the grace of youth and beauty. She is sitting spinning, and at her feet lie
two masks, one comic, the other tragic, as though to convey the idea, that,
to a divinity of fate, the brightest and saddest scenes of earthly
existence are alike indifferent, and that she quietly and steadily pursues
her occupation, regardless of human weal or woe.
When represented at the feet of Aides in the lower world they are clad in
dark robes; but when they appear in Olympus they wear bright garments,
bespangled with stars, and are seated on radiant thrones, with crowns on
their heads.
It was considered the function of the Moirae to indicate to the Furies the
precise torture which the wicked should undergo for their crimes.
They were regarded as prophetic divinities, and had sanctuaries in many
parts of Greece.
The Moirae are mentioned as assisting the Charites to conduct Persephone to
the upper world at her periodical {141} reunion with her mother Demeter.
They also appear in company with Eileithyia, goddess of birth.
NEMESIS.
Nemesis, the daughter of Nyx, represents that power which adjusts the
balance of human affairs, by awarding to each individual the fate which his
actions deserve. She rewards, humble, unacknowledged merit, punishes crime,
deprives the worthless of undeserved good fortune, humiliates the proud and
overbearing, and visits all evil on the wrong-doer; thus maintaining that
proper balance of things, which the Greeks recognized as a necessary
condition of all civilized life. But though Nemesis, in her original
character, was the distributor of rewards as well as punishments, the world
was so full of sin, that she found but little occupation in her first
capacity, and hence became finally regarded as the avenging goddess only.
We have seen a striking instance of the manner in which this divinity
punishes the proud and arrogant in the history of Niobe. Apollo and Artemis
were merely the instruments for avenging the insult offered to their
mother; but it was Nemesis who prompted the deed, and presided over its
execution.
Homer makes no mention of Nemesis; it is therefore evident that she was a
conception of later times, when higher views of morality had obtained among
the Greek nation.
Nemesis is represented as a beautiful woman of thoughtful and benign aspect
and regal bearing; a diadem crowns her majestic brow, and she bears in her
hand a rudder, balance, and cubit;--fitting emblems of the manner in which
she guides, weighs, and measures all human events. She is also sometimes
seen with a wheel, to symbolize the rapidity with which she executes
justice. As the avenger of evil she appears winged, bearing in her hand
either a scourge or a sword, and seated in a chariot drawn by griffins.
{142}
Nemesis is frequently called Adrastia, and also Rhamnusia, from Rhamnus in
Attica, the chief seat of her worship, which contained a celebrated statue
of the goddess.
Nemesis was worshipped by the Romans, (who invoked her on the Capitol), as
a divinity who possessed the power of averting the pernicious consequences
of envy.
NIGHT AND HER CHILDREN.
DEATH, SLEEP, AND DREAMS.
NYX (NOX).
Nyx, the daughter of Chaos, being the personification of Night, was,
according to the poetic ideas of the Greeks, considered to be the mother of
everything mysterious and inexplicable, such as death, sleep, dreams, &c.
She became united to Erebus, and their children were Aether and Hemera (Air
and Daylight), evidently a simile of the poets, to indicate that darkness
always precedes light.
Nyx inhabited a palace in the dark regions of the lower world, and is
represented as a beautiful woman, seated in a chariot, drawn by two black
horses. She is clothed in dark robes, wears a long veil, and is accompanied
by the stars, which follow in her train.
THANATOS (MORS) AND HYPNUS (SOMNUS).
Thanatos (Death) and his twin-brother Hypnus (Sleep) were the children of
Nyx.
Their dwelling was in the realm of shades, and when they appear among
mortals, Thanatos is feared and hated as the enemy of mankind, whose hard
heart knows no pity, whilst his brother Hypnus is universally loved and
welcomed as their kindest and most beneficent friend.
But though the ancients regarded Thanatos as a gloomy and mournful
divinity, they did not represent him with any exterior repulsiveness. On
the contrary, he appears as a beautiful youth, who holds in his hand an
inverted {143} torch, emblematical of the light of life being extinguished,
whilst his disengaged arm is thrown lovingly round the shoulder of his
brother Hypnus.
Hypnus is sometimes depicted standing erect with closed eyes; at others he
is in a recumbent position beside his brother Thanatos, and usually bears a
poppy-stalk in his hand.
A most interesting description of the abode of Hypnus is given by Ovid in
his Metamorphoses. He tells us how the god of Sleep dwelt in a
mountain-cave near the realm of the Cimmerians, which the sun never pierced
with his rays. No sound disturbed the stillness, no song of birds, not a
branch moved, and no human voice broke the profound silence which reigned
everywhere. From the lowermost rocks of the cave issued the river Lethe,
and one might almost have supposed that its course was arrested, were it
not for the low, monotonous hum of the water, which invited slumber. The
entrance was partially hidden by numberless white and red poppies, which
Mother Night had gathered and planted there, and from the juice of which
she extracts drowsiness, which she scatters in liquid drops all over the
earth, as soon as the sun-god has sunk to rest. In the centre of the cave
stands a couch of blackest ebony, with a bed of down, over which is laid a
coverlet of sable hue. Here the god himself reposes, surrounded by
innumerable forms. These are idle dreams, more numerous than the sands of
the sea. Chief among them is Morpheus, that changeful god, who may assume
any shape or form he pleases. Nor can the god of Sleep resist his own
power; for though he may rouse himself for a while, he soon succumbs to the
drowsy influences which surround him.
MORPHEUS.
Morpheus, the son of Hypnus, was the god of Dreams.
He is always represented winged, and appears sometimes as a youth,
sometimes as an old man. In his hand he bears a cluster of poppies, and as
he steps with {144} noiseless footsteps over the earth, he gently scatters
the seeds of this sleep-producing plant over the eyes of weary mortals.
Homer describes the House of Dreams as having two gates: one, whence issue
all deceptive and flattering visions, being formed of ivory; the other,
through which proceed those dreams which are fulfilled, of horn.
THE GORGONS.
The Gorgons, Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa, were the three daughters of
Phorcys and Ceto, and were the personification of those benumbing, and, as
it were, petrifying sensations, which result from sudden and extreme fear.
They were frightful winged monsters, whose bodies were covered with scales;
hissing, wriggling snakes clustered round their heads instead of hair;
their hands were of brass; their teeth resembled the tusks of a wild boar;
and their whole aspect was so appalling, that they are said to have turned
into stone all who beheld them.
These terrible sisters were supposed to dwell in that remote and mysterious
region in the far West, beyond the sacred stream of Oceanus.
The Gorgons were the servants of Aides, who made use of them to terrify and
overawe those shades, doomed to be kept in a constant state of unrest as a
punishment for their misdeeds, whilst the Furies, on their part, scourged
them with their whips and tortured them incessantly.
The most celebrated of the three sisters was Medusa, who alone was mortal.
She was originally a golden-haired and very beautiful maiden, who, as a
priestess of Athene, was devoted to a life of celibacy; but, being wooed by
Poseidon, whom she loved in return, she forgot her vows, and became united
to him in marriage. For this offence she was punished by the goddess in a
most terrible manner. Each wavy lock of the beautiful hair which had so
charmed her husband, was changed into a {145} venomous snake; her once
gentle, love-inspiring eyes now became blood-shot, furious orbs, which
excited fear and disgust in the mind of the beholder; whilst her former
roseate hue and milk-white skin assumed a loathsome greenish tinge. Seeing
herself thus transformed into so repulsive an object, Medusa fled from her
home, never to return. Wandering about, abhorred, dreaded, and shunned by
all the world, she now developed into a character, worthy of her outward
appearance. In her despair she fled to Africa, where, as she passed
restlessly from place to place, infant snakes dropped from her hair, and
thus, according to the belief of the ancients, that country became the
hotbed of these venomous reptiles. With the curse of Athene upon her, she
turned into stone whomsoever she gazed upon, till at last, after a life of
nameless misery, deliverance came to her in the shape of death, at the
hands of Perseus.
