were a less civilized people

than the Greeks, their mythology was of a more barbarous character, and

this circumstance, combined with the fact that the Romans were not gifted

with the vivid imagination of their Greek neighbours, leaves its mark on

the Roman mythology, which is far less fertile in fanciful conceits, and

deficient in all those fairy-like stories and wonderfully poetic ideas

which so strongly characterize that of the Greeks.

* * * * *

{11}

ORIGIN OF THE WORLD.--FIRST DYNASTY.

URANUS AND GAEA. (COELUS AND TERRA.)

The ancient Greeks had several different theories with regard to the origin

of the world, but the generally accepted notion was that before this world

came into existence, there was in its place a confused mass of shapeless

elements called Chaos. These elements becoming at length consolidated (by

what means does not appear), resolved themselves into two widely different

substances, the lighter portion of which, soaring on high, formed the sky

or firmament, and constituted itself into a vast, overarching vault, which

protected the firm and solid mass beneath.

Thus came into being the two first great primeval deities of the Greeks,

Uranus and Ge or Gaea.

Uranus, the more refined deity, represented the light and air of heaven,

possessing the distinguishing qualities of light, heat, purity, and

omnipresence, whilst Gaea, the firm, flat,[1] life-sustaining earth, was

worshipped as the great all-nourishing mother. Her many titles refer to her

more or less in this character, and she appears to have been universally

revered among the Greeks, there being scarcely a city in Greece which did

not contain a temple erected in her honour; indeed Gaea was held in such

veneration that her name was always invoked whenever the gods took a solemn

oath, made an emphatic declaration, or implored assistance.

Uranus, the heaven, was believed to have united himself in marriage with

Gaea, the earth; and a moment's reflection will show what a truly poetical,

and also what a logical idea this was; for, taken in a figurative sense,

{12} this union actually does exist. The smiles of heaven produce the

flowers of earth, whereas his long-continued frowns exercise so depressing

an influence upon his loving partner, that she no longer decks herself in

bright and festive robes, but responds with ready sympathy to his

melancholy mood.

The first-born child of Uranus and Gaea was Oceanus,[2] the ocean stream,

that vast expanse of ever-flowing water which encircled the earth. Here we

meet with another logical though fanciful conclusion, which a very slight

knowledge of the workings of nature proves to have been just and true. The

ocean is formed from the rains which descend from heaven and the streams

which flow from earth. By making Oceanus therefore the offspring of Uranus

and Gaea, the ancients, if we take this notion in its literal sense, merely

assert that the ocean is produced by the combined influence of heaven and

earth, whilst at the same time their fervid and poetical imagination led

them to see in this, as in all manifestations of the powers of nature, an

actual, tangible divinity.

But Uranus, the heaven, the embodiment of light, heat, and the breath of

life, produced offspring who were of a much less material nature than his

son Oceanus. These other children of his were supposed to occupy the

intermediate space which divided him from Gaea. Nearest to Uranus, and just

beneath him, came Aether (Ether), a bright creation representing that

highly rarified atmosphere which immortals alone could breathe. Then

followed Aer (Air), which was in close proximity to Gaea, and represented,

as its name implies, the grosser atmosphere surrounding the earth which

mortals could freely breathe, and without which they would perish. Aether

and Aer were separated from each other by divinities called Nephelae. These

were their restless and wandering sisters, who existed in the form of

clouds, ever {13} floating between Aether and Aer. Gaea also produced the

mountains, and Pontus (the sea). She united herself with the latter, and

their offspring were the sea-deities Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and

Eurybia.

Co-existent with Uranus and Gaea were two mighty powers who were also the

offspring of Chaos. These were Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night), who

formed a striking contrast to the cheerful light of heaven and the bright

smiles of earth. Erebus reigned in that mysterious world below where no ray

of sunshine, no gleam of daylight, nor vestige of health-giving terrestrial

life ever appeared. Nyx, the sister of Erebus, represented Night, and was

worshipped by the ancients with the greatest solemnity.

Uranus was also supposed to have been united to Nyx, but only in his

capacity as god of light, he being considered the source and fountain of

all light, and their children were Eos (Aurora), the Dawn, and Hemera, the

Daylight. Nyx again, on her side was also doubly united, having been

married at some indefinite period to Erebus.

In addition to those children of heaven and earth already enumerated,

Uranus and Gaea produced two distinctly different races of beings called

Giants and Titans. The Giants personified brute strength alone, but the

Titans united to their great physical power intellectual qualifications

variously developed. There were three Giants, Briareus, Cottus, and Gyges,

who each possessed a hundred hands and fifty heads, and were known

collectively by the name of the Hecatoncheires, which signified

hundred-handed. These mighty Giants could shake the universe and produce

earthquakes; it is therefore evident that they represented those active

subterranean forces to which allusion has been made in the opening chapter.

The Titans were twelve in number; their names were: Oceanus, Ceos, Crios,

Hyperion, Iapetus, Cronus, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, and

Tethys.

Now Uranus, the chaste light of heaven, the essence of all that is bright

and pleasing, held in abhorrence his {14} crude, rough, and turbulent

offspring, the Giants, and moreover feared that their great power might

eventually prove hurtful to himself. He therefore hurled them into

Tartarus, that portion of the lower world which served as the subterranean

dungeon of the gods. In order to avenge the oppression of her children, the

Giants, Gaea instigated a conspiracy on the part of the Titans against

Uranus, which was carried to a successful issue by her son Cronus. He

wounded his father, and from the blood of the wound which fell upon the

earth sprang a race of monstrous beings also called Giants. Assisted by his

brother-Titans, Cronus succeeded in dethroning his father, who, enraged at

his defeat, cursed his rebellious son, and foretold to him a similar fate.

Cronus now became invested with supreme power, and assigned to his brothers

offices of distinction, subordinate only to himself. Subsequently, however,

when, secure of his position, he no longer needed their assistance, he

basely repaid their former services with treachery, made war upon his

brothers and faithful allies, and, assisted by the Giants, completely

defeated them, sending such as resisted his all-conquering arm down into

the lowest depths of Tartarus.

* * * * *

SECOND DYNASTY.

CRONUS (SATURN).

Cronus was the god of time in its sense of eternal duration. He married

Rhea, daughter of Uranus and Gaea, a very important divinity, to whom a

special chapter will be devoted hereafter. Their children were, three sons:

Aides (Pluto), Poseidon (Neptune), Zeus (Jupiter), and three daughters:

Hestia (Vesta), Demeter (Ceres), and Hera (Juno). Cronus, having an uneasy

conscience, was afraid that his children might one day rise up against his

authority, and thus verify the prediction of his father {15} Uranus. In

order, therefore, to render the prophecy impossible of fulfilment, Cronus

swallowed each child as soon as it was born,[3] greatly to the sorrow and

indignation of his wife Rhea. When it came to Zeus, the sixth and last,

Rhea resolved to try and save this one child at least, to love and cherish,

and appealed to her parents, Uranus and Gaea, for counsel and assistance. By

their advice she wrapped a stone in baby-clothes, and Cronus, in eager

haste, swallowed it, without noticing the deception. The child thus saved,

eventually, as we shall see, dethroned his father Cronus, became supreme

god in his stead, and was universally venerated as the great national god

of the Greeks.

[Illustration]

Anxious to preserve the secret of his existence from Cronus, Rhea sent the

infant Zeus secretly to Crete, where he was nourished, protected, and

educated. A sacred goat, called Amalthea, supplied the place of his mother,

by providing him with milk; nymphs, called Melissae, fed him with honey,

and eagles and doves brought him nectar and ambrosia.[4] He was kept

concealed in a cave in the heart of Mount Ida, and the Curetes, or priests

of Rhea, by beating their shields together, kept up a constant noise at the

entrance, which drowned the cries of the child and frightened away all

intruders. Under the watchful care of the Nymphs the infant Zeus throve

rapidly, developing great physical powers, combined with {16} extraordinary

wisdom and intelligence. Grown to manhood, he determined to compel his

father to restore his brothers and sisters to the light of day, and is said

to have been assisted in this difficult task by the goddess Metis, who

artfully persuaded Cronus to drink a potion, which caused him to give back

the children he had swallowed. The stone which had counterfeited Zeus was

placed at Delphi, where it was long exhibited as a sacred relic.

Cronus was so enraged at being circumvented that war between the father and

son became inevitable. The rival forces ranged themselves on two separate

high mountains in Thessaly; Zeus, with his brothers and sisters, took his

stand on Mount Olympus, where he was joined by Oceanus, and others of the

Titans, who had forsaken Cronus on account of his oppressions. Cronus and

his brother-Titans took possession of Mount Othrys, and prepared for

battle. The struggle was long and fierce, and at length Zeus, finding that

he was no nearer victory than before, bethought himself of the existence of

the imprisoned Giants, and knowing that they would be able to render him

most powerful assistance, he hastened to liberate them. He also called to

his aid the Cyclops (sons of Poseidon and Amphitrite),[5] who had only one

eye each in the middle of their foreheads, and were called Brontes

(Thunder), Steropes (Lightning), and Pyracmon (Fire-anvil). They promptly

responded to his summons for help, and brought with them tremendous

thunderbolts which the Hecatoncheires, with their hundred hands, hurled

down upon the enemy, at the same time raising mighty earthquakes, which

swallowed up and destroyed all who opposed them. Aided by these new and

powerful allies, Zeus now made a furious onslaught on his enemies, and so

tremendous was the encounter that all nature is said to have throbbed in

accord with this mighty effort of the celestial deities. The sea rose

mountains high, and its angry billows {17} hissed and foamed; the earth

shook to its foundations, the heavens sent forth rolling thunder, and flash

after flash of death-bringing lightning, whilst a blinding mist enveloped

Cronus and his allies.

And now the fortunes of war began to turn, and victory smiled on Zeus.

Cronus and his army were completely overthrown, his brothers despatched to

the gloomy depths of the lower world, and Cronus himself was banished from

his kingdom and deprived for ever of the supreme power, which now became

vested in his son Zeus. This war was called the Titanomachia, and is most

graphically described by the old classic poets.

[Illustration]

With the defeat of Cronus and his banishment from his dominions, his career

as a ruling Greek divinity entirely ceases. But being, like all the gods,

immortal, he was supposed to be still in existence, though possessing no

longer either influence or authority, his place being filled to a certain

extent by his descendant and successor, Zeus.

Cronus is often represented as an old man leaning on a scythe, with an

hour-glass in his hand. The hour-glass symbolizes the fast-fleeting moments

as they succeed each other unceasingly; the scythe is emblematical of time,

which mows down all before it.

SATURN.

The Romans, according to their custom of identifying their deities with

those of the Greek gods whose attributes were similar to their own,

declared Cronus to be identical with their old agricultural divinity

Saturn. They believed that after his defeat in the {18} Titanomachia and

his banishment from his dominions by Zeus, he took refuge with Janus, king

of Italy, who received the exiled deity with great kindness, and even

shared his throne with him. Their united reign became so thoroughly

peaceful and happy, and was distinguished by such uninterrupted prosperity,

that it was called the Golden Age.

Saturn is usually represented bearing a sickle in the one hand and a

wheat-sheaf in the other.

A temple was erected to him at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, in which

were deposited the public treasury and the laws of the state.

RHEA (OPS).

Rhea, the wife of Cronus, and mother of Zeus and the other great gods of

Olympus, personified the earth, and was regarded as the Great Mother and

unceasing producer of all plant-life. She was also believed to exercise

unbounded sway over the animal creation, more especially over the lion, the

noble king of beasts. Rhea is generally represented wearing a crown of

turrets or towers and seated on a throne, with lions crouching at her feet.

She is sometimes depicted sitting in a chariot, drawn by lions.

The principal seat of her worship, which was always of a very riotous

character, was at Crete. At her festivals, which took place at night, the

wildest music of flutes, cymbals, and drums resounded, whilst joyful shouts

and cries, accompanied by dancing and loud stamping of feet, filled the

air.

This divinity was introduced into Crete by its first colonists from

Phrygia, in Asia Minor, in which country she was worshipped under the name

of Cybele. The people of Crete adored her as the Great Mother, more

especially in her signification as the sustainer of the vegetable world.