It is well to observe that when the Gorgons are spoken of in the singular,
it is Medusa who is alluded to.
Medusa was the mother of Pegasus and Chrysaor, father of the three-headed,
winged giant Geryones, who was slain by Heracles.
GRAEAE.
The Graeae, who acted as servants to their sisters the Gorgons, were also
three in number; their names were Pephredo, Enyo, and Dino.
In their original conception they were merely personifications of kindly
and venerable old age, possessing all its benevolent attributes without its
natural infirmities. They were old and gray from their birth, and so they
ever remained. In later times, however, they came to be regarded as
misshapen females, decrepid, and hideously ugly, having only one eye, one
tooth, and one gray wig between them, which they lent to each other, when
one of them wished to appear before the world.
When Perseus entered upon his expedition to slay the Medusa, he repaired to
the abode of the Graeae, in the far {146} west, to inquire the way to the
Gorgons, and on their refusing to give any information, he deprived them of
their one eye, tooth, and wig, and did not restore them until he received
the necessary directions.
SPHINX.
The Sphinx was an ancient Egyptian divinity, who personified wisdom, and
the fertility of nature. She is represented as a lion-couchant, with the
head and bust of a woman, and wears a peculiar sort of hood, which
completely envelops her head, and falls down on either side of the face.
Transplanted into Greece, this sublime and mysterious Egyptian deity
degenerates into an insignificant, and yet malignant power, and though she
also deals in mysteries, they are, as we shall see, of a totally different
character, and altogether inimical to human life.
[Illustration]
The Sphinx is represented, according to Greek genealogy, as the offspring
of Typhon and Echidna.[48] Hera, being upon one occasion displeased with
the Thebans, sent them this awful monster, as a punishment for their
offences. Taking her seat on a rocky eminence near the city of Thebes,
commanding a pass which the Thebans were compelled to traverse in their
usual way of business, she propounded to all comers a riddle, and if they
failed to solve it, she tore them in pieces.
During the reign of King Creon, so many people had fallen a sacrifice to
this monster, that he determined to use every effort to rid the country of
so terrible a scourge. On consulting the oracle of Delphi, he was informed
that the only way to destroy the Sphinx was to solve one of her riddles,
when she would immediately precipitate herself from the rock on which she
was seated.
Creon, accordingly, made a public declaration to the effect, that whoever
could give the true interpretation of a riddle propounded by the monster,
should obtain the crown, and the hand of his sister Jocaste. Oedipus
offered {147} himself as a candidate, and proceeding to the spot where she
kept guard, received from her the following riddle for solution: "What
creature goes in the morning on four legs, at noon on two, and in the
evening on three?" Oedipus replied, that it must be man, who during his
infancy creeps on all fours, in his prime walks erect on two legs, and when
old age has enfeebled his powers, calls a staff to his assistance, and thus
has, as it were, three legs.
The Sphinx no sooner heard this reply, which was the correct solution of
her riddle, than she flung herself over the precipice, and perished in the
abyss below.
The Greek Sphinx may be recognized by having wings and by being of smaller
dimensions than the Egyptian Sphinx.
TYCHE (FORTUNA) AND ANANKE (NECESSITAS).
TYCHE (FORTUNA).
Tyche personified that peculiar combination of circumstances which we call
luck or fortune, and was considered to be the source of all unexpected
events in human life, whether good or evil. If a person succeeded in all he
undertook without possessing any special merit of his own, Tyche was
supposed to have smiled on his birth. If, on the other hand, undeserved
ill-luck followed him through life, and all his efforts resulted in
failure, it was ascribed to her adverse influence.
This goddess of Fortune is variously represented. Sometimes she is depicted
bearing in her hand two rudders, with one of which she steers the bark of
the fortunate, and with the other that of the unfortunate among mortals. In
later times she appears blindfolded, and stands on a ball or wheel,
indicative of the fickleness and ever-revolving {148} changes of fortune.
She frequently bears the sceptre and cornucopia[49] or horn of plenty, and
is usually winged. In her temple at Thebes, she is represented holding the
infant Plutus in her arms, to symbolize her power over riches and
prosperity.
Tyche was worshipped in various parts of Greece, but more particularly by
the Athenians, who believed in her special predilection for their city.
FORTUNA.
Tyche was worshipped in Rome under the name of Fortuna, and held a position
of much greater importance among the Romans than the Greeks.
In later times Fortuna is never represented either winged or standing on a
ball; she merely bears the cornucopia. It is evident, therefore, that she
had come to be regarded as the goddess of good luck only, who brings
blessings to man, and not, as with the Greeks, as the personification of
the fluctuations of fortune.
In addition to Fortuna, the Romans worshipped Felicitas as the giver of
positive good fortune.
ANANKE (NECESSITAS).
As Ananke, Tyche assumes quite another character, and becomes the
embodiment of those immutable laws of nature, by which certain causes
produce certain inevitable results.
In a statue of this divinity at Athens she was represented with hands of
bronze, and surrounded with nails and hammers. The hands of bronze probably
indicated the irresistible power of the inevitable, and the hammer and
chains the fetters which she forged for man.
Ananke was worshipped in Rome under the name of Necessitas.
{149}
KER.
In addition to the Moirae, who presided over the life of mortals, there was
another divinity, called Ker, appointed for each human being at the moment
of his birth. The Ker belonging to an individual was believed to develop
with his growth, either for good or evil; and when the ultimate fate of a
mortal was about to be decided, his Ker was weighed in the balance, and,
according to the preponderance of its worth or worthlessness, life or death
was awarded to the human being in question. It becomes evident, therefore,
that according to the belief of the early Greeks, each individual had it in
his power, to a certain extent, to shorten or prolong his own existence.
The Keres, who are frequently mentioned by Homer, were the goddesses who
delighted in the slaughter of the battle-field.
ATE.
Ate, the daughter of Zeus and Eris, was a divinity who delighted in evil.
Having instigated Hera to deprive Heracles of his birthright, her father
seized her by the hair of her head, and hurled her from Olympus, forbidding
her, under the most solemn imprecations, ever to return. Henceforth she
wandered among mankind, sowing dissension, working mischief, and luring men
to all actions inimical to their welfare and happiness. Hence, when a
reconciliation took place between friends who had quarrelled, Ate was
blamed as the original cause of disagreement.
MOMUS.
Momus, the son of Nyx, was the god of raillery and ridicule, who delighted
to criticise, with bitter sarcasm, the actions of gods and men, and
contrived to discover in all things some defect or blemish. Thus when
Prometheus created the first man, Momus considered his work incomplete
because there was no aperture in the breast through which his inmost
thoughts might be read. He {150} also found fault with a house built by
Athene because, being unprovided with the means of locomotion, it could
never be removed from an unhealthy locality. Aphrodite alone defied his
criticism, for, to his great chagrin, he could find no fault with her
perfect form.[50]
In what manner the ancients represented this god is unknown. In modern art
he is depicted like a king's jester, with a fool's cap and bells.
EROS (CUPID, AMOR) AND PSYCHE.
According to Hesiod's Theogony, Eros, the divine spirit of Love, sprang
forth from Chaos, while all was still in confusion, and by his beneficent
power reduced to order and harmony the shapeless, conflicting elements,
which, under his influence, began to assume distinct forms. This ancient
Eros is represented as a full-grown and very beautiful youth, crowned with
flowers, and leaning on a shepherd's crook.
In the course of time, this beautiful conception gradually faded away, and
though occasional mention still continues to be made of the Eros of Chaos,
he is replaced by the son of Aphrodite, the popular, mischief-loving little
god of Love, so familiar to us all.