Seeing, however, that year by year, as winter appears, all her glory

vanishes, her flowers fade, and her trees become leafless, they poetically

expressed this process of nature under the figure of a lost love. She {19}

was said to have been tenderly attached to a youth of remarkable beauty,

named Atys, who, to her grief and indignation, proved faithless to her. He

was about to unite himself to a nymph called Sagaris, when, in the midst of

the wedding feast, the rage of the incensed goddess suddenly burst forth

upon all present. A panic seized the assembled guests, and Atys, becoming

afflicted with temporary madness, fled to the mountains and destroyed

himself. Cybele, moved with sorrow and regret, instituted a yearly mourning

for his loss, when her priests, the Corybantes, with their usual noisy

accompaniments, marched into the mountains to seek the lost youth. Having

discovered him[6] they gave full vent to their ecstatic delight by

indulging in the most violent gesticulations, dancing, shouting, and, at

the same time, wounding and gashing themselves in a frightful manner.

OPS.

In Rome the Greek Rhea was identified with Ops, the goddess of plenty, the

wife of Saturn, who had a variety of appellations. She was called

Magna-Mater, Mater-Deorum, Berecynthia-Idea, and also Dindymene. This

latter title she acquired from three high mountains in Phrygia, whence she

was brought to Rome as Cybele during the second Punic war, B.C. 205, in

obedience to an injunction contained in the Sybilline books. She was

represented as a matron crowned with towers, seated in a chariot drawn by

lions.

* * * * *

DIVISION OF THE WORLD.

We will now return to Zeus and his brothers, who, having gained a complete

victory over their enemies, began to consider how the world, which they had

{20} conquered, should be divided between them. At last it was settled by

lot that Zeus should reign supreme in Heaven, whilst Aides governed the

Lower World, and Poseidon had full command over the Sea, but the supremacy

of Zeus was recognized in all three kingdoms, in heaven, on earth (in which

of course the sea was included), and under the earth. Zeus held his court

on the top of Mount Olympus, whose summit was beyond the clouds; the

dominions of Aides were the gloomy unknown regions below the earth; and

Poseidon reigned over the sea. It will be seen that the realm of each of

these gods was enveloped in mystery. Olympus was shrouded in mists, Hades

was wrapt in gloomy darkness, and the sea was, and indeed still is, a

source of wonder and deep interest. Hence we see that what to other nations

were merely strange phenomena, served this poetical and imaginative people

as a foundation upon which to build the wonderful stories of their

mythology.

The division of the world being now satisfactorily arranged, it would seem

that all things ought to have gone on smoothly, but such was not the case.

Trouble arose in an unlooked-for quarter. The Giants, those hideous

monsters (some with legs formed of serpents) who had sprung from the earth

and the blood of Uranus, declared war against the triumphant deities of

Olympus, and a struggle ensued, which, in consequence of Gaea having made

these children of hers invincible as long as they kept their feet on the

ground, was wearisome and protracted. Their mother's precaution, however,

was rendered unavailing by pieces of rock being hurled upon them, which

threw them down, and their feet being no longer placed firmly on their

mother-earth, they were overcome, and this tedious war (which was called

the Gigantomachia) at last came to an end. Among the most daring of these

earth-born giants were Enceladus, Rhoetus, and the valiant Mimas, who, with

youthful fire and energy, hurled against heaven great masses of rock and

burning oak-trees, and defied the lightnings of Zeus. One of the most

powerful monsters who opposed Zeus in this {21} war was called Typhon or

Typhoeus. He was the youngest son of Tartarus and Gaea, and had a hundred

heads, with eyes which struck terror to the beholders, and awe-inspiring

voices frightful to hear. This dreadful monster resolved to conquer both

gods and men, but his plans were at length defeated by Zeus, who, after a

violent encounter, succeeded in destroying him with a thunderbolt, but not

before he had so terrified the gods that they had fled for refuge to Egypt,

where they metamorphosed themselves into different animals and thus

escaped.

* * * * *

THEORIES AS TO THE ORIGIN OF MAN.

Just as there were several theories concerning the origin of the world, so

there were various accounts of the creation of man.

The first natural belief of the Greek people was that man had sprung from

the earth. They saw the tender plants and flowers force their way through

the ground in the early spring of the year after the frost of winter had

disappeared, and so they naturally concluded that man must also have issued

from the earth in a similar manner. Like the wild plants and flowers, he

was supposed to have had no cultivation, and resembled in his habits the

untamed beasts of the field, having no habitation except that which nature

had provided in the holes of the rocks, and in the dense forests whose

overarching boughs protected him from the inclemency of the weather.

In the course of time these primitive human beings became tamed and

civilized by the gods and heroes, who taught them to work in metals, to

build houses, and other useful arts of civilization. But the human race

became in the course of time so degenerate that the gods resolved to

destroy all mankind by means of a flood; Deucalion {22} (son of Prometheus)

and his wife Pyrrha, being, on account of their piety, the only mortals

saved.

By the command of his father, Deucalion built a ship, in which he and his

wife took refuge during the deluge, which lasted for nine days. When the

waters abated the ship rested on Mount Othrys in Thessaly, or according to

some on Mount Parnassus. Deucalion and his wife now consulted the oracle of

Themis as to how the human race might be restored. The answer was, that

they were to cover their heads, and throw the bones of their mother behind

them. For some time they were perplexed as to the meaning of the oracular

command, but at length both agreed that by the bones of their mother were

meant the stones of the earth. They accordingly took up stones from the

mountain side and cast them over their shoulders. From those thrown by

Deucalion there sprang up men, and from those thrown by Pyrrha, women.

After the lapse of time the theory of Autochthony (from _autos_, self, and

_chthon_, earth) was laid aside. When this belief existed there were no

religious teachers whatever; but in course of time temples were raised in

honour of the different gods, and priests appointed to offer sacrifices to

them and conduct their worship. These priests were looked upon as

authorities in all religious matters, and the doctrine they taught was,

that man had been created by the gods, and that there had been several

successive ages of men, which were called the Golden, Silver, Brazen, and

Iron Ages.

Life in the Golden Age was one unceasing round of ever-recurring pleasures

unmarred by sorrow or care. The favoured mortals living at this happy time

led pure and joyous lives, thinking no evil, and doing no wrong. The earth

brought forth fruits and flowers without toil or labour in plentiful

luxuriance, and war was unknown. This delightful and god-like existence

lasted for hundreds of years, and when at length life on earth was ended,

death laid his hand so gently upon them that they passed painlessly away in

a happy dream, and continued their existence as ministering spirits in

Hades, watching over and {23} protecting those they had loved and left

behind on earth. The men of the Silver Age[7] were a long time growing up,

and during their childhood, which lasted a hundred years, they suffered

from ill-health and extreme debility. When they at last became men they

lived but a short time, for they would not abstain from mutual injury, nor

pay the service due to the gods, and were therefore banished to Hades.

There, unlike the beings of the Golden Age, they exercised no beneficent

supervision over the dear ones left behind, but wandered about as restless

spirits, always sighing for the lost pleasures they had enjoyed in life.

The men of the Brazen Age were quite a different race of beings, being as

strong and powerful as those of the Silver Age were weak and enervated.

Everything which surrounded them was of brass; their arms, their tools,

their dwellings, and all that they made. Their characters seem to have

resembled the metal in which they delighted; their minds and hearts were

hard, obdurate, and cruel. They led a life of strife and contention,

introduced into the world, which had hitherto known nothing but peace and

tranquillity, the scourge of war, and were in fact only happy when fighting

and quarrelling with each other. Hitherto Themis, the goddess of Justice,

had been living among mankind, but becoming disheartened at their evil

doings, she abandoned the earth, and winged her flight back to heaven. At

last the gods became so tired of their evil deeds and continual

dissensions, that they removed them from the face of the earth, and sent

them down to Hades to share the fate of their predecessors.

We now come to the men of the Iron Age. The earth, no longer teeming with

fruitfulness, only yielded her increase after much toil and labour. The

goddess of Justice having abandoned mankind, no influence remained

sufficiently powerful to preserve them from every kind of wickedness and

sin. This condition grew worse as time went on, until at last Zeus in his

anger let loose the water-courses from above, and drowned every {24}

individual of this evil race, except Deucalion and Pyrrha.

The theory of Hesiod,[8] the oldest of all the Greek poets, was that the

Titan Prometheus, the son of Iapetus, had formed man out of clay, and that

Athene had breathed a soul into him. Full of love for the beings he had

called into existence, Prometheus determined to elevate their minds and

improve their condition in every way; he therefore taught them astronomy,

mathematics, the alphabet, how to cure diseases, and the art of divination.

He created this race in such great numbers that the gods began to see the

necessity of instituting certain fixed laws with regard to the sacrifices

due to them, and the worship to which they considered themselves entitled

from mankind in return for the protection which they accorded them. An

assembly was therefore convened at Mecone in order to settle these points.

It was decided that Prometheus, as the advocate of man, should slay an ox,

which should be divided into two equal parts, and that the gods should

select one portion which should henceforth, in all future sacrifices, be

set apart for them. Prometheus so divided the ox that one part consisted of

the bones (which formed of course the least valuable portion of the

animal), artfully concealed by the white fat; whilst the other contained

all the edible parts, which he covered with the skin, and on the top of all

he laid the stomach.

Zeus, pretending to be deceived, chose the heap of bones, but he saw

through the stratagem, and was so angry at the deception practised on him

by Prometheus that he avenged himself by refusing to mortals the gift of

fire. {25} Prometheus, however, resolved to brave the anger of the great

ruler of Olympus, and to obtain from heaven the vital spark so necessary

for the further progress and comfort of the human race. He accordingly

contrived to steal some sparks from the chariot of the sun, which he

conveyed to earth hidden in a hollow tube. Furious at being again

outwitted, Zeus determined to be revenged first on mankind, and then on

Prometheus. To punish the former he commanded Hephaestus (Vulcan) to mould a

beautiful woman out of clay, and determined that through her

instrumentality trouble and misery should be brought into the world.

The gods were so charmed with the graceful and artistic creation of

Hephaestus, that they all determined to endow her with some special gift.

Hermes (Mercury) bestowed on her a smooth persuasive tongue, Aphrodite gave

her beauty and the art of pleasing; the Graces made her fascinating, and

Athene (Minerva) gifted her with the possession of feminine

accomplishments. She was called Pandora, which means all-gifted, having

received every attribute necessary to make her charming and irresistible.

Thus beautifully formed and endowed, this exquisite creature, attired by

the Graces, and crowned with flowers by the Seasons, was conducted to the

house of Epimetheus[9] by Hermes the messenger of the gods. Now Epimetheus

had been warned by his brother not to accept any gift whatever from the

gods; but he was so fascinated by the beautiful being who suddenly appeared

before him, that he welcomed her to his home, and made her his wife. It was

not long, however, before he had cause to regret his weakness.

He had in his possession a jar of rare workmanship, containing all the

blessings reserved by the gods for mankind, which he had been expressly

forbidden to open. But woman's proverbial curiosity could not withstand so

great a temptation, and Pandora determined to solve the mystery at any

cost. Watching her opportunity she raised the lid, and immediately all the

blessings which {26} the gods had thus reserved for mankind took wing and

flew away. But all was not lost. Just as Hope (which lay at the bottom) was

about to escape, Pandora hastily closed the lid of the jar, and thus

preserved to man that never-failing solace which helps him to bear with

courage the many ills which assail him.[10]

Having punished mankind, Zeus determined to execute vengeance on

Prometheus. He accordingly chained him to a rock in Mount Caucasus, and

sent an eagle every day to gnaw away his liver, which grew again every

night ready for fresh torments. For thirty years Prometheus endured this

fearful punishment; but at length Zeus relented, and permitted his son

Heracles (Hercules) to kill the eagle, and the sufferer was released.

* * * * *

THIRD DYNASTY--OLYMPIAN DIVINITIES.

ZEUS[11] (JUPITER).

Zeus, the great presiding deity of the universe, the ruler of heaven and

earth, was regarded by the Greeks, first, as the god of all aerial

phenomena; secondly, as the personification of the laws of nature; thirdly,

as lord of state-life; and fourthly, as the father of gods and men.

As the god of aerial phenomena he could, by shaking his aegis,[12] produce

storms, tempests, and intense darkness. At his command the mighty thunder

rolls, the lightning flashes, and the clouds open and pour forth their

refreshing streams to fructify the earth.

As the personification of the operations of nature, he represents those

grand laws of unchanging and harmonious order, by which not only the

physical but also {27} the moral world is governed. Hence he is the god of

regulated time as marked by the changing seasons, and by the regular

succession of day and night, in contradistinction to his father Cronus, who

represents time absolutely, _i.e._ eternity.

As the lord of state-life, he is the founder of kingly power, the upholder

of all institutions connected with the state, and the special friend and

patron of princes, whom he guards and assists with his advice and counsel.

He protects the assembly of the people, and, in fact, watches over the

welfare of the whole community.

As the father of the gods, Zeus sees that each deity performs his or her

individual duty, punishes their misdeeds, settles their disputes, and acts

towards them on all occasions as their all-knowing counsellor and mighty

friend.

As the father of men, he takes a paternal interest in the actions and

well-being of mortals. He watches over them with tender solicitude,

rewarding truth, charity, and uprightness, but severely punishing perjury,

cruelty, and want of hospitality. Even the poorest and most forlorn

wanderer finds in him a powerful advocate, for he, by a wise and merciful

dispensation, ordains that the mighty ones of the earth should succour

their distressed and needy brethren.

The Greeks believed that the home of this their mighty and all-powerful

deity was on the top of Mount Olympus, that high and lofty mountain between

Thessaly and Macedon, whose summit, wrapt in clouds and mist, was hidden

from mortal view. It was supposed that this mysterious region, which even a

bird could not reach, extended beyond the clouds right into Aether, the

realm of the immortal gods. The poets describe this ethereal atmosphere as

bright, glistening, and refreshing, exercising a peculiar, gladdening

influence over the minds and hearts of those privileged beings permitted to

share its delights. Here youth never ages, and the passing years leave no

traces on its favoured inhabitants. On the cloud-capped summit of Olympus

was the palace of {28} Zeus and Hera, of burnished gold, chased silver, and

gleaming ivory. Lower down were the homes of the other gods, which, though

less commanding in position and size, were yet similar to that of Zeus in

design and workmanship, all being the work of the divine artist Hephaestus.

Below these were other palaces of silver, ebony, ivory, or burnished brass,

where the Heroes, or Demi-gods, resided.

As the worship of Zeus formed so important a feature in the religion of the

Greeks, his statues were necessarily both numerous and magnificent. He is

usually represented as a man of noble and imposing mien, his countenance

expressing all the lofty majesty of the omnipotent ruler of the universe,

combined with the gracious, yet serious, benignity of the father and friend

of mankind. He may be recognized by his rich flowing beard, and the thick

masses of hair, which rise straight from the high and intellectual forehead

and fall to his shoulders in clustering locks. The nose is large and finely

formed, and the slightly-opened lips impart an air of sympathetic

kindliness which invites confidence. He is always accompanied by an eagle,

which either surmounts his sceptre, or sits at his feet; he generally bears

in his uplifted hand a sheaf of thunder-bolts, just ready to be hurled,

whilst in the other he holds the lightning. The head is frequently

encircled with a wreath of oak-leaves.

[Illustration]

The most celebrated statue of the Olympian Zeus was that by the famous

Athenian sculptor Phidias, which was forty feet high, and stood in the

temple of Zeus at Olympia. It was formed of ivory and gold, and was {29}

such a masterpiece of art, that it was reckoned among the seven wonders of

the world. It represented the god, seated on a throne, holding in his right

hand a life-sized image of Nike (the goddess of Victory), and in his left a

royal sceptre, surmounted by an eagle. It is said that the great sculptor

had concentrated all the marvellous powers of his genius on this sublime

conception, and earnestly entreated Zeus to give him a decided proof that

his labours were approved. An answer to his prayer came through the open

roof of the temple in the shape of a flash of lightning, which Phidias

interpreted as a sign that the god of heaven was pleased with his work.

Zeus was first worshipped at Dodona in Epirus, where, at the foot of Mount

Tomarus, on the woody shore of Lake Joanina, was his famous oracle, the

most ancient in Greece. Here the voice of the eternal and invisible god was

supposed to be heard in the rustling leaves of a giant oak, announcing to

mankind the will of heaven and the destiny of mortals; these revelations

being interpreted to the people by the priests of Zeus, who were called

Selli. Recent excavations which have been made at this spot have brought to

light the ruins of the ancient temple of Zeus, and also, among other

interesting relics, some plates of lead, on which are engraved inquiries

which were evidently made by certain individuals who consulted the oracle.

These little leaden plates speak to us, as it were, in a curiously homely

manner of a by-gone time in the buried past. One person inquires what god

he should apply to for health and fortune; another asks for advice

concerning his child; and a third, evidently a shepherd, promises a gift to

the oracle should a speculation in sheep turn out successfully. Had these

little memorials been of gold instead of lead, they would doubtless have

shared the fate of the numerous treasures which adorned this and other

temples, in the universal pillage which took place when Greece fell into

the hands of barbarians.

Though Dodona was the most ancient of his shrines, the great national seat

of the worship of Zeus was at Olympia in Elis, where there was a

magnificent temple {30} dedicated to him, containing the famous colossal

statue by Phidias above described. Crowds of devout worshippers flocked to

this world-renowned fane from all parts of Greece, not only to pay homage

to their supreme deity, but also to join in the celebrated games which were

held there at intervals of four years. The Olympic games were such a

thoroughly national institution, that even Greeks who had left their native

country made a point of returning on these occasions, if possible, in order

to contend with their fellow-countrymen in the various athletic sports

which took place at these festivals.

It will be seen on reflection that in a country like Greece, which

contained so many petty states, often at variance with each other, these

national gatherings must have been most valuable as a means of uniting the

Greeks in one great bond of brotherhood. On these festive occasions the

whole nation met together, forgetting for the moment all past differences,

and uniting in the enjoyment of the same festivities.

It will doubtless have been remarked that in the representations of Zeus he

is always accompanied by an eagle. This royal bird was sacred to him,

probably from the fact of its being the only creature capable of gazing at

the sun without being dazzled, which may have suggested the idea that it

was able to contemplate the splendour of divine majesty unshrinkingly.

The oak-tree, and also the summits of mountains, were sacred to Zeus. His

sacrifices consisted of white bulls, cows, and goats.

Zeus had seven immortal wives, whose names were Metis, Themis, Eurynome,

Demeter, Mnemosyne, Leto, and Hera.

METIS, his first wife, was one of the Oceanides or sea-nymphs. She was the

personification of prudence and wisdom, a convincing proof of which she

displayed in her successful administration of the potion which caused

Cronus to yield up his children. She was endowed with the gift of prophecy,

and foretold to Zeus that one of their children would gain ascendency over

{31} him. In order, therefore, to avert the possibility of the prediction

being fulfilled he swallowed her before any children were born to them.

Feeling afterwards violent pains in his head, he sent for Hephaestus, and

ordered him to open it with an axe. His command was obeyed, and out sprang,

with a loud and martial shout, a beautiful being, clad in armour from head

to foot. This was Athene (Minerva), goddess of Armed Resistance and Wisdom.

THEMIS was the goddess of Justice, Law, and Order.

EURYNOME was one of the Oceanides, and the mother of the Charites or

Graces.

DEMETER,[13] the daughter of Cronus and Rhea, was the goddess of

Agriculture.

MNEMOSYNE, the daughter of Uranus and Gaea, was the goddess of Memory and

the mother of the nine Muses.

LETO (Latona) was the daughter of Coeus and Phoebe. She was gifted with

wonderful beauty, and was tenderly loved by Zeus, but her lot was far from

being a happy one, for Hera, being extremely jealous of her, persecuted her

with inveterate cruelty, and sent the dreadful serpent Python[14] to

terrify and torment her wherever she went. But Zeus, who had observed with

the deepest compassion her weary wanderings and agonized fears, resolved to

create for her some place of refuge, however humble, where she might feel

herself safe from the venomous attacks of the serpent. He therefore brought

her to Delos, a floating island in the AEgean Sea, which he made stationary

by attaching it with chains of adamant to the bottom of the sea. Here she

gave birth to her twin-children, Apollo and Artemis (Diana), two of the

most beautiful of the immortals.

According to some versions of the story of Leto, Zeus transformed her into

a quail, in order that she might thus elude the vigilance of Hera, and she

is said to have {32} resumed her true form when she arrived at the island

of Delos.

HERA, being the principal wife of Zeus and queen of heaven, a detailed

account will be given of her in a special chapter.

In the union of Zeus with most of his immortal wives we shall find that an

allegorical meaning is conveyed. His marriage with Metis, who is said to

have surpassed both gods and men in knowledge, represents supreme power

allied to wisdom and prudence. His union with Themis typifies the bond

which exists between divine majesty and justice, law, and order. Eurynome,

as the mother of the Charites or Graces, supplied the refining and

harmonizing influences of grace and beauty, whilst the marriage of Zeus

with Mnemosyne typifies the union of genius with memory.

* * * * *

In addition to the seven immortal wives of Zeus, he was also allied to a

number of mortal maidens whom he visited under various disguises, as it was

supposed that if he revealed himself in his true form as king of heaven the

splendour of his glory would cause instant destruction to mortals. The

mortal consorts of Zeus have been such a favourite theme with poets,

painters, and sculptors, that it is necessary to give some account of their

individual history. Those best known are Antiope, Leda, Europa, Callisto,

Alcmene, Semele, Io, and Danae.

ANTIOPE, to whom Zeus appeared under the form of a satyr, was the daughter

of Nicteus, king of Thebes. To escape the anger of her father she fled to

Sicyon, where king Epopeus, enraptured with her wonderful beauty, made her

his wife without asking her father's consent. This so enraged Nicteus that

he declared war against Epopeus, in order to compel him to restore Antiope.

At his death, which took place before he could succeed in his purpose,

Nicteus left his kingdom to his brother Lycus, commanding him, at the same

time, to carry on the war, and execute his vengeance. Lycus invaded Sicyon,

defeated and killed Epopeus, and brought back {33} Antiope as a prisoner.

On the way to Thebes she gave birth to her twin-sons, Amphion and Zethus,

who, by the orders of Lycus, were at once exposed on Mount Cithaeron, and

would have perished but for the kindness of a shepherd, who took pity on

them and preserved their lives. Antiope was, for many years, held captive

by her uncle Lycus, and compelled to suffer the utmost cruelty at the hands

of his wife Dirce. But one day her bonds were miraculously loosened, and

she flew for shelter and protection to the humble dwelling of her sons on

Mount Cithaeron. During the long period of their mother's captivity the

babes had grown into sturdy youths, and, as they listened angrily to the

story of her wrongs, they became all impatience to avenge them. Setting off

at once to Thebes they succeeded in possessing themselves of the town, and

after slaying the cruel Lycus they bound Dirce by the hair to the horns of

a wild bull, which dragged her hither and thither until she expired. Her

mangled body was cast into the fount near Thebes, which still bears her

name. Amphion became king of Thebes in his uncle's stead. He was a friend

of the Muses, and devoted to music and poetry. His brother, Zethus, was

famous for his skill in archery, and was passionately fond of the chase. It

is said that when Amphion wished to inclose the town of Thebes with walls

and towers, he had but to play a sweet melody on the lyre, given to him by

Hermes, and the huge stones began to move, and obediently fitted themselves

together.

The punishment of Dirce at the hands of Amphion and Zethus forms the

subject of the world-renowned marble group in the museum at Naples, known

by the name of the Farnese Bull.

In sculpture Amphion is always represented with a lyre; Zethus with a club.

LEDA, whose affections Zeus won under the form of a swan, was the daughter

of Thestius, king of AEtolia. Her twin-sons, Castor and (Polydeuces or)

Pollux,[15] were {34} renowned for their tender attachment to each other.

They were also famous for their physical accomplishments, Castor being the

most expert charioteer of his day, and Pollux the first of pugilists. Their

names appear both among the hunters of the Calydonian boar-hunt and the

heroes of the Argonautic expedition. The brothers became attached to the

daughters of Leucippus, prince of the Messenians, who had been betrothed by

their father to Idas and Lynceus, sons of Aphareus. Having persuaded

Leucippus to break his promise, the twins carried off the maidens as their

brides. Idas and Lynceus, naturally furious at this proceeding, challenged

the Dioscuri to mortal combat, in which Castor perished by the hand of

Idas, and Lynceus by that of Pollux. Zeus wished to confer the gift of

immortality upon Pollux, but he refused to accept it unless allowed to

share it with Castor. Zeus gave the desired permission, and the faithful

brothers were both allowed to live, but only on alternate days. The

Dioscuri received divine honours throughout Greece, and were worshipped

with special reverence at Sparta.

EUROPA was the beautiful daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia. She was one

day gathering flowers with her companions in a meadow near the sea-shore,

when Zeus, charmed with her great beauty, and wishing to win her love,

transformed himself into a beautiful white bull, and trotted quietly up to

the princess, so as not to alarm her. Surprised at the gentleness of the

animal, and admiring its beauty, as it lay placidly on the grass, she

caressed it, crowned it with flowers, and, at last, playfully seated

herself on its back. Hardly had she done so than the disguised god bounded

away with his lovely burden, and swam across the sea with her to the island

of Crete.