In one of the myths concerning Eros, Aphrodite is described as complaining
to Themis, that her son, though so beautiful, did not appear to increase in
stature; whereupon Themis suggested that his small proportions were
probably attributable to the fact of his being always alone, and advised
his mother to let him have a companion. Aphrodite accordingly gave him, as
a playfellow, his younger brother Anteros (requited love), and soon had the
gratification of seeing the little Eros begin to grow and thrive; but,
curious to relate, this desirable result only continued as long as the
brothers remained together, for the moment they were separated, Eros shrank
once more to his original size.
{151}
By degrees the conception of Eros became multiplied and we hear of little
love-gods (Amors), who appear under the most charming and diversified
forms. These love-gods, who afforded to artists inexhaustible subjects for
the exercise of their imagination, are represented as being engaged in
various occupations, such as hunting, fishing, rowing, driving chariots,
and even busying themselves in mechanical labour.
[Illustration]
Perhaps no myth is more charming and interesting than that of Eros and
Psyche, which is as follows:--Psyche, the youngest of three princesses, was
so transcendently beautiful that Aphrodite herself became jealous of her,
and no mortal dared to aspire to the honour of her hand. As her sisters,
who were by no means equal to her in attractions, were married, and Psyche
still remained unwedded, her father consulted the oracle of Delphi, and, in
obedience to the divine response, caused her to be dressed as though for
the grave, and conducted to the edge of a yawning precipice. No sooner was
she alone than she felt herself lifted up, and wafted away by the gentle
west wind Zephyrus, who transported her to a verdant meadow, in the midst
of which stood a stately palace, surrounded by groves and fountains.
Here dwelt Eros, the god of Love, in whose arms Zephyrus deposited his
lovely burden. Eros, himself unseen, wooed her in the softest accents of
affection; but warned her, as she valued his love, not to endeavour to
behold his form. For some time Psyche was obedient to the injunction of her
immortal spouse, and made no effort to gratify her natural curiosity; but,
unfortunately, in the midst of her happiness she was seized with an
unconquerable longing for the society of her {152} sisters, and, in
accordance with her desire, they were conducted by Zephyrus to her
fairy-like abode. Filled with envy at the sight of her felicity, they
poisoned her mind against her husband, and telling her that her unseen
lover was a frightful monster, they gave her a sharp dagger, which they
persuaded her to use for the purpose of delivering herself from his power.
After the departure of her sisters, Psyche resolved to take the first
opportunity of following their malicious counsel. She accordingly rose in
the dead of night, and taking a lamp in one hand and a dagger in the other,
stealthily approached the couch where Eros was reposing, when, instead of
the frightful monster she had expected to see, the beauteous form of the
god of Love greeted her view. Overcome with surprise and admiration, Psyche
stooped down to gaze more closely on his lovely features, when, from the
lamp which she held in her trembling hand, there fell a drop of burning oil
upon the shoulder of the sleeping god, who instantly awoke, and seeing
Psyche standing over him with the instrument of death in her hand,
sorrowfully reproached her for her treacherous designs, and, spreading out
his wings, flew away.
In despair at having lost her lover, the unhappy Psyche endeavoured to put
an end to her existence by throwing herself into the nearest river; but
instead of closing over her, the waters bore her gently to the opposite
bank, where Pan (the god of shepherds) received her, and consoled her with
the hope of becoming eventually reconciled to her husband.
Meanwhile her wicked sisters, in expectation of meeting with the same good
fortune which had befallen Psyche, placed themselves on the edge of the
rock, but were both precipitated into the chasm below.
Psyche herself, filled with a restless yearning for her lost love, wandered
all over the world in search of him. At length she appealed to Aphrodite to
take compassion on her; but the goddess of Beauty, still jealous of her
charms, imposed upon her the hardest tasks, the accomplishment of which
often appeared impossible. In these {153} she was always assisted by
invisible, beneficent beings, sent to her by Eros, who still loved her, and
continued to watch over her welfare.
[Illustration]
Psyche had to undergo a long and severe penance before she became worthy to
regain the happiness, which she had so foolishly trifled away. At last
Aphrodite commanded her to descend into the under world, and obtain from
Persephone a box containing all the charms of beauty. Psyche's courage now
failed her, for she concluded that death must of necessity precede her
entrance into the realm of shades. About to abandon herself to despair, she
heard a voice which warned her of every danger to be avoided on her
perilous journey, and instructed her with regard to certain precautions to
be observed. These were as follows:--not to omit to provide herself with
the ferryman's toll for Charon, and the cake to pacify Cerberus, also to
refrain from taking any part in the banquets of Aides and Persephone, and,
above all things, to bring the box of beauty charms unopened to Aphrodite.
In conclusion, the voice assured her, that compliance with the above
conditions would insure for her a safe return to the realms of light. But,
alas, Psyche, who had implicitly followed all injunctions, could not
withstand the temptation of the last condition; and, hardly had she quitted
the lower world, when, unable to resist the curiosity which devoured her,
she raised the lid of the box with eager expectation. But, instead of the
wondrous charms of beauty which she expected to behold, there issued from
the casket a dense black vapour, which had the effect of throwing her into
a death-like sleep, out of which Eros, who had long hovered round her
unseen, at length awoke her with the point of one of his golden arrows. He
gently reproached her with this second proof of her curiosity and folly,
and then, having persuaded Aphrodite to be reconciled to his beloved, he
induced Zeus to admit her among the immortal gods.
Their reunion was celebrated amidst the rejoicings of all the Olympian
deities. The Graces shed perfume on {154} their path, the Hours sprinkled
roses over the sky, Apollo added the music of his lyre, and the Muses
united their voices in a glad chorus of delight.
This myth would appear to be an allegory, which signifies that the soul,
before it can be reunited to its original divine essence, must be purified
by the chastening sorrows and sufferings of its earthly career.[51]
Eros is represented as a lovely boy, with rounded limbs, and a merry,
roguish expression. He has golden wings, and a quiver slung over his
shoulder, which contained his magical and unerring arrows; in one hand he
bears his golden bow, and in the other a torch.
He is also frequently depicted riding on a lion, dolphin, or eagle, or
seated in a chariot drawn by stags or wild boars, undoubtedly emblematical
of the power of love as the subduer of all nature, even of the wild
animals.
In Rome, Eros was worshipped under the name of Amor or Cupid.
HYMEN.
Hymen or Hymenaeus, the son of Apollo and the muse Urania, was the god who
presided over marriage and nuptial solemnities, and was hence invoked at
all marriage festivities.
There is a myth concerning this divinity, which tells us that Hymen was a
beautiful youth of very poor parents, who fell in love with a wealthy
maiden, so far above him in rank, that he dared not cherish the hope of
ever becoming united to her. Still he missed no opportunity of seeing her,
and, upon one occasion, disguised himself as {155} a girl, and joined a
troop of maidens, who, in company with his beloved, were proceeding from
Athens to Eleusis, in order to attend a festival of Demeter. On their way
thither they were surprised by pirates, who carried them off to a desert
island, where the ruffians, after drinking deeply, fell into a heavy sleep.
Hymen, seizing the opportunity, slew them all, and then set sail for
Athens, where he found the parents of the maidens in the greatest distress
at their unaccountable disappearance. He comforted them with the assurance
that their children should be restored to them, provided they would promise
to give him in marriage the maiden he loved. The condition being gladly
complied with, he at once returned to the island, and brought back the
maidens in safety to Athens, whereupon he became united to the object of
his love; and their union proved so remarkably happy, that henceforth the
name of Hymen became synonymous with conjugal felicity.
IRIS (THE RAINBOW).