Europa was the mother of Minos, Aeacus, and Rhadamanthus. Minos, who became

king of Crete, was celebrated for his justice and moderation, and after

death he was created one of the judges of the lower world, which office he

held in conjunction with his brothers. {35}

CALLISTO, the daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, was a huntress in the

train of Artemis, devoted to the pleasures of the chase, who had made a vow

never to marry; but Zeus, under the form of the huntress-goddess, succeeded

in obtaining her affections. Hera, being extremely jealous of her, changed

her into a bear, and caused Artemis (who failed to recognize her attendant

under this form) to hunt her in the chase, and put an end to her existence.

After her death she was placed by Zeus among the stars as a constellation,

under the name of Arctos, or the bear.

ALCMENE, the daughter of Electryon, king of Mycenae, was betrothed to her

cousin Amphytrion; but, during his absence on a perilous undertaking, Zeus

assumed his form, and obtained her affections. Heracles (whose

world-renowned exploits will be related among the legends) was the son of

Alcmene and Zeus.

SEMELE, a beautiful princess, the daughter of Cadmus, king of Phoenicia,

was greatly beloved by Zeus. Like the unfortunate Callisto, she was hated

by Hera with jealous malignity, and the haughty queen of heaven determined

to effect her destruction. Disguising herself, therefore, as Beroe,

Semele's faithful old nurse, she artfully persuaded her to insist upon Zeus

visiting her, as he appeared to Hera, in all his power and glory, well

knowing that this would cause her instant death. Semele, suspecting no

treachery, followed the advice of her supposed nurse; and the next time

Zeus came to her, she earnestly entreated him to grant the favour she was

about to ask. Zeus swore by the Styx (which was to the gods an irrevocable

oath) to accede to her request whatsoever it might be. Semele, therefore,

secure of gaining her petition, begged of Zeus to appear to her in all the

glory of his divine power and majesty. As he had sworn to grant whatever

she asked of him, he was compelled to comply with her wish; he therefore

revealed himself as the mighty lord of the universe, accompanied by thunder

and lightning, and she was instantly consumed in the flames. {36}

IO, daughter of Inachus, king of Argos, was a priestess of Hera. She was

very beautiful, and Zeus, who was much attached to her, transformed her

into a white cow, in order to defeat the jealous intrigues of Hera, who,

however, was not to be deceived. Aware of the stratagem, she contrived to

obtain the animal from Zeus, and placed her under the watchful care of a

man called Argus-Panoptes, who fastened her to an olive-tree in the grove

of Hera. He had a hundred eyes, of which, when asleep, he never closed more

than two at a time; being thus always on the watch, Hera found him

extremely useful in keeping guard over Io. Hermes, however, by the command

of Zeus, succeeded in putting all his eyes to sleep with the sound of his

magic lyre, and then, taking advantage of his helpless condition, slew him.

The story goes, that in commemoration of the services which Argus had

rendered her, Hera placed his eyes on the tail of a peacock, as a lasting

memorial of her gratitude. Ever fertile in resource, Hera now sent a gadfly

to worry and torment the unfortunate Io incessantly, and she wandered all

over the world in hopes of escaping from her tormentor. At length she

reached Egypt, where she found rest and freedom from the persecutions of

her enemy. On the banks of the Nile she resumed her original form and gave

birth to a son called Epaphus, who afterwards became king of Egypt, and

built the famous city of Memphis.

DANAE.--Zeus appeared to Danae under the form of a shower of gold. (Further

details concerning her will be found in the legend of Perseus.)

* * * * *

The Greeks supposed that the divine ruler of the Universe occasionally

assumed a human form, and descended from his celestial abode, in order to

visit mankind and observe their proceedings, his aim being generally either

to punish the guilty, or to reward the deserving.

On one occasion Zeus, accompanied by Hermes, made a journey through

Phrygia, seeking hospitality and shelter wherever they went. But nowhere

did they receive a {37} kindly welcome till they came to the humble cottage

of an old man and his wife called Philemon and Baucis, who entertained them

with the greatest kindness, setting before them what frugal fare their

humble means permitted, and bidding them welcome with unaffected

cordiality. Observing in the course of their simple repast that the wine

bowl was miraculously replenished, the aged couple became convinced of the

divine nature of their guests. The gods now informed them that on account

of its wickedness their native place was doomed to destruction, and told

them to climb the neighbouring hill with them, which overlooked the village

where they dwelt. What was their dismay on beholding at their feet, in

place of the spot where they had passed so many happy years together,

nothing but a watery plain, the only house to be seen being their own

little cottage, which suddenly changed itself into a temple before their

eyes. Zeus now asked the worthy pair to name any wish they particularly

desired and it should be granted. They accordingly begged that they might

serve the gods in the temple below, and end life together.

Their wish was granted, for, after spending the remainder of their lives in

the worship of the gods, they both died at the same instant, and were

transformed by Zeus into trees, remaining for ever side by side.

Upon another occasion Zeus, wishing to ascertain for himself the truth of

the reports concerning the atrocious wickedness of mankind, made a journey

through Arcadia. Being recognized by the Arcadians as king of heaven, he

was received by them with becoming respect and veneration; but Lycaon,

their king, who had rendered himself infamous by the gross impiety of

himself and his sons, doubted the divinity of Zeus, ridiculed his people

for being so easily duped, and, according to his custom of killing all

strangers who ventured to trust his hospitality, resolved to murder him.

Before executing this wicked design, however, he decided to put Zeus to the

test, and having killed a boy for the purpose, placed before him a dish

containing human flesh. But Zeus was {38} not to be deceived. He beheld the

revolting dish with horror and loathing, and angrily upsetting the table

upon which it was placed, turned Lycaon into a wolf, and destroyed all his

fifty sons by lightning, except Nyctimus, who was saved by the intervention

of Gaea.

JUPITER.

The Roman Jupiter, who is so frequently confounded with the Greek Zeus, is

identical with him only as being the head of the Olympic gods, and the

presiding deity over Life, Light, and Aerial Phenomena. Jupiter is lord of

life in its widest and most comprehensive signification, having absolute

power over life and death, in which respect he differed from the Greek

Zeus, who was to a certain extent controlled by the all-potent sway of the

Moirae or Fates. Zeus, as we have seen, often condescends to visit mankind,

either as a mortal, or under various disguises, whereas Jupiter always

remains essentially the supreme god of heaven, and never appears upon

earth.

The most celebrated temple of Jupiter was that on the Capitoline Hill in

the city of Rome, where he was worshipped under the names of

Jupiter-Optimus-Maximus, Capitolinus, and Tarpeius.

The Romans represented him seated on a throne of ivory, holding in his

right hand a sheaf of thunderbolts, and in his left a sceptre, whilst an

eagle stands beside his throne.

HERA (JUNO).

Hera, the eldest daughter of Cronus and Rhea, was born at Samos, or,

according to some accounts, at Argos, and was reared by the sea-divinities

Oceanus and Tethys, who were models of conjugal fidelity.[16] She was the

{39} principal wife of Zeus, and, as queen of heaven, participated in the

honours paid to him, but her dominion only extended over the air (the lower

aerial regions). Hera appears to be the sublime embodiment of strict

matronly virtue, and is on that account the protectress of purity and

married women. Faultless herself in her fidelity as a wife, she is

essentially the type of the sanctity of the marriage tie, and holds in

abhorrence any violation of its obligations. So strongly was she imbued

with this hatred of any immorality, that, finding herself so often called

upon to punish the failings of both gods and men in this respect, she

became jealous, harsh, and vindictive. Her exalted position as the wife of

the supreme deity, combined with her extreme beauty, caused her to become

exceedingly vain, and she consequently resented with great severity any

infringement on her rights as queen of heaven, or any apparent slight on

her personal appearance.

The following story will signally illustrate how ready she was to resent

any slight offered to her.

At the marriage of the sea-nymph Thetis with a mortal called Peleus, all

the gods and goddesses were present, except Eris (the goddess of Discord).

Indignant at not being invited, she determined to cause dissension in the

assembly, and for this purpose threw into the midst of the guests a golden

apple with the inscription on it "For the Fairest." Now, as all the

goddesses were extremely beautiful, each claimed the apple; but at length,

the rest having relinquished their pretensions, the number of candidates

was reduced to three, Hera, Athene, and Aphrodite, who agreed to appeal to

Paris for a settlement of this delicate question, he being noted for the

wisdom he had displayed in his judgment upon several occasions. Paris was

the son of Priam, king of Troy, who, ignorant of his noble birth, was at

this time feeding his flocks on Mount Ida, in Phrygia. Hermes, as messenger

of the gods, conducted the three rival beauties to the young shepherd, and

with breathless anxiety they awaited his decision. Each fair candidate

endeavoured {40} to secure his favour by the most tempting offers. Hera

promised him extensive dominions; Athene, martial fame and glory; and

Aphrodite, the loveliest woman in the world. But whether he really

considered Aphrodite the fairest of the three, or preferred a beautiful

wife to fame and power, we cannot tell; all we know is that to her he

awarded the golden apple, and she became ever after universally

acknowledged as the goddess of beauty. Hera, having fully expected that

Paris would give her the preference, was so indignant that she never

forgave him, and not only persecuted him, but all the family of Priam,

whose dreadful sufferings and misfortunes during the Trojan war were

attributed to her influence. In fact, she carried her animosity to such an

extent that it was often the cause of domestic disagreements between

herself and Zeus, who espoused the cause of the Trojans.

Among the many stories of these frequent quarrels there is one connected

with Heracles, the favourite son of Zeus, which is as follows:--Hera having

raised a storm at sea in order to drive him out of his course, Zeus became

so angry that he hung her in the clouds by a golden chain, and attached

heavy anvils to her feet. Her son Hephaestus tried to release his mother

from her humiliating position, for which Zeus threw him out of heaven, and

his leg was broken by the fall.

Hera, being deeply offended with Zeus, determined to separate herself from

him for ever, and she accordingly left him and took up her abode in Euboea.

Surprised and grieved at this unlooked-for desertion, Zeus resolved to

leave no means untried to win her back again. In this emergency he

consulted Cithaeron, king of Platea, who was famed for his great wisdom and

subtlety. Cithaeron advised him to dress up an image in bridal attire and

place it in a chariot, announcing that this was Platea, his future wife.

The artifice succeeded. Hera, incensed at the idea of a rival, flew to meet

the procession in great anger, and seizing the supposed bride, she

furiously attacked her and dragged off her nuptial attire. Her delight on

discovering the deception was so great that a {41} reconciliation took

place, and, committing the image to the flames, with joyful laughter she

seated herself in its place and returned to Olympus.

Hera was the mother of Ares (Mars), Hephaestus, Hebe, and Eileithyia. Ares

was the god of War; Hephaestus, of Fire; Hebe, of Youth; and Eileithyia

presided over the birth of mortals.

Hera dearly loved Greece, and indeed always watched over and protected

Greek interests, her beloved and favourite cities being Argos, Samos,

Sparta, and Mycenae.

[Illustration]

Her principal temples were at Argos and Samos. From a remote period she was

greatly venerated at Olympia, and her temple there, which stood in the

Altis or sacred grove, was five hundred years older than that of Zeus on

the same spot. Some interesting excavations which are now going on there

have brought to light the remains of the ancient edifice, which contains

among other treasures of antiquity several beautiful statues, the work of

the famous sculptors of ancient Greece. At first this temple was built of

wood, then of stone, and the one lately discovered was formed of

conglomerate of shells.

In the Altis races were run by young maidens in honour of Hera, and the

fleetest of foot received in token of her victory an olive-wreath and a

piece of the flesh of the sacrifices. These races, like the Olympic Games,

were celebrated at intervals of four years, and were called Herae. A

beautiful robe, woven by sixteen women chosen from the sixteen cities of

Elis, was always offered to Hera on these {42} occasions, and choral songs

and sacred dances formed part of the ceremonies.

Hera is usually represented seated on a throne, holding a pomegranate in

one hand and a sceptre surmounted by a cuckoo in the other. She appears as

a calm, dignified matron of majestic beauty, robed in a tunic and mantle,

her forehead is broad and intellectual, her eyes large and fully opened,

and her arms dazzlingly white and finely moulded.

The finest statue of this divinity was that by Polycletus at Argos.

Her attributes are the diadem, veil, sceptre, and peacock.