Iris, the daughter of Thaumas and Electra, personified the rainbow, and was
the special attendant and messenger of the queen of heaven, whose commands
she executed with singular tact, intelligence, and swiftness.
Most primitive nations have regarded the rainbow as a bridge of
communication between heaven and earth, and this is doubtless the reason
why Iris, who represented that beautiful phenomenon of nature, should have
been invested by the Greeks with the office of communicating between gods
and men.
Iris is usually represented seated behind the chariot of Hera, ready to do
the bidding of her royal mistress. She appears under the form of a slender
maiden of great beauty, robed in an airy fabric of variegated hues,
resembling mother-of-pearl; her sandals are bright as burnished silver, she
has golden wings, and wherever she appears, a radiance of light, and a
sweet odour, as of delicate spring flowers, pervades the air. {156}
[Illustration]
HEBE (JUVENTAS).
Hebe was the personification of eternal youth under its most attractive and
joyous aspect.
She was the daughter of Zeus and Hera, and though of such distinguished
rank, is nevertheless represented as cup-bearer to the gods; a forcible
exemplification of the old patriarchal custom, in accordance with which the
daughters of the house, even when of the highest lineage, personally
assisted in serving the guests.
Hebe is represented as a comely, modest maiden, small, of a beautifully
rounded contour, with nut-brown tresses and sparkling eyes. She is often
depicted pouring out nectar from an upraised vessel, or bearing in her hand
a shallow dish, supposed to contain ambrosia, the ever youth-renewing food
of the immortals.
In consequence of an act of awkwardness, which caused her to slip while
serving the gods, Hebe was deprived of her office, which was henceforth
delegated to Ganymedes, son of Tros.
Hebe afterwards became the bride of Heracles, when, after his apotheosis,
he was received among the immortals.
JUVENTAS.
Juventas was the Roman divinity identified with Hebe, whose attributes,
however, were regarded by the Romans as applying more particularly to the
imperishable vigour and immortal glory of the state.
In Rome, several temples were erected in honour of this goddess. {157}
GANYMEDES.
Ganymedes, the youngest son of Tros, king of Troy, was one day drawing
water from a well on Mount Ida, when he was observed by Zeus, who, struck
with his wonderful beauty, sent his eagle to transport him to Olympus,
where he was endowed with immortality, and appointed cup-bearer to the
gods.
Ganymedes is represented as a youth of exquisite beauty, with short golden
locks, delicately chiselled features, beaming blue eyes, and pouting lips.
THE MUSES.
Of all the Olympic deities, none occupy a more distinguished position than
the Muses, the nine beautiful daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne.
In their original signification, they presided merely over music, song, and
dance; but with the progress of civilization the arts and sciences claimed
their special presiding divinities, and we see these graceful creations, in
later times, sharing among them various functions, such as poetry,
astronomy, &c.
The Muses were honoured alike by mortals and immortals. In Olympus, where
Apollo acted as their leader, no banquet or festivity was considered
complete without their joy-inspiring presence, and on earth no social
gathering was celebrated without libations being poured out to them; nor
was any task involving intellectual effort ever undertaken, without
earnestly supplicating their assistance. They endowed their chosen
favourites with knowledge, wisdom, and understanding; they bestowed upon
the orator the gift of eloquence, inspired the poet with his noblest
thoughts, and the musician with his sweetest harmonies.
Like so many of the Greek divinities, however, the refined conception of
the Muses is somewhat marred by the acerbity with which they punished any
effort on the part {158} of mortals to rival them in their divine powers.
An instance of this is seen in the case of Thamyris, a Thracian bard, who
presumed to invite them to a trial of skill in music. Having vanquished
him, they not only afflicted him with blindness, but deprived him also of
the power of song.
Another example of the manner in which the gods punished presumption and
vanity is seen in the story of the daughters of King Pierus. Proud of the
perfection to which they had brought their skill in music, they presumed to
challenge the Muses themselves in the art over which they specially
presided. The contest took place on Mount Helicon, and it is said that when
the mortal maidens commenced their song, the sky became dark and misty,
whereas when the Muses raised their heavenly voices, all nature seemed to
rejoice, and Mount Helicon itself moved with exultation. The Pierides were
signally defeated, and were transformed by the Muses into singing birds, as
a punishment for having dared to challenge comparison with the immortals.
Undeterred by the above example, the Sirens also entered into a similar
contest. The songs of the Muses were loyal and true, whilst those of the
Sirens were the false and deceptive strains with which so many unfortunate
mariners had been lured to their death. The Sirens were defeated by the
Muses, and as a mark of humiliation, were deprived of the feathers with
which their bodies were adorned.
The oldest seat of the worship of the Muses was Pieria in Thrace, where
they were supposed to have first seen the light of day. Pieria is a
district on one of the sloping declivities of Mount Olympus, whence a
number of rivulets, as they flow towards the plains beneath, produce those
sweet, soothing sounds, which may possibly have suggested this spot as a
fitting home for the presiding divinities of song.
They dwelt on the summits of Mounts Helicon, Parnassus, and Pindus, and
loved to haunt the springs and fountains which gushed forth amidst these
rocky {159} heights, all of which were sacred to them and to poetic
inspiration. Aganippe and Hippocrene on Mount Helicon, and the Castalian
spring on Mount Parnassus, were sacred to the Muses. The latter flowed
between two lofty rocks above the city of Delphi, and in ancient times its
waters were introduced into a square stone basin, where they were retained
for the use of the Pythia and the priests of Apollo.
[Illustration: CALLIOPE.]
The libations to these divinities consisted of water, milk, and honey, but
never of wine.
Their names and functions are as follows:--
CALLIOPE, the most honoured of the Muses, presided over heroic song and
epic poetry, and is represented with a pencil in her hand, and a slate upon
her knee.
CLIO, the muse of History, holds in her hand a roll of parchment, and wears
a wreath of laurel.
MELPOMENE, the muse of Tragedy, bears a tragic mask.
THALIA, the muse of Comedy, carries in her right hand a shepherd's crook,
and has a comic mask beside her.
POLYHYMNIA, the muse of Sacred Hymns, is crowned with a wreath of laurel.
She is always represented in a thoughtful attitude, and entirely enveloped
in rich folds of drapery.
TERPSICHORE, the muse of Dance and Roundelay, is represented in the act of
playing on a seven-stringed lyre.
URANIA, the muse of Astronomy, stands erect, and bears in her left hand a
celestial globe.
EUTERPE, the muse of Harmony, is represented bearing a musical instrument,
usually a flute.
ERATO, the muse of Love and hymeneal songs, wears a wreath of laurel, and
is striking the chords of a lyre. {160}
[Illustration: CLIO.]
[Illustration: TERPSICHORE.]
[Illustration: EUTERPE.]
[Illustration: ERATO.]
With regard to the origin of the Muses, it is said that they were created
by Zeus in answer to a request on the part of the victorious deities, after
the war with the {161} Titans, that some special divinities should be
called into existence, in order to commemorate in song the glorious deeds
of the Olympian gods.
[Illustration: URANIA.]
[Illustration: MELPOMENE.]
[Illustration: THALIA.]
[Illustration: POLYHYMNIA.]
{162}
PEGASUS.
Pegasus was a beautiful winged horse who sprang from the body of Medusa
when she was slain by the hero Perseus, the son of Zeus and Danae.
Spreading out his wings he immediately flew to the top of Mount Olympus,
where he was received with delight and admiration by all the immortals. A
place in his palace was assigned to him by Zeus, who employed him to carry
his thunder and lightning. Pegasus permitted none but the gods to mount
him, except in the case of Bellerophon, whom, at the command of Athene, he
carried aloft, in order that he might slay the Chimaera with his arrows.
The later poets represent Pegasus as being at the service of the Muses, and
for this reason he is more celebrated in modern times than in antiquity. He
would appear to represent that poetical inspiration, which tends to develop
man's higher nature, and causes the mind to soar heavenwards. The only
mention by the ancients of Pegasus in connection with the Muses, is the
story of his having produced with his hoofs, the famous fountain
Hippocrene.
It is said that during their contest with the Pierides, the Muses played
and sang on the summit of Mount Helicon with such extraordinary power and
sweetness, that heaven and earth stood still to listen, whilst the mountain
raised itself in joyous ecstasy towards the abode of the celestial gods.
Poseidon, seeing his special function thus interfered with, sent Pegasus to
check the boldness of the mountain, in daring to move without his
permission. When Pegasus reached the summit, he stamped the ground with his
hoofs, and out gushed the waters of Hippocrene, afterwards so renowned as
the sacred fount, whence the Muses quaffed their richest draughts of
inspiration.
THE HESPERIDES.
The Hesperides, the daughters of Atlas, dwelt in an island in the far west,
whence they derived their name. {163}
They were appointed by Hera to act as guardians to a tree bearing golden
apples, which had been presented to her by Gaea on the occasion of her
marriage with Zeus.
It is said that the Hesperides, being unable to withstand the temptation of
tasting the golden fruit confided to their care, were deprived of their
office, which was henceforth delegated to the terrible dragon Ladon, who
now became the ever-watchful sentinel of these precious treasures.
The names of the Hesperides were Aegle, Arethusa, and Hesperia.
CHARITES (GRATIAE) GRACES.
All those gentler attributes which beautify and refine human existence were
personified by the Greeks under the form of three lovely sisters,
Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and Thalia, the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome (or,
according to later writers, of Dionysus and Aphrodite).
They are represented as beautiful, slender maidens in the full bloom of
youth, with hands and arms lovingly intertwined, and are either undraped,
or wear a fleecy, transparent garment of an ethereal fabric.
They portray every gentle emotion of the heart, which vents itself in
friendship and benevolence, and were believed to preside over those
qualities which constitute grace, modesty, unconscious beauty, gentleness,
kindliness, innocent joy, purity of mind and body, and eternal youth.
They not only possessed the most perfect beauty themselves, but also
conferred this gift upon others. All the enjoyments of life were enhanced
by their presence, and were deemed incomplete without them; and wherever
joy or pleasure, grace and gaiety reigned, there they were supposed to be
present.
Temples and altars were everywhere erected in their honour, and people of
all ages and of every rank in life entreated their favour. Incense was
burnt daily upon their altars, and at every banquet they were invoked,
{164} and a libation poured out to them, as they not only heightened all
enjoyment, but also by their refining influence moderated the exciting
effects of wine.
Music, eloquence, poetry, and art, though the direct work of the Muses,
received at the hands of the Graces an additional touch of refinement and
beauty; for which reason they are always regarded as the friends of the
Muses, with whom they lived on Mount Olympus.
Their special function was to act, in conjunction with the Seasons, as
attendants upon Aphrodite, whom they adorned with wreaths of flowers, and
she emerges from their hands like the Queen of Spring, perfumed with the
odour of roses and violets, and all sweet-scented blossoms.
The Graces are frequently seen in attendance on other divinities; thus they
carry music for Apollo, myrtles for Aphrodite, &c., and frequently
accompany the Muses, Eros, or Dionysus.
HORAE (SEASONS).
Closely allied to the Graces were the Horae, or Seasons, who were also
represented as three beautiful maidens, daughters of Zeus and Themis. Their
names were Eunomia, Dice, and Irene.
It may appear strange that these divinities, presiding over the seasons,
should be but three in number, but this is quite in accordance with the
notions of the ancient Greeks, who only recognized spring, summer, and
autumn as seasons; nature being supposed to be wrapt in death or slumber,
during that cheerless and unproductive portion of the year which we call
winter. In some parts of Greece there were but two Horae, Thallo, goddess of
the bloom, and Carpo, of the corn and fruit-bearing season.
The Horae are always regarded as friendly towards mankind, and totally
devoid of guile or subtlety; they are represented as joyous, but gentle
maidens, crowned with flowers, and holding each other by the hand in a
round dance. When they are depicted separately as personifications of the
different seasons, the Hora {165} representing spring appears laden with
flowers, that of summer bears a sheaf of corn, whilst the personification
of autumn has her hands filled with clusters of grapes and other fruits.
They also appear in company with the Graces in the train of Aphrodite, and
are seen with Apollo and the Muses.
They are inseparably connected with all that is good and beautiful in
nature, and as the regular alternation of the seasons, like all her other
operations, demands the most perfect order and regularity, the Horae, being
the daughters of Themis, came to be regarded as the representatives of
order, and the just administration of human affairs in civilized
communities. Each of these graceful maidens took upon herself a separate
function: Eunomia presided more especially over state life, Dice guarded
the interests of individuals, whilst Irene, the gayest and brightest of the
three sisters, was the light-hearted companion of Dionysus.
The Horae were also the deities of the fast-fleeting hours, and thus
presided over the smaller, as well as the larger divisions of time. In this
capacity they assist every morning in yoking the celestial horses to the
glorious chariot of the sun, which they again help to unyoke when he sinks
to rest.
In their original conception they were personifications of the clouds, and
are described as opening and closing the gates of heaven, and causing
fruits and flowers to spring forth, when they pour down upon them their
refreshing and life-giving streams.
THE NYMPHS.
The graceful beings called the Nymphs were the presiding deities of the
woods, grottoes, streams, meadows, &c.
These divinities were supposed to be beautiful maidens of fairy-like form,
and robed in more or less shadowy garments. They were held in the greatest
veneration, though, being minor divinities, they had no temples {166}
dedicated to them, but were worshipped in caves or grottoes, with libations
of milk, honey, oil, &c.
They may be divided into three distinct classes, viz., water, mountain, and
tree or wood nymphs.
WATER NYMPHS.
OCEANIDES, NEREIDES, AND NAIADES.
The worship of water-deities is common to most primitive nations. The
streams, springs, and fountains of a country bear the same relation to it
which the blood, coursing through the numberless arteries of a human being,
bears to the body; both represent the living, moving, life-awakening
element, without which existence would be impossible. Hence we find among
most nations a deep feeling of attachment to the streams and waters of
their native land, the remembrance of which, when absent in foreign climes,
is always treasured with peculiar fondness. Thus among the early Greeks,
each tribe came to regard the rivers and springs of its individual state as
beneficent powers, which brought blessing and prosperity to the country. It
is probable also that the charm which ever accompanies the sound of running
water exercised its power over their imagination. They heard with delight
the gentle whisper of the fountain, lulling the senses with its low,
rippling tones; the soft purling of the brook as it rushes over the
pebbles, or the mighty voice of the waterfall as it dashes on in its
headlong course; and the beings which they pictured to themselves as
presiding over all these charming sights and sounds of nature,
corresponded, in their graceful appearance, with the scenes with which they
were associated.
OCEANIDES.
The OCEANIDES, or Ocean Nymphs, were the daughters of Oceanus and Tethys,
and, like most sea divinities, were endowed with the gift of prophecy.
They are personifications of those delicate vapour-like {167} exhalations,
which, in warm climates, are emitted from the surface of the sea, more
especially at sunset, and are impelled forwards by the evening breeze. They
are accordingly represented as misty, shadowy beings, with graceful swaying
forms, and robed in pale blue, gauze-like fabrics.
THE NEREIDES.
The NEREIDES were the daughters of Nereus and Doris, and were nymphs of the
Mediterranean Sea.