The first day of every month a ewe-lamb and sow were sacrificed to Hera.

The hawk, goose, and more particularly the peacock[17] were sacred to her.

Flocks of these beautiful birds generally surround her throne and draw her

chariot, Iris, the Rainbow, being seated behind her.

Her favourite flowers were the dittany, poppy, and lily.

JUNO.

Juno, the Roman divinity supposed to be identical with the Greek Hera,

differed from her in the most salient points, for whereas Hera invariably

appears as the haughty, unbending queen of heaven, Juno, on the other hand,

is revered and beloved as the type of a matron and housewife. She was

worshipped in Rome under various titles, most of which point to her

vocation as the protectress of married women. Juno was believed to watch

over and guard the life of every woman from her birth to her death. The

principal temples dedicated to her were in Rome, one being erected on the

Aventine, and the other on the Capitoline Hill. She had also a temple on

the Arx, in which she was worshipped as Juno Moneta, or the {43} warning

goddess. Adjacent to this shrine was the public mint.[18] On the 1st of

March a grand annual festival, called the Matronalia, was celebrated in her

honour by all the married women of Rome, and this religious institution was

accompanied with much solemnity.[19]

PALLAS-ATHENE (MINERVA).

Pallas-Athene, goddess of Wisdom and Armed Resistance, was a purely Greek

divinity; that is to say, no other nation possessed a corresponding

conception. She was supposed, as already related, to have issued from the

head of Zeus himself, clad in armour from head to foot. The miraculous

advent of this maiden goddess is beautifully described by Homer in one of

his hymns: snow-capped Olympus shook to its foundation; the glad earth

re-echoed her martial shout; the billowy sea became agitated; and Helios,

the sun-god, arrested his fiery steeds in their headlong course to welcome

this wonderful emanation from the godhead. Athene was at once admitted into

the assembly of the gods, and henceforth took her place as the most

faithful and sagacious of all her father's counsellors. This brave,

dauntless maiden, so exactly the essence of all that is noble in the

character of "the father of gods and men," remained throughout chaste in

word and deed, and kind at heart, without exhibiting any of those failings

which somewhat mar the nobler features in the character of Zeus. This

direct emanation from his own self, justly his favourite child, his better

and purer counterpart, received from him several important prerogatives.

She was permitted to hurl the thunderbolts, to prolong the life of man, and

to bestow the gift of prophecy; in fact Athene was the only divinity whose

authority was equal to that of Zeus himself, and when he had ceased to

visit the earth in person {44} she was empowered by him to act as his

deputy. It was her especial duty to protect the state and all peaceful

associations of mankind, which she possessed the power of defending when

occasion required. She encouraged the maintenance of law and order, and

defended the right on all occasions, for which reason, in the Trojan war

she espouses the cause of the Greeks and exerts all her influence on their

behalf. The Areopagus, a court of justice where religious causes and

murders were tried, was believed to have been instituted by her, and when

both sides happened to have an equal number of votes she gave the

casting-vote in favour of the accused. She was the patroness of learning,

science, and art, more particularly where these contributed directly

towards the welfare of nations. She presided over all inventions connected

with agriculture, invented the plough, and taught mankind how to use oxen

for farming purposes. She also instructed mankind in the use of numbers,

trumpets, chariots, &c., and presided over the building of the Argo,[20]

thereby encouraging the useful art of navigation. She also taught the

Greeks how to build the wooden horse by means of which the destruction of

Troy was effected.

The safety of cities depended on her care, for which reason her temples

were generally built on the citadels, and she was supposed to watch over

the defence of the walls, fortifications, harbours, &c. A divinity who so

faithfully guarded the best interests of the state, by not only protecting

it from the attacks of enemies, but also by developing its chief resources

of wealth and prosperity, was worthily chosen as the presiding deity of the

state, and in this character as an essentially political goddess she was

called Athene-Polias.

The fact of Athene having been born clad in armour, which merely signified

that her virtue and purity were unassailable, has given rise to the

erroneous supposition that she was the presiding goddess of war; but a

deeper {45} study of her character in all its bearings proves that, in

contradistinction to her brother Ares, the god of war, who loved strife for

its own sake, she only takes up arms to protect the innocent and deserving

against tyrannical oppression. It is true that in the Iliad we frequently

see her on the battlefield fighting valiantly, and protecting her favourite

heroes; but this is always at the command of Zeus, who even supplies her

with arms for the purpose, as it is supposed that she possessed none of her

own. A marked feature in the representations of this deity is the aegis,

that wonderful shield given to her by her father as a further means of

defence, which, when in danger, she swung so swiftly round and round that

it kept at a distance all antagonistic influences; hence her name Pallas,

from _pallo_, I swing. In the centre of this shield, which was covered with

dragon's scales, bordered with serpents, and which she sometimes wore as a

breastplate, was the awe-inspiring head of the Medusa, which had the effect

of turning to stone all beholders.

In addition to the many functions which she exercised in connection with

the state, Athene presided over the two chief departments of feminine

industry, spinning and weaving. In the latter art she herself displayed

unrivalled ability and exquisite taste. She wove her own robe and that of

Hera, which last she is said to have embroidered very richly; she also gave

Jason a cloak wrought by herself, when he set forth in quest of the Golden

Fleece. Being on one occasion challenged to a contest in this

accomplishment by a mortal maiden named Arachne, whom she had instructed in

the art of weaving, she accepted the challenge and was completely

vanquished by her pupil. Angry at her defeat, she struck the unfortunate

maiden on the forehead with the shuttle which she held in her hand; and

Arachne, being of a sensitive nature, was so hurt by this indignity that

she hung herself in despair, and was changed by Athene into a spider. This

goddess is said to have invented the flute,[21] upon {46} which she played

with considerable talent, until one day, being laughed at by the assembled

gods and goddesses for the contortions which her countenance assumed during

these musical efforts, she hastily ran to a fountain in order to convince

herself whether she deserved their ridicule. Finding to her intense disgust

that such was indeed the fact, she threw the flute away, and never raised

it to her lips again.

[Illustration]

Athene is usually represented fully draped; she has a serious and

thoughtful aspect, as though replete with earnestness and wisdom; the

beautiful oval contour of her countenance is adorned by the luxuriance of

her wealth of hair, which is drawn back from the temples and hangs down in

careless grace; she looks the embodiment of strength, grandeur, and

majesty; whilst her broad shoulders and small hips give her a slightly

masculine appearance.

When represented as the war-goddess she appears clad in armour, with a

helmet on her head, from which waves a large plume; she carries the aegis on

her arm, and in her hand a golden staff, which possessed the property of

endowing her chosen favourites with youth and dignity.

Athene was universally worshipped throughout Greece, but was regarded with

special veneration by the Athenians, she being the guardian deity of

Athens. Her most celebrated temple was the Parthenon, which stood on the

{47} Acropolis at Athens, and contained her world-renowned statue by

Phidias, which ranks second only to that of Zeus by the same great artist.

This colossal statue was 39 feet high, and was composed of ivory and gold;

its majestic beauty formed the chief attraction of the temple. It

represented her standing erect, bearing her spear and shield; in her hand

she held an image of Nike, and at her feet there lay a serpent.

The tree sacred to her was the olive, which she herself produced in a

contest with Poseidon. The olive-tree thus called into existence was

preserved in the temple of Erectheus, on the Acropolis, and is said to have

possessed such marvellous vitality, that when the Persians burned it after

sacking the town it immediately burst forth into new shoots.

The principal festival held in honour of this divinity was the Panathenaea.

The owl, cock, and serpent were the animals sacred to her, and her

sacrifices were rams, bulls, and cows.

[Illustration]

MINERVA.

The Minerva of the Romans was identified with the Pallas-Athene of the

Greeks. Like her she presides over learning and all useful arts, and is the

patroness of the feminine accomplishments of sewing, spinning, weaving, &c.

Schools were under her especial care, and schoolboys, therefore, had

holidays during her festivals (the Greater Quinquatria), when they always

brought a gift to their master, called the Minerval.

It is worthy of notice that the only three divinities {48} worshipped in

the Capitol were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and in their joint honour the

Ludi Maximi or great games were held.

THEMIS.

Themis, who has already been alluded to as the wife of Zeus, was the

daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and personified those divine laws of justice

and order by means of which the well-being and morality of communities are

regulated. She presided over the assemblies of the people and the laws of

hospitality. To her was intrusted the office of convoking the assembly of

the gods, and she was also mistress of ritual and ceremony. On account of

her great wisdom Zeus himself frequently sought her counsel and acted upon

her advice. Themis was a prophetic divinity, and had an oracle near the

river Cephissus in Boeotia.

She is usually represented as being in the full maturity of womanhood, of

fair aspect, and wearing a flowing garment, which drapes her noble,

majestic form; in her right hand she holds the sword of justice, and in her

left the scales, which indicate the impartiality with which every cause is

carefully weighed by her, her eyes being bandaged so that the personality

of the individual should carry no weight with respect to the verdict.

This divinity is sometimes identified with Tyche, sometimes with Ananke.

Themis, like so many other Greek divinities, takes the place of a more

ancient deity of the same name who was a daughter of Uranus and Gaea. This

elder Themis inherited from her mother the gift of prophecy, and when she

became merged into her younger representative she transmitted to her this

prophetic power.

HESTIA (Vesta).

Hestia was the daughter of Cronus and Rhea. She was the goddess of Fire in

its first application to the wants of mankind, hence she was essentially

the presiding deity {49} of the domestic hearth and the guardian spirit of

man, and it was her pure and benign influence which was supposed to protect

the sanctity of domestic life.

Now in these early ages the hearth was regarded as the most important and

most sacred portion of the dwelling, probably because the protection of the

fire was an important consideration, for if once permitted to become

extinct, re-ignition was attended with extreme difficulty. In fact, the

hearth was held so sacred that it constituted the sanctum of the family,

for which reason it was always erected in the centre of every house. It was

a few feet in height and was built of stone; the fire was placed on the top

of it, and served the double purpose of preparing the daily meals, and

consuming the family sacrifices. Round this domestic hearth or altar were

gathered the various members of the family, the head of the house occupying

the place of honour nearest the hearth. Here prayers were said and

sacrifices offered, and here also every kind and loving feeling was

fostered, which even extended to the hunted and guilty stranger, who, if he

once succeeded in touching this sacred altar, was safe from pursuit and

punishment, and was henceforth placed under the protection of the family.

Any crime committed within the sacred precincts of the domestic hearth was

invariably visited by death.

[Illustration]

In Grecian cities there was a common hall, called the Prytaneum, in which

the members of the government had their meals at the expense of the state,

and here too was the Hestia, or public hearth, with its fire, by means of

which those meals were prepared. It was customary for emigrants to take

with them a portion of this sacred fire, which they jealously guarded and

brought with them to their new home, where it served as a connecting link

between the young Greek colony and the mother country. Hestia is generally

represented standing, and in accordance with the dignity and sanctity of

her character, always appears fully draped. Her countenance is

distinguished by a serene gravity of expression. {50}

VESTA.

Vesta occupies a distinguished place among the earlier divinities of the

Romans. Her temple in Rome, containing as it were the hearthstone of the

nation, stood close beside the palace of Numa Pompilius.

On her altar burned the never-ceasing fire, which was tended by her

priestesses, the Vestal Virgins.[22]

The temple of Vesta was circular in form, and contained that sacred and

highly prized treasure the Palladium of Troy.[23]

The great festival in honour of Vesta, called the Vestalia, was celebrated

on the 9th of June.

DEMETER (Ceres).

Demeter (from _Ge-meter_, earth-mother) was the daughter of Cronus and

Rhea.[24] She represented that portion of Gaea (the whole solid earth) which

we call the earth's crust, and which produces all vegetation. As goddess of

agriculture, field-fruits, plenty, and productiveness, she was the

sustainer of material life, and was therefore a divinity of great

importance. When ancient Gaea lost, with Uranus, her position as a ruling

divinity, she abdicated her sway in favour of her daughter Rhea, who

henceforth inherited the powers which her mother had previously possessed,

receiving in her place the honour and worship of mankind. In a very old

poem Gaea is accordingly described as retiring to a cavern in the bowels

{51} of the earth, where she sits in the lap of her daughter, slumbering,

moaning, and nodding for ever and ever.