They are similar in appearance to the Oceanides, but their beauty is of a
less shadowy order, and is more like that of mortals. They wear a flowing,
pale green robe; their liquid eyes resemble, in their clear depths, the
lucid waters of the sea they inhabit; their hair floats carelessly over
their shoulders, and assumes the greenish tint of the water itself, which,
far from deteriorating from their beauty, greatly adds to its effect. The
Nereides either accompany the chariot of the mighty ruler of the sea, or
follow in his train.
We are told by the poets that the lonely mariner watches the Nereides with
silent awe and wondering delight, as they rise from their grotto-palaces in
the deep, and dance, in joyful groups, over the sleeping waves. Some, with
arms entwined, follow with their movements the melodies which seem to hover
over the sea, whilst others scatter liquid gems around, these being
emblematical of the phosphorescent light, so frequently observed at night
by the traveller in southern waters.
The best known of the Nereides were Thetis, the wife of Peleus, Amphitrite,
the spouse of Poseidon, and Galatea, the beloved of Acis.
THE NAIADES.
The NAIADES were the nymphs of fresh-water springs, lakes, brooks, rivers,
&c.
As the trees, plants, and flowers owed their nourishment to their genial,
fostering care, these divinities were {168} regarded by the Greeks as
special benefactors to mankind. Like all the nymphs, they possessed the
gift of prophecy, for which reason many of the springs and fountains over
which they presided were believed to inspire mortals who drank of their
waters with the power of foretelling future events. The Naiades are
intimately connected in idea with those flowers which are called after them
Nymphae, or water-lilies, whose broad, green leaves and yellow cups float
upon the surface of the water, as though proudly conscious of their own
grace and beauty.
We often hear of the Naiades forming alliances with mortals, and also of
their being wooed by the sylvan deities of the woods and dales.
DRYADES, OR TREE NYMPHS.
The tree nymphs partook of the distinguishing characteristics of the
particular tree to whose life they were wedded, and were known collectively
by the name of the Dryades.
The HAMADRYADES, or oak nymphs, represent in their peculiar individuality
the quiet, self-reliant power which appears to belong essentially to the
grand and lordly king of the forest.
The BIRCH NYMPH is a melancholy maiden with floating hair, resembling the
branches of the pale and fragile-looking tree which she inhabits.
The BEECH NYMPH is strong and sturdy, full of life and joyousness, and
appears to give promise of faithful love and undisturbed repose, whilst her
rosy cheeks, deep brown eyes, and graceful form bespeak health, vigour, and
vitality.
The nymph of the LINDEN TREE is represented as a little coy maiden, whose
short silver-gray dress reaches a little below the knee, and displays to
advantage her delicately formed limbs. The sweet face, which is partly
averted, reveals a pair of large blue eyes, which appear to look at you
with wondering surprise and shy mistrust; {169} her pale, golden hair is
bound by the faintest streak of rose-coloured ribbon.
The tree nymph, being wedded to the life of the tree she inhabited, ceased
to exist when it was either felled, or so injured as to wither away and
die.
NYMPHS OF THE VALLEYS AND MOUNTAINS.
NAPAEAE AND OREADES.
The Napaeae were the kind and gentle nymphs of the valleys and glens who
appear in the train of Artemis. They are represented as lovely maidens with
short tunics, which, reaching only to the knee, do not impede their swift
and graceful movements in the exercise of the chase. Their pale brown
tresses are fastened in a knot at the back of the head, whence a few stray
curls escape over their shoulders. The Napaeae are shy as the fawns, and
quite as frolicsome.
The OREADES, or mountain nymphs, who are the principal and constant
companions of Artemis, are tall, graceful maidens, attired as huntresses.
They are ardent followers of the chase, and spare neither the gentle deer
nor the timid hare, nor indeed any animal they meet with in their rapid
course. Wherever their wild hunt goes the shy Napaeae are represented as
hiding behind the leaves, whilst their favourites, the fawns, kneel
tremblingly beside them, looking up beseechingly for protection from the
wild huntresses; and even the bold Satyrs dart away at their approach, and
seek safety in flight.
There is a myth connected with one of these mountain nymphs, the
unfortunate Echo. She became enamoured of a beautiful youth named
Narcissus, son of the river-god Cephissus, who, however, failed to return
her love, which so grieved her that she gradually pined away, becoming a
mere shadow of her former self, till, at length, nothing remained of her
except her voice, which henceforth gave back, with unerring fidelity, every
sound that was uttered in the hills and dales. Narcissus himself {170} also
met with an unhappy fate, for Aphrodite punished him by causing him to fall
in love with his own image, which he beheld in a neighbouring fountain,
whereupon, consumed with unrequited love, he wasted away, and was changed
into the flower which bears his name.
The LIMONIADES, or meadow nymphs, resemble the Naiades, and are usually
represented dancing hand in hand in a circle.
The HYADES, who in appearance are somewhat similar to the Oceanides, are
cloudy divinities, and, from the fact of their being invariably accompanied
by rain, are represented as incessantly weeping.
The MELIADES were the nymphs who presided over fruit-trees.
Before concluding this subject, attention should be drawn to the fact that,
in more modern times, this beautiful idea of animating all nature in detail
reappears under the various local traditions extant in different countries.
Thus do the Oceanides and Nereides live again in the mermaids, whose
existence is still believed in by mariners, whilst the flower and meadow
nymphs assume the shape of those tiny elves and fairies, who were formerly
believed to hold their midnight revels in every wood and on every common;
indeed, even at the present day, the Irish peasantry, especially in the
west, firmly believe in the existence of the fairies, or "good people," as
they are called.
THE WINDS.
According to the oldest accounts, AEolus was a king of the AEolian Islands,
to whom Zeus gave the command of the winds, which he kept shut up in a deep
cave, and which he freed at his pleasure, or at the command of the gods.
In later times the above belief underwent a change, and the winds came to
be regarded as distinct divinities, whose aspect accorded with the
respective winds with which they were identified. They were depicted as
{171} winged youths in full vigour in the act of flying through the air.
The principal winds were: Boreas (the north wind), Eurus (the east wind),
Zephyrus (the west wind), and Notus (the south wind), who were said to be
the children of Eos and Astraeus.
There are no myths of interest connected with these divinities. Zephyrus
was united to Chloris (Flora), the goddess of flowers. Of Boreas it is
related that while flying over the river Ilissus, he beheld on the banks
Oreithyia, the charming daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens, whom he
carried off to his native Thrace, and there made her his bride. Boreas and
Oreithyia were the parents of Zetes and Calais, afterwards famous in the
expedition of the Argonauts.
There was an altar erected at Athens in honour of Boreas, in commemoration
of his having destroyed the Persian fleet sent to attack the Greeks.
On the Acropolis at Athens there was a celebrated octagonal temple, built
by Pericles, which was dedicated to the winds, and on its sides were their
various representations. The ruins of this temple are still to be seen.
PAN (FAUNUS).
[Illustration]
Pan was the god of fertility, and the special patron of shepherds and
huntsmen; he presided over all rural occupations, was chief of the Satyrs,
and head of all rural divinities.
According to the common belief, he was the son of Hermes and a wood nymph,
and came into the world with horns sprouting from his forehead, a goat's
beard and a crooked nose, pointed ears, and the tail and feet of a goat,
and presented altogether so repulsive {172} an appearance that, at the
sight of him, his mother fled in dismay.
Hermes, however, took up his curious little offspring, wrapt him in a hare
skin, and carried him in his arms to Olympus. The grotesque form and merry
antics of the little stranger made him a great favourite with all the
immortals, especially Dionysus; and they bestowed upon him the name of Pan
(all), because he had delighted them _all_.
His favourite haunts were grottoes, and his delight was to wander in
uncontrolled freedom over rocks and mountains, following his various
pursuits, ever cheerful, and usually very noisy. He was a great lover of
music, singing, dancing, and all pursuits which enhance the pleasures of
life; and hence, in spite of his repulsive appearance, we see him
surrounded with nymphs of the forests and dales, who love to dance round
him to the cheerful music of his pipe, the syrinx. The myth concerning the
origin of Pan's pipe is as follows:--Pan became enamoured of a beautiful
nymph, called Syrinx, who, appalled at his terrible appearance, fled from
the pertinacious attentions of her unwelcome suitor. He pursued her to the
banks of the river Ladon, when, seeing his near approach, and feeling
escape impossible, she called on the gods for assistance, who, in answer to
her prayer, transformed her into a reed, just as Pan was about to seize
her. Whilst the love-sick Pan was sighing and lamenting his unfortunate
fate, the winds gently swayed the reeds, and produced a murmuring sound as
of one complaining. Charmed with the soothing tones, he endeavoured to
reproduce them himself, and after cutting seven of the reeds of unequal
length, he joined them together, and succeeded in producing the pipe, which
he called the syrinx, in memory of his lost love.
Pan was regarded by shepherds as their most valiant protector, who defended
their flocks from the attacks of wolves. The shepherds of these early
times, having no penfolds, were in the habit of gathering together their
flocks in mountain caves, to protect them against the {173} inclemency of
the weather, and also to secure them at night against the attacks of wild
animals; these caves, therefore, which were very numerous in the mountain
districts of Arcadia, Boeotia, &c., were all consecrated to Pan.
As it is customary in all tropical climates to repose during the heat of
the day, Pan is represented as greatly enjoying his afternoon sleep in the
cool shelter of a tree or cave, and also as being highly displeased at any
sound which disturbed his slumbers, for which reason the shepherds were
always particularly careful to keep unbroken silence during these hours,
whilst they themselves indulged in a quiet siesta.
Pan was equally beloved by huntsmen, being himself a great lover of the
woods, which afforded to his cheerful and active disposition full scope,
and in which he loved to range at will. He was regarded as the patron of
the chase, and the rural sportsmen, returning from an unsuccessful day's
sport, beat, in token of their displeasure, the wooden image of Pan, which
always occupied a prominent place in their dwellings.
All sudden and unaccountable sounds which startle travellers in lonely
spots, were attributed to Pan, who possessed a frightful and most
discordant voice; hence the term _pan_ic terror, to indicate sudden fear.
The Athenians ascribed their victory at Marathon to the alarm which he
created among the Persians by his terrible voice.
Pan was gifted with the power of prophecy, which he is said to have
imparted to Apollo, and he possessed a well-known and very ancient oracle
in Arcadia, in which state he was more especially worshipped.
The artists of later times have somewhat toned down the original very
unattractive conception of Pan, as above described, and merely represent
him as a young man, hardened by the exposure to all weathers which a rural
life involves, and bearing in his hand the shepherd's crook and
syrinx--these being his usual attributes--whilst small horns project from
his forehead. He is either undraped, or wears merely the light cloak called
the chlamys.
The usual offerings to Pan were milk and honey in {174} shepherds' bowls.
Cows, lambs, and rams were also sacrificed to him.
After the introduction of Pan into the worship of Dionysus, we hear of a
number of little Pans (Panisci), who are sometimes confounded with the
Satyrs.
FAUNUS.
The Romans had an old Italian divinity called Faunus, who, as the god of
shepherds, was identified with the Greek Pan, and represented in a similar
manner.
Faunus is frequently called Inuus or the fertilizer, and Lupercus or the
one who wards off wolves. Like Pan, he possessed the gift of prophecy, and
was the presiding spirit of the woods and fields; he also shared with his
Greek prototype the faculty of alarming travellers in solitary places. Bad
dreams and evil apparitions were attributed to Faunus, and he was believed
to enter houses stealthily at night for this purpose.
Fauna was the wife of Faunus, and participated in his functions.
THE SATYRS.
[Illustration]
The Satyrs were a race of woodland spirits, who evidently personified the
free, wild, and untrammelled life of the forest. Their appearance was both
grotesque and repulsive; they had flat broad noses, pointed ears, and
little horns sprouting from their foreheads, a rough shaggy skin, and small
goat's tails. They led a life of pleasure and self-indulgence, followed the
chase, revelled in every description of wild music and dancing, were
terrible wine-bibbers, and addicted to the deep slumbers which follow heavy
potations. They were no less dreaded by mortals than by the gentle woodland
nymphs, who always avoided their coarse rough sports.
The Satyrs were conspicuous figures in the train of Dionysus, and, as we
have seen, Silenus their chief was tutor to the wine god. The older Satyrs
were called Silens, and are represented in antique sculpture, as more
nearly approaching the human form.
{175}
In addition to the ordinary Satyrs, artists delighted in depicting little
Satyrs, young imps, frolicking about the woods in a marvellous variety of
droll attitudes. These little fellows greatly resemble their friends and
companions, the Panisci.
In rural districts it was customary for the shepherds and peasants who
attended the festivals of Dionysus, to dress themselves in the skins of
goats and other animals, and, under this disguise, they permitted
themselves all kinds of playful tricks and excesses, to which circumstance
the conception of the Satyrs is by some authorities attributed.
In Rome the old Italian wood-divinities, the FAUNS, who had goats' feet and
all other characteristics of the Satyrs greatly exaggerated, were
identified with them.
PRIAPUS.
Priapus, the son of Dionysus and Aphrodite, was regarded as the god of
fruitfulness, the protector of flocks, sheep, goats, bees, the fruit of the
vine, and all garden produce.
His statues, which were set up in gardens and vineyards, acted not only as
objects of worship, but also as scarecrows, the appearance of this god
being especially repulsive and unsightly. These statues were formed of wood
or stone, and from the hips downwards were merely rude columns. They
represent him as having a red and very ugly face; he bears in his hand a
pruning knife, and his head is crowned with a wreath of vine and laurel. He
usually carries fruit in his garments or a cornucopia in his hand, always,
however, retaining his singularly revolting aspect. It is said that Hera,
wishing {176} to punish Aphrodite, sent her this misshapen and unsightly
son, and that when he was born, his mother was so horrified at the sight of
him, that she ordered him to be exposed on the mountains, where he was
found by some shepherds, who, taking pity on him, saved his life.
This divinity was chiefly worshipped at Lampsacus, his birthplace. Asses
were sacrificed to him, and he received the first-fruits of the fields and
gardens, with a libation of milk and honey.
The worship of Priapus was introduced into Rome at the same time as that of
Aphrodite, and was identified with a native Italian divinity named Mutunus.
ASCLEPIAS (AESCULAPIUS).
Asclepias, the god of the healing art, was the son of Apollo and the nymph
Coronis. He was educated by the noble Centaur Chiron, who instructed him in
all knowledge, but more especially in that of the properties of herbs.
Asclepias searched out the hidden powers of plants, and discovered cures
for the various diseases which afflict the human body. He brought his art
to such perfection, that he not only succeeded in warding off death, but
also restored the dead to life. It was popularly believed that he was
materially assisted in his wonderful cures by the blood of the Medusa,
given to him by Pallas-Athene.
[Illustration]
It is well to observe that the shrines of this divinity, which were usually
built in healthy places, on hills outside the town, or near wells which
were believed to have healing powers, offered at the same time means of
cure for the sick and suffering, thus combining religious with sanitary
influences. It was the custom for the sufferer to sleep in the temple,
when, if he had been earnest in his devotions, Asclepias appeared to him in
a dream, and revealed the means to be employed for the cure of his malady.
On the walls of these temples were hung tablets, inscribed by the different
pilgrims with the particulars of their maladies, the remedies practised,
and the cures {177} worked by the god:--a custom undoubtedly productive of
most beneficial results.