It is necessary to keep clearly in view the distinctive difference between

the three great earth-goddesses Gaea, Rhea, and Demeter. Gaea represents the

earth as a whole, with its mighty subterranean forces; Rhea is that

productive power which causes vegetation to spring forth, thus sustaining

men and animals; Demeter, by presiding over agriculture, directs and

utilizes Rhea's productive powers. But in later times, when Rhea, like

other ancient divinities, loses her importance as a ruling deity, Demeter

assumes all her functions and attributes, and then becomes the goddess of

the life-producing and life-maintaining earth-crust. We must bear in mind

the fact that man in his primitive state knew neither how to sow nor how to

till the ground; when, therefore, he had exhausted the pastures which

surrounded him he was compelled to seek others which were as yet unreaped;

thus, roaming constantly from one place to another, settled habitations,

and consequently civilizing influences, were impossible. Demeter, however,

by introducing a knowledge of agriculture, put an end, at once and for

ever, to that nomadic life which was now no longer necessary.

[Illustration]

The favour of Demeter was believed to bring mankind rich harvests and

fruitful crops, whereas her displeasure caused blight, drought, and famine.

The island of Sicily was supposed to be under her especial protection, and

there she was regarded with particular veneration, the Sicilians naturally

attributing the wonderful fertility of their country to the partiality of

the goddess.

Demeter is usually represented as a woman of noble {52} bearing and

majestic appearance, tall, matronly, and dignified, with beautiful golden

hair, which falls in rippling curls over her stately shoulders, the yellow

locks being emblematical of the ripened ears of corn. Sometimes she appears

seated in a chariot drawn by winged dragons, at others she stands erect,

her figure drawn up to its full height, and always fully draped; she bears

a sheaf of wheat-ears in one hand and a lighted torch in the other. The

wheat-ears are not unfrequently replaced by a bunch of poppies, with which

her brows are also garlanded, though sometimes she merely wears a simple

riband in her hair.

Demeter, as the wife of Zeus, became the mother of Persephone (Proserpine),

to whom she was so tenderly attached that her whole life was bound up in

her, and she knew no happiness except in her society. One day, however,

whilst Persephone was gathering flowers in a meadow, attended by the

ocean-nymphs, she saw to her surprise a beautiful narcissus, from the stem

of which sprang forth a hundred blossoms. Drawing near to examine this

lovely flower, whose exquisite scent perfumed the air, she stooped down to

gather it, suspecting no evil, when a yawning abyss opened at her feet, and

Aides, the grim ruler of the lower world, appeared from its depths, seated

in his dazzling chariot drawn by four black horses. Regardless of her tears

and the shrieks of her female attendants, Aides seized the terrified

maiden, and bore her away to the gloomy realms over which he reigned in

melancholy grandeur. Helios, the all-seeing sun-god, and Hecate, a

mysterious and very ancient divinity, alone heard her cries for aid, but

were powerless to help her. When Demeter became conscious of her loss her

grief was intense, and she refused to be comforted. She knew not where to

seek for her child, but feeling that repose and inaction were impossible,

she set out on her weary search, taking with her two torches which she

lighted in the flames of Mount Etna to guide her on her way. For nine long

days and nights she wandered on, inquiring of every one she met for tidings

of her child. {53} But all was in vain! Neither gods nor men could give her

the comfort which her soul so hungered for. At last, on the tenth day, the

disconsolate mother met Hecate, who informed her that she had heard her

daughter's cries, but knew not who it was that had borne her away. By

Hecate's advice Demeter consulted Helios, whose all-seeing eye nothing

escapes, and from him she learnt that it was Zeus himself who had permitted

Aides to seize Persephone, and transport her to the lower world in order

that she might become his wife. Indignant with Zeus for having given his

sanction to the abduction of his daughter, and filled with the bitterest

sorrow, she abandoned her home in Olympus, and refused all heavenly food.

Disguising herself as an old woman, she descended upon earth, and commenced

a weary pilgrimage among mankind. One evening she arrived at a place called

Eleusis, in Attica, and sat down to rest herself near a well beneath the

shade of an olive-tree. The youthful daughters of Celeus, the king of the

country, came with their pails of brass to draw water from this well, and

seeing that the tired wayfarer appeared faint and dispirited, they spoke

kindly to her, asking who she was, and whence she came. Demeter replied

that she had made her escape from pirates, who had captured her, and added

that she would feel grateful for a home with any worthy family, whom she

would be willing to serve in a menial capacity. The princesses, on hearing

this, begged Demeter to have a moment's patience while they returned home

and consulted their mother, Metaneira. They soon brought the joyful

intelligence that she was desirous of securing her services as nurse to her

infant son Demophoon, or Triptolemus. When Demeter arrived at the house a

radiant light suddenly illumined her, which circumstance so overawed

Metaneira that she treated the unknown stranger with the greatest respect,

and hospitably offered her food and drink. But Demeter, still grief-worn

and dejected, refused her friendly offers, and held herself apart from the

social board. At length, however, the maid-servant Iambe succeeded, by

means {54} of playful jests and merriment, in somewhat dispelling the grief

of the sorrowing mother, causing her at times to smile in spite of herself,

and even inducing her to partake of a mixture of barley-meal, mint, and

water, which was prepared according to the directions of the goddess

herself. Time passed on, and the young child throve amazingly under the

care of his kind and judicious nurse, who, however, gave him no food, but

anointed him daily with ambrosia, and every night laid him secretly in the

fire in order to render him immortal and exempt from old age. But,

unfortunately, this benevolent design on the part of Demeter was frustrated

by Metaneira herself, whose curiosity, one night, impelled her to watch the

proceedings of the mysterious being who nursed her child. When to her

horror she beheld her son placed in the flames, she shrieked aloud.

Demeter, incensed at this untimely interruption, instantly withdrew the

child, and throwing him on the ground, revealed herself in her true

character. The bent and aged form had vanished, and in its place there

stood a bright and beauteous being, whose golden locks streamed over her

shoulders in richest luxuriance, her whole aspect bespeaking dignity and

majesty. She told the awe-struck Metaneira that she was the goddess

Demeter, and had intended to make her son immortal, but that her fatal

curiosity had rendered this impossible, adding, however, that the child,

having slept in her arms, and been nursed on her lap, should ever command

the respect and esteem of mankind. She then desired that a temple and altar

should be erected to her on a neighbouring hill by the people of Eleusis,

promising that she herself would direct them how to perform the sacred

rites and ceremonies, which should be observed in her honour. With these

words she took her departure never to return.

Obedient to her commands, Celeus called together a meeting of his people,

and built the temple on the spot which the goddess had indicated. It was

soon completed, and Demeter took up her abode in it, but her heart was

still sad for the loss of her daughter, and the whole world felt the

influence of her grief and dejection. This was {55} indeed a terrible year

for mankind. Demeter no longer smiled on the earth she was wont to bless,

and though the husbandman sowed the grain, and the groaning oxen ploughed

the fields, no harvest rewarded their labour. All was barren, dreary

desolation. The world was threatened with famine, and the gods with the

loss of their accustomed honours and sacrifices; it became evident,

therefore, to Zeus himself that some measures must be adopted to appease

the anger of the goddess. He accordingly despatched Iris and many of the

other gods and goddesses to implore Demeter to return to Olympus; but all

their prayers were fruitless. The incensed goddess swore that until her

daughter was restored to her she would not allow the grain to spring forth

from the earth. At length Zeus sent Hermes, his faithful messenger, to the

lower world with a petition to Aides, urgently entreating him to restore

Persephone to the arms of her disconsolate mother. When he arrived in the

gloomy realms of Aides, Hermes found him seated on a throne with the

beautiful Persephone beside him, sorrowfully bewailing her unhappy fate. On

learning his errand, Aides consented to resign Persephone, who joyfully

prepared to follow the messenger of the gods to the abode of life and

light. Before taking leave of her husband, he presented to her a few seeds

of pomegranate, which in her excitement she thoughtlessly swallowed, and

this simple act, as the sequel will show, materially affected her whole

future life. The meeting between mother and child was one of unmixed

rapture, and for the moment all the past was forgotten. The loving mother's

happiness would now have been complete had not Aides asserted his rights.

These were, that if any immortal had tasted food in his realms they were

bound to remain there for ever. Of course the ruler of the lower world had

to prove this assertion. This, however, he found no difficulty in doing, as

Ascalaphus, the son of Acheron and Orphne, was his witness to the fact.[25]

Zeus, pitying the disappointment of Demeter at finding {56} her hopes thus

blighted, succeeded in effecting a compromise by inducing his brother Aides

to allow Persephone to spend six months of the year with the gods above,

whilst during the other six she was to be the joyless companion of her grim

lord below. Accompanied by her daughter, the beautiful Persephone, Demeter

now resumed her long-abandoned dwelling in Olympus; the sympathetic earth

responded gaily to her bright smiles, the corn at once sprang forth from

the ground in fullest plenty, the trees, which late were sered and bare,

now donned their brightest emerald robes, and the flowers, so long

imprisoned in the hard, dry soil, filled the whole air with their fragrant

perfume. Thus ends this charming story, which was a favourite theme with

all the classic authors.

It is very possible that the poets who first created this graceful myth

merely intended it as an allegory to illustrate the change of seasons; in

the course of time, however, a literal meaning became attached to this and

similar poetical fancies, and thus the people of Greece came to regard as

an article of religious belief what, in the first instance, was nothing

more than a poetic simile.

In the temple erected to Demeter at Eleusis, the famous Eleusinian

Mysteries were instituted by the goddess herself. It is exceedingly

difficult, as in the case of all secret societies, to discover anything

with certainty concerning these sacred rites. The most plausible

supposition is that the doctrines taught by the priests to the favoured few

whom they initiated, were religious truths which were deemed unfit for the

uninstructed mind of the multitude. For instance, it is supposed that the

myth of Demeter and Persephone was explained by the teachers of the

Mysteries to signify the temporary loss which mother earth sustains every

year when the icy breath of winter robs her of her flowers and fruits and

grain.

It is believed that in later times a still deeper meaning was conveyed by

this beautiful myth, viz., the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. The

grain, which, as it were, remains dead for a time in the dark earth, only

{57} to rise one day dressed in a newer and lovelier garb, was supposed to

symbolize the soul, which, after death, frees itself from corruption, to

live again under a better and purer form.

When Demeter instituted the Eleusinian Mysteries, Celeus and his family

were the first to be initiated, Celeus himself being appointed high-priest.

His son Triptolemus and his daughters, who acted as priestesses, assisted

him in the duties of his sacred office. The Mysteries were celebrated by

the Athenians every five years, and were, for a long time, their exclusive

privilege. They took place by torchlight, and were conducted with the

greatest solemnity.

In order to spread abroad the blessings which agriculture confers, Demeter

presented Triptolemus with her chariot drawn by winged dragons, and, giving

him some grains of corn, desired him to journey through the world, teaching

mankind the arts of agriculture and husbandry.

[Illustration]

Demeter exercised great severity towards those who incurred her

displeasure. We find examples of this in the stories of Stellio and

Eresicthon. Stellio was a youth who ridiculed the goddess for the eagerness

with which she was eating a bowl of porridge, when weary and faint in the

vain search for her daughter. Resolved that he should never again have an

opportunity of thus offending, she angrily threw into his face the

remainder of the food, and changed him into a spotted lizard.

Eresicthon, son of Triopas, had drawn upon himself the anger of Demeter by

cutting down her sacred groves, for which she punished him with a constant

and insatiable hunger. He sold all his possessions in order to satisfy his

cravings, and was forced at last to devour his own limbs. His daughter

Metra, who was devotedly attached to him, possessed the power of

transforming herself into a variety of different animals. By this means she

contrived to support her father, who sold her again and again each time she

assumed a different form, and thus he dragged on a pitiful existence. {58}

CERES.

The Roman Ceres is actually the Greek Demeter under another name, her

attributes, worship, festivals, &c., being precisely identical.

The Romans were indebted to Sicily for this divinity, her worship having

been introduced by the Greek colonists who settled there.

The Cerealia, or festivals in honour of Ceres, commenced on the 12th of

April, and lasted several days.

APHRODITE (VENUS).

Aphrodite (from _aphros_, sea-foam, and _dite_, issued), the daughter of

Zeus and a sea-nymph called Dione, was the goddess of Love and Beauty.

Dione, being a sea-nymph, gave birth to her daughter beneath the waves; but

the child of the heaven-inhabiting Zeus was forced to ascend from the

ocean-depths and mount to the snow-capped summits of Olympus, in order to

breathe that ethereal and most refined atmosphere which pertains to the

celestial gods.

Aphrodite was the mother of Eros (Cupid), the god of Love, also of AEneas,

the great Trojan hero and the head of that Greek colony which settled in

Italy, and from which arose the city of Rome. As a mother Aphrodite claims

our sympathy for the tenderness she exhibits towards her children. Homer

tells us in his Iliad, how, when AEneas was wounded in battle, she came to

his assistance, regardless of personal danger, and was herself severely

wounded in attempting to save his life. {59}

Aphrodite was tenderly attached to a lovely youth, called Adonis, whose

exquisite beauty has become proverbial. He was a motherless babe, and

Aphrodite, taking pity on him, placed him in a chest and intrusted him to

the care of Persephone, who became so fond of the beautiful youth that she

refused to part with him. Zeus, being appealed to by the rival

foster-mothers, decided that Adonis should spend four months of every year

with Persephone, four with Aphrodite, whilst during the remaining four

months he should be left to his own devices. He became, however, so

attached to Aphrodite that he voluntarily devoted to her the time at his

own disposal. Adonis was killed, during the chase, by a wild boar, to the

great grief of Aphrodite, who bemoaned his loss so persistently that Aides,

moved with pity, permitted him to pass six months of every year with her,

whilst the remaining half of the year was spent by him in the lower world.

Aphrodite possessed a magic girdle (the famous _cestus_) which she

frequently lent to unhappy maidens suffering from the pangs of unrequited

love, as it was endowed with the power of inspiring affection for the

wearer, whom it invested with every attribute of grace, beauty, and

fascination.

Her usual attendants are the Charites or Graces (Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and

Thalia), who are represented undraped and intertwined in a loving embrace.

In Hesiod's _Theogony_ she is supposed to belong to the more ancient

divinities, and, whilst those of later date are represented as having

descended one from another, and all more or less from Zeus, Aphrodite has a

variously-accounted-for, yet independent origin.

The most poetical version of her birth is that when Uranus was wounded by

his son Cronus, his blood mingled with the foam of the sea, whereupon the

bubbling waters at once assumed a rosy tint, and from their depths arose,

in all the surpassing glory of her loveliness, Aphrodite, goddess of love

and beauty! Shaking her long, fair tresses, the water-drops rolled down

into the beautiful {60} sea-shell in which she stood, and became

transformed into pure glistening pearls. Wafted by the soft and balmy

breezes, she floated on to Cythera, and was thence transported to the

island of Cyprus. Lightly she stepped on shore, and under the gentle

pressure of her delicate foot the dry and rigid sand became transformed

into a verdant meadow, where every varied shade of colour and every sweet

odour charmed the senses. The whole island of Cyprus became clothed with

verdure, and greeted this fairest of all created beings with a glad smile

of friendly welcome. Here she was received by the Seasons, who decked her

with garments of immortal fabric, encircling her fair brow with a wreath of

purest gold, whilst from her ears depended costly rings, and a glittering

chain embraced her swan-like throat. And now, arrayed in all the panoply of

her irresistible charms, the nymphs escort her to the dazzling halls of

Olympus, where she is received with ecstatic enthusiasm by the admiring

gods and goddesses. The gods all vied with each other in aspiring to the

honour of her hand, but Hephaestus became the envied possessor of this

lovely being, who, however, proved as faithless as she was beautiful, and

caused her husband much unhappiness, owing to the preference she showed at

various times for some of the other gods and also for mortal men.

[Illustration]

The celebrated Venus of Milo, now in the Louvre, is an exquisite statue of

this divinity. The head is beautifully formed; the rich waves of hair

descend on her rather low but broad forehead and are caught up gracefully

in a small knot at the back of the head; the expression of the face is most

bewitching, and bespeaks the perfect {61} joyousness of a happy nature

combined with the dignity of a goddess; the drapery falls in careless folds

from the waist downwards, and her whole attitude is the embodiment of all

that is graceful and lovely in womanhood. She is of medium height, and the

form is perfect in its symmetry and faultless proportions.

Aphrodite is also frequently represented in the act of confining her

dripping locks in a knot, whilst her attendant nymphs envelop her in a

gauzy veil.

The animals sacred to her were the dove, swan, swallow, and sparrow. Her

favourite plants were the myrtle, apple-tree, rose, and poppy.

The worship of Aphrodite is supposed to have been introduced into Greece

from Central Asia. There is no doubt that she was originally identical with

the famous Astarte, the Ashtoreth of the Bible, against whose idolatrous

worship and infamous rites the prophets of old hurled forth their sublime

and powerful anathemas.

VENUS.

The Venus of the Romans was identified with the Aphrodite of the Greeks.

The worship of this divinity was only established in Rome in comparatively

later times. Annual festivals, called Veneralia, were held in her honour,

and the month of April, when flowers and plants spring forth afresh, was

sacred to her. She was worshipped as Venus Cloacina (or the Purifier), and

as Venus Myrtea (or the myrtle goddess), an epithet derived from the

myrtle, the emblem of Love.

HELIOS (SOL).

The worship of Helios was introduced into Greece from Asia. According to

the earliest conceptions of the Greeks he was not only the sun-god, but

also the personification of life and all life-giving power, for light is

well known to be an indispensable condition of all healthy terrestrial

life. The worship of the sun was originally very widely spread, {62} not

only among the early Greeks themselves, but also among other primitive

nations. To us the sun is simply the orb of light, which, high above our

heads, performs each day the functions assigned to it by a mighty and

invisible Power; we can, therefore, form but a faint idea of the impression

which it produced upon the spirit of a people whose intellect was still in

its infancy, and who believed, with child-like simplicity, that every power

of nature was a divinity, which, according as its character was baleful or

beneficent, worked for the destruction or benefit of the human race.

Helios, who was the son of the Titans Hyperion and Theia, is described as

rising every morning in the east, preceded by his sister Eos (the Dawn),

who, with her rosy fingers, paints the tips of the mountains, and draws

aside that misty veil through which her brother is about to appear. When he

has burst forth in all the glorious light of day, Eos disappears, and

Helios now drives his flame-darting chariot along the accustomed track.

This chariot, which is of burnished gold, is drawn by four fire-breathing

steeds, behind which the young god stands erect with flashing eyes, his

head surrounded with rays, holding in one hand the reins of those fiery

coursers which in all hands save his are unmanageable. When towards evening

he descends the curve[26] in order to cool his burning forehead in the

waters of the deep sea, he is followed closely by his sister Selene (the

Moon), who is now prepared to take charge of the world, and illumine with

her silver crescent the dusky night. Helios meanwhile rests from his

labours, and, reclining softly on the cool fragrant couch prepared for him

by the sea-nymphs, recruits himself for another life-giving, joy-inspiring,

and beauteous day.

It may appear strange that, although the Greeks considered the earth to be

a flat circle, no explanation is given of the fact that Helios sinks down

in the far {63} west regularly every evening, and yet reappears as

regularly every morning in the east. Whether he was supposed to pass

through Tartarus, and thus regain the opposite extremity through the bowels

of the earth, or whether they thought he possessed any other means of

making this transit, there is not a line in either Homer or Hesiod to

prove. In later times, however, the poets invented the graceful fiction,

that when Helios had finished his course, and reached the western side of

the curve, a winged-boat, or cup, which had been made for him by Hephaestus,

awaited him there, and conveyed him rapidly, with his glorious equipage, to

the east, where he recommenced his bright and glowing career.

This divinity was invoked as a witness when a solemn oath was taken, as it

was believed that nothing escaped his all-seeing eye, and it was this fact

which enabled him to inform Demeter of the fate of her daughter, as already

related. He was supposed to possess flocks and herds in various localities,

which may possibly be intended to represent the days and nights of the

year, or the stars of heaven.

Helios is said to have loved Clytie, a daughter of Oceanus, who ardently

returned his affection; but in the course of time the fickle sun-god

transferred his devotion to Leucothea, the daughter of Orchamus, king of

the eastern countries, which so angered the forsaken Clytie that she

informed Orchamus of his daughter's attachment, and he punished her by

inhumanly burying her alive. Helios, overcome with grief, endeavoured, by

every means in his power, to recall her to life. At last, finding all his

efforts unavailing, he sprinkled her grave with heavenly nectar, and

immediately there sprang forth from the spot a shoot of frankincense, which

spread around its aromatic perfume.

The jealous Clytie gained nothing by her cruel conduct, for the sun-god

came to her no more. Inconsolable at his loss, she threw herself upon the

ground, and refused all sustenance. For nine long days she turned her face

towards the glorious god of day, as he moved along the {64} heavens, till

at length her limbs became rooted in the ground, and she was transformed

into a flower, which ever turns towards the sun.

Helios married Perse, daughter of Oceanus, and their children were, Aetes,

king of Colchis (celebrated in the legend of the Argonauts as the possessor

of the Golden Fleece), and Circe, the renowned sorceress.

Helios had another son named Phaethon, whose mother was Clymene, one of the

Oceanides. The youth was very beautiful, and a great favourite with

Aphrodite, who intrusted him with the care of one of her temples, which

flattering proof of her regard caused him to become vain and presumptuous.

His friend Epaphus, son of Zeus and Io, endeavoured to check his youthful

vanity by pretending to disbelieve his assertion that the sun-god was his

father. Phaethon, full of resentment, and eager to be able to refute the

calumny, hastened to his mother Clymene, and besought her to tell him

whether Helios was really his father. Moved by his entreaties, and at the

same time angry at the reproach of Epaphus, Clymene pointed to the glorious

sun, then shining down upon them, and assured her son that in that bright

orb he beheld the author of his being, adding that if he had still any

doubt, he might visit the radiant dwelling of the great god of light and

inquire for himself. Overjoyed at his mother's reassuring words, and

following the directions she gave him, Phaethon quickly wended his way to

his father's palace.

As he entered the palace of the sun-god the dazzling rays almost blinded

him, and prevented him from approaching the throne on which his father was

seated, surrounded by the Hours, Days, Months, Years, and Seasons. Helios,

who with his all-seeing eye had watched him from afar, removed his crown of

glittering rays, and bade him not to be afraid, but to draw near to his

father. Encouraged by this kind reception, Phaethon entreated him to bestow

upon him such a proof of his love, that all the world might be convinced

that he was indeed his son; whereupon Helios desired him to ask any favour

he pleased, {65} and swore by the Styx that it should be granted. The

impetuous youth immediately requested permission to drive the chariot of

the sun for one whole day. His father listened horror-struck to this

presumptuous demand, and by representing the many dangers which would beset

his path, endeavoured to dissuade him from so perilous an undertaking; but

his son, deaf to all advice, pressed his point with such pertinacity, that

Helios was reluctantly compelled to lead him to the chariot. Phaethon

paused for a moment to admire the beauty of the glittering equipage, the

gift of the god of fire, who had formed it of gold, and ornamented it with

precious stones, which reflected the rays of the sun. And now Helios,

seeing his sister, the Dawn, opening her doors in the rosy east, ordered

the Hours to yoke the horses. The goddesses speedily obeyed the command,

and the father then anointed the face of his son with a sacred balm, to

enable him to endure the burning flames which issued from the nostrils of

the steeds, and sorrowfully placing his crown of rays upon his head,

desired him to ascend the chariot.

The eager youth joyfully took his place and grasped the coveted reins, but

no sooner did the fiery coursers of the sun feel the inexperienced hand

which attempted to guide them, than they became restive and unmanageable.

Wildly they rushed out of their accustomed track, now soaring so high as to

threaten the heavens with destruction, now descending so low as nearly to

set the earth on fire. At last the unfortunate charioteer, blinded with the

glare, and terrified at the awful devastation he had caused, dropped the

reins from his trembling hands. Mountains and forests were in flames,

rivers and streams were dried up, and a general conflagration was imminent.

The scorched earth now called on Zeus for help, who hurled his thunderbolt

at Phaethon, and with a flash of lightning brought the fiery steeds to a

standstill. The lifeless body of the youth fell headlong into the river

Eridanus,[27] where it was received and buried by the {66} nymphs of the

stream. His sisters mourned so long for him that they were transformed by

Zeus into poplars, and the tears they shed, falling into the waters, became

drops of clear, transparent amber. Cycnus, the faithful friend of the

unhappy Phaethon, felt such overwhelming grief at his terrible fate, that

he pined and wasted away. The gods, moved with compassion, transformed him

into a swan, which for ever brooded over the fatal spot where the waters

had closed over the head of his unfortunate friend.

[Illustration]

The chief seat of the worship of Helios was the island of Rhodes, which

according to the following myth was his especial territory. At the time of

the Titanomachia, when the gods were dividing the world by lot, Helios

happened to be absent, and consequently received no share. He, therefore,

complained to Zeus, who proposed to have a new allotment, but this Helios

would not allow, saying, that as he pursued his daily journey, his

penetrating eye had beheld a lovely, fertile island lying beneath the waves

of the ocean, and that if the immortals would swear to give him the

undisturbed possession of this spot, he would be content to accept it as

his share of the universe. The gods took the oath, whereupon the island of

Rhodes immediately raised itself above the surface of the waters.

The famous Colossus of Rhodes, which was one of the seven wonders of the

world, was erected in honour of Helios. This wonderful statue was 105 feet

high, and was formed entirely of brass; it formed the entrance to the

harbour at Rhodes, and the largest vessel could easily sail between the

legs, which stood on moles, each side of the harbour. Though so gigantic,

it was perfectly proportioned in every part. Some idea of {67} its size may

be gained from the fact that very few people were able to span the thumb of

this statue with their arms. In the interior of the Colossus was a winding

staircase leading to the top, from the summit of which, by means of a

telescope, the coast of Syria, and also the shores of Egypt, are said to

have been visible.[28]

EOS (AURORA).

Eos, the Dawn, like her brother Helios, whose advent she always announced,

was also deified by the early Greeks. She too had her own chariot, which

she drove across the vast horizon both morning and night, before and after

the sun-god. Hence she is not merely the personification of the rosy morn,

but also of twilight, for which reason her palace is placed in the west, on

the island AEaea. The abode of Eos is a magnificent structure, surrounded by

flowery meads and velvety lawns, where nymphs and other immortal beings,

wind in and out in the mazy figures of the dance, whilst the music of a

sweetly-tuned melody accompanies their graceful, gliding movements.

Eos is described by the poets as a beautiful maiden with rosy arms and

fingers, and large wings, whose plumage is of an ever-changing hue; she

bears a star on her forehead, and a torch in her hand. Wrapping round her

the rich folds of her violet-tinged mantle, she leaves her couch before the

break of day, and herself yokes her two horses, Lampetus and Phaethon, to

her glorious chariot. She then hastens with active cheerfulness to open the

gates of heaven, in order to herald the approach of her brother, the god of

day, whilst the tender plants and flowers, revived by the morning dew, lift

their heads to welcome her as she passes.

{68}

Eos first married the Titan Astraeus,[29] and their children were Heosphorus

(Hesperus), the evening star, and the winds. She afterwards became united

to Tithonus, son of Laomedon, king of Troy, who had won her affection by

his unrivalled beauty; and Eos, unhappy at the thought of their being ever

separated by death, obtained for him from Zeus the gift of immortality,

forgetting, however, to add to it that of eternal youth. The consequence

was that when, in the course of time, Tithonus grew old and decrepid, and

lost all the beauty which had won her admiration, Eos became disgusted with

his infirmities, and at last shut him up in a chamber, where soon little

else was left of him but his voice, which had now sunk into a weak, feeble

quaver. According to some of the later poets, he became so weary of his

cheerless and miserable existence, that he entreated to be allowed to die.

This was, however, impossible; but Eos, pitying his unhappy condition,

exerted her divine power, and changed him into a grasshopper, which is, as

it were, all voice, and whose monotonous, ceaseless chirpings may not

inaptly be compared to the meaningless babble of extreme old age.

PHOEBUS-APOLLO.

Phoebus-Apollo, the god of Light, Prophecy, Music, Poetry, and the Arts and

Sciences, is by far the noblest conception within the whole range of Greek

mythology, and his worship, which not only extended to all the states of

Greece, but also to Asia Minor and to every Greek colony throughout the

world, stands out among the most ancient and strongly-marked features of

Grecian history, and exerted a more decided influence over the Greek

nation, than that of any other deity, not excepting Zeus himself.

Apollo was the son of Zeus and Leto, and was born beneath the shade of a

palm tree which grew at the foot {69} of Mount Cynthus, on the barren and

rocky island of Delos. The poets tell us that the earth smiled when the

young god first beheld the light of day, and that Delos became so proud and

exultant at the honour thus conferred upon her, that she covered herself

with golden flowers; swans surrounded the island, and the Delian nymphs

celebrated his birth with songs of joy.

[Illustration]

The unhappy Leto, driven to Delos by the relentless persecutions of Hera,

was not long permitted to enjoy her haven of refuge. Being still tormented

by her enemy, the young mother was once more obliged to fly; she therefore

resigned the charge of her new-born babe to the goddess Themis, who

carefully wrapped the helpless infant in swaddling-clothes, and fed him

with nectar and ambrosia; but he had no sooner partaken of the heavenly

food than, to the amazement of the goddess, he burst asunder the bands

which confined his infant limbs, and springing to his feet, appeared before

her as a full-grown youth of divine strength and beauty. He now demanded a

lyre and a bow, declaring that henceforth he would announce to mankind the

will of his father Zeus. "The golden lyre," said he, "shall be my friend,

the bent bow my delight, and in oracles will I foretell the dark future."

With these words he ascended to Olympus, where he was received with joyful

acclamations into the assembly of the celestial gods, who acknowledged him

as the most beautiful and glorious of all the sons of Zeus.

Phoebus-Apollo was the god of light in a twofold {70} signification: first,

as representing the great orb of day which illumines the world; and

secondly, as the heavenly light which animates the soul of man. He

inherited his function as sun-god from Helios, with whom, in later times,

he was so completely identified, that the personality of the one became

gradually merged in that of the other. We, accordingly, find Helios

frequently confounded with Apollo, myths belonging to the former attributed

to the latter; and with some tribes--the Ionic, for instance--so complete

is this identification, that Apollo is called by them Helios-Apollo.

As the divinity whose power is developed in the broad light of day, he

brings joy and delight to nature, and health and prosperity to man. By the

influence of his warm and gentle rays he disperses the noxious vapours of

the night, assists the grain to ripen and the flowers to bloom.

But although, as god of the sun, he is a life-giving and life-preserving

power, who, by his genial influence, dispels the cold of winter, he is, at

the same time, the god who, by means of his fiercely darting rays, could

spread disease and send sudden death to men and animals; and it is to this

phase of his character that we must look for the explanation of his being

considered, in conjunction with his twin-sister, Artemis (as moon-goddess),

a divinity of death. The brother and sister share this function between

them, he taking man and she woman as her aim, and those especially who died

in the bloom of youth, or at an advanced age, were believed to have been

killed by their gentle arrows. But Apollo did not always send an easy

death. We see in the _Iliad_ how, when angry with the Greeks, the "god of

the silver bow" strode down from Olympus, with his quiver full of

death-bringing darts, and sent a raging pestilence into their camp. For

nine days he let fly his fatal arrows, first on animals and then on men,

till the air became darkened with the smoke from the funeral pyres.

In his character as god of light, Phoebus-Apollo is the protecting deity of

shepherds, because it is he who warms {71} the fields and meadows, and

gives rich pastures to the flocks, thereby gladdening the heart of the

herdsman.

As the temperate heat of the sun exercises so invigorating an effect on man

and animals, and promotes the growth of those medicinal herbs and vegetable

productions necessary for the cure of diseases, Phoebus-Apollo was supposed

to possess the power of restoring life and health; hence he was regarded as

the god of healing; but this feature in his character we shall find more

particularly developed in his son Asclepius (AEsculapius), the veritable god

of the healing art.

Pursuing our analysis of the various phases in the character of

Phoebus-Apollo, we find that with the first beams of his genial light, all

nature awakens to renewed life, and the woods re-echo with the jubilant

sound of the untaught lays, warbled by thousands of feathered choristers.

Hence, by a natural inference, he is the god of music, and as, according to

the belief of the ancients, the inspirations of genius were inseparably

connected with the glorious light of heaven, he is also the god of poetry,

and acts as the special patron of the arts and sciences. Apollo is himself

the heavenly musician among the Olympic gods, whose banquets are gladdened

by the wondrous strains which he produces from his favourite instrument,

the seven-stringed lyre. In the cultus of Apollo, music formed a

distinguishing feature. All sacred dances, and even the sacrifices in his

honour, were performed to the sound of musical instruments; and it is, in a

great measure, owing to the influence which the music in his worship

exercised on the Greek nation, that Apollo came to be regarded as the

leader of the nine Muses, the legitimate divinities of poetry and song. In

this character he is called Musagetes, and is always represented robed in a

long flowing garment; his lyre, to the tones of which he appears to be

singing, is suspended by a band across the chest; his head is encircled by

a wreath of laurel, and his long hair, streaming down over his shoulders,

gives him a somewhat effeminate appearance.

And now we must view the glorious god of light under {72} another, and (as

far as regards his influence over the Greek nation) a much more important

aspect; for, in historical times, all the other functions and attributes of

Apollo sink into comparative insignificance before the great power which he

exercised as god of prophecy. It is true that all Greek gods were endowed,

to a certain extent, with the faculty of foretelling future events; but

Apollo, as sun-god, was the concentration of all prophetic power, as it was

supposed that nothing escaped his all-seeing eye, which penetrated the most

hidden recesses, and laid bare the secrets which lay concealed behind the

dark veil of the future.

We have seen that when Apollo assumed his god-like form, he took his place

among the immortals; but he had not long enjoyed the rapturous delights of

Olympus, before he felt within him an ardent desire to fulfil his great

mission of interpreting to mankind the will of his mighty father. He

accordingly descended to earth, and travelled through many countries,

seeking a fitting site upon which to establish an oracle. At length he

reached the southern side of the rocky heights of Parnassus, beneath which

lay the harbour of Crissa. Here, under the overhanging cliff, he found a

secluded spot, where, from the most ancient times, there had existed an

oracle, in which Gaea herself had revealed the future to man, and which, in

Deucalion's time, she had resigned to Themis. It was guarded by the huge

serpent Python, the scourge of the surrounding neighbourhood, and the

terror alike of men and cattle. The young god, full of confidence in his

unerring aim, attacked and slew the monster with his arrows, thus freeing

land and people from their mighty enemy.

The grateful inhabitants, anxious to do honour to their deliverer, flocked

round Apollo, who proceeded to mark out a plan for a temple, and, with the

assistance of numbers of eager volunteers, a suitable edifice was soon

erected. It now became necessary to choose ministers, who would offer up

sacrifices, interpret his prophecies to the people, and take charge of the

temple. Looking round, he saw in the far distance a vessel bound from Crete

to the {73} Peloponnesus, and determined to avail himself of her crew for

his service. Assuming the shape of an enormous dolphin, he agitated the

waters to such a degree, that the ship was tossed violently to and fro, to

the great alarm of the mariners; at the same time he raised a mighty wind,

which drove the ship into the harbour of Crissa, where she ran aground. The

terrified sailors dared not set foot on shore; but Apollo, under the form

of a vigorous youth, stepped down to the vessel, revealed himself in his

true character, and informed them that it was he who had driven them to

Crissa, in order that they might become his priests, and serve him in his

temple. Arrived at the sacred fane, he instructed them how to perform the

services in his honour, and desired them to worship him under the name of

Apollo-Delphinios, because he had first appeared to them under the form of

a dolphin. Thus was established the far-famed oracle of Delphi, the only

institution of the kind which was not exclusively national, for it was

consulted by Lydians, Phrygians, Etruscans, Romans, &c., and, in fact, was

held in the highest repute all over the world. In obedience to its decrees,

the laws of Lycurgus were introduced, and the earliest Greek colonies

founded. No cities were built without first consulting the Delphic oracle,

for it was believed that Apollo took special delight in the founding of

cities, the first stone of which he laid in person; nor was any enterprise

ever undertaken, without inquiring at this sacred fane as to its probable

success.

But that which brought Apollo more closely home to the hearts of the

people, and raised the whole moral tone of the Greek nation, was the

belief, gradually developed with the intelligence of the people, that he

was the god who accepted repentance as an atonement for sin, who pardoned

the contrite sinner, and who acted as the special protector of those, who,

like Orestes, had committed a crime, which required long years of

expiation.

Apollo is represented by the poets as being eternally young; his

countenance, glowing with joyous life, is the embodiment of immortal

beauty; his eyes are of a deep {74} blue; his forehead low, but broad and

intellectual; his hair, which falls over his shoulders in long waving

locks, is of a golden, or warm chestnut hue. He is crowned with laurel, and

wears a purple robe; in his hand he bears his silver bow, which is unbent

when he smiles, but ready for use when he menaces evil-doers.

But Apollo, the eternally beautiful youth, the perfection of all that is

graceful and refined, rarely seems to have been happy in his love; either

his advances met with a repulse, or his union with the object of his

affection was attended with fatal consequences.