Groves, temples, and altars were dedicated to Asclepias in many parts of
Greece, but Epidaurus, the chief seat of his worship,--where, indeed, it is
said to have originated,--contained his principal temple, which served at
the same time as a hospital.
The statue of Asclepias in the temple at Epidaurus was formed of ivory and
gold, and represented him as an old man with a full beard, leaning on a
staff round which a serpent is climbing. The serpent was the distinguishing
symbol of this divinity, partly because these reptiles were greatly used by
the ancients in the cure of diseases, and partly also because all the
prudence and wisdom of the serpent were deemed indispensable to the
judicious physician.
His usual attributes are a staff, a bowl, a bunch of herbs, a pineapple, a
dog, and a serpent.
His children inherited, for the most part, the distinguished talents of
their father. Two of his sons, Machaon and Podalirius, accompanied
Agamemnon to the Trojan war, in which expedition they became renowned, not
only as military heroes, but also as skilful physicians.
Their sisters, HYGEIA (health), and PANACEA (all-healing), had temples
dedicated to them, and received divine honours. The function of Hygeia was
to maintain the health of the community, which great blessing was supposed
to be brought by her as a direct and beneficent gift from the gods.
AESCULAPIUS.
The worship of AEsculapius was introduced into Rome from Epidaurus, whence
the statue of the god of healing {178} was brought at the time of a great
pestilence. Grateful for their deliverance from this plague, the Romans
erected a temple in his honour, on an island near the mouth of the Tiber.
* * * * *
ROMAN DIVINITIES.
JANUS.
From the earliest ages Janus was regarded by the Romans with the utmost
affection and veneration, as a divinity who ranked only second to Jupiter
himself, and through whom all prayers and petitions were transmitted to the
other gods.
He was believed to preside over the beginnings of all things, hence it was
he who inaugurated the years, months, and seasons, and in course of time
came to be considered as specially protecting the beginnings of all human
enterprises. The great importance which the Romans attached to an
auspicious commencement, as contributing to the ultimate success of an
enterprise, accounts for the high estimation in which Janus was held as the
god of beginnings.
This divinity would appear to have been the ancient sun-god of the Italian
tribes, in which capacity he opens and closes the gates of heaven every
morning and evening. Hence he was regarded as the door-keeper of heaven,
and also as the presiding deity over all gates, entrances, &c., on earth.
The fact of his being the god of city gates, which were called Jani after
him, is ascribed, however, to the following myth:--After the abduction of
their women by the Romans, the Sabines, in revenge, invaded the Roman
state, and were already about to enter the gates of the city, when suddenly
a hot sulphur spring, which was believed to have been sent by Janus for
their special preservation, gushed forth from the earth, and arrested the
progress of the enemy.
{179}
In his character as guardian of gates and doors, he was also regarded as a
protecting deity of the home, for which reason little shrines were erected
to him over the doors of houses, which contained an image of the god,
having two faces.
Janus possessed no temples in the ordinary acceptation of the word, but all
the gates of cities were dedicated to him. Close to the Forum of Rome stood
the so-called temple of Janus, which, however, was merely an arched
passage, closed by massive gates. This temple was open only in time of war,
as it was supposed that the god had then taken his departure with the Roman
army, over whose welfare he personally presided. It is worthy of notice, as
an evidence of the many wars in which the Romans were engaged, that the
gates of this sanctuary were only closed three times during 700 years.
As the god who ushers in the new year, the first month was called after
him, and on the 1st of January his most important festival was celebrated,
on which occasion all entrances of public and private buildings were
decorated with laurel branches and garlands of flowers.
His sacrifices, consisting of cakes, wine, and barley, were offered to him
at the beginning of every month; and before sacrificing to the other gods
his name was always invoked, and a libation poured out to him.
Janus is usually represented with two faces; in his special function as
door-keeper of heaven he stands erect, bearing a key in one hand, and a rod
or sceptre in the other.
It is supposed that Janus was the most ancient king of Italy, who, during
his life, governed his subjects with such wisdom and moderation that, in
gratitude for the benefits conferred upon them, his people deified him
after death and placed him in the foremost rank among their divinities. We
have already seen in the history of Cronus that Saturn, who was identified
with the Greek Cronus (god of time), was the friend and colleague of Janus.
Anxious to prove his gratitude to his benefactor, Cronus endowed him with
the knowledge of past and future {180} events, which enabled him to adopt
the wisest measures for the welfare of his subjects, and it is on this
account that Janus is represented with two faces looking in opposite
directions, the one to the past, the other to the future.
FLORA.
Flora was the goddess of flowers, and was regarded as a beneficent power,
who watched over and protected the early blossoms.
She was held in the highest estimation by the Romans, and a festival,
called the Floralia, was celebrated in her honour from the 28th of April to
the 1st of May. This festival was a season of universal merriment, in which
flowers were used profusely in adorning houses, streets, &c., and were worn
by young girls in their hair.
Flora, who typified the season of Spring, is generally represented as a
lovely maiden, garlanded with flowers.
ROBIGUS.
In opposition to Flora we find an antagonistic divinity, called Robigus, a
worker of evil, who delighted in the destruction of the tender herbs by
mildew, and whose wrath could only be averted by prayers and sacrifices,
when he was invoked under the title of Averuncus, or the Avertor.
The festival of Robigus (the Robigalia) was celebrated on the 25th of
April.
POMONA.
Pomona was the goddess of orchards and fruit-trees, who, according to Ovid,
cares not for woods or streams, but loves her gardens and the boughs that
bear the thriving fruit.
Pomona, who typifies Autumn, is represented as a lovely maiden, laden with
branches of fruit-trees.
{181}
VERTUMNUS.
Vertumnus was the god of garden and field produce. He personifies the
change of seasons, and that process of transformation in nature by means of
which the leaf-buds become developed into blossoms, and the blossoms into
fruit.
The change of seasons is symbolized in a myth which represents Vertumnus as
metamorphosing himself into a variety of different forms in order to gain
the affection of Pomona, who so loved her vocation that she abjured all
thoughts of marriage. He first appears to her as a ploughman, typifying
Spring; then as a reaper, to represent Summer; afterwards as a
vine-gatherer, to indicate Autumn; and finally as a gray-haired old woman,
symbolical of the snows of Winter; but it was not until he assumed his true
form, that of a beautiful youth, that he succeeded in his suit.
Vertumnus is generally represented crowned with wheat-sheaves, and bearing
in his hand a cornucopia.
PALES.
Pales, a very ancient Italian divinity, is represented sometimes as a male,
sometimes as a female power.
As a male divinity he is more particularly the god of shepherds and flocks.
As a female deity, Pales presides over husbandry and the fruitfulness of
herds. Her festivals, the Palilia, were celebrated on the 21st of April,
the day on which the city of Rome was founded. During this festival it was
customary for shepherds to ignite a mass of straw, through which they
rushed with their flocks, believing that this ordeal would purify them from
sin.
The name Palatine, which originally signified a pastoral colony, is derived
from this divinity. Her offerings were cakes and milk.
{182}
PICUS.
Picus, the son of Saturn and father of Faunus, was a woodland divinity,
gifted with prophetic powers.
An ancient myth relates that Picus was a beautiful youth, united to a nymph
called Canens. The sorceress Circe, infatuated by his beauty, endeavoured
to secure his love, but he rejected her advances, and she, in revenge,
changed him into a woodpecker, under which form he still retained his
powers of prophecy.
Picus is represented as a youth, with a woodpecker perched upon his head,
which bird became henceforth regarded as possessed of the power of
prophecy.
PICUMNUS AND PILUMNUS.
Picumnus and Pilumnus were two household divinities of the Romans, who were
the special presiding deities of new-born infants.
SILVANUS.
Silvanus was a woodland divinity, who, like Faunus, greatly resembled the
Greek Pan. He was the presiding deity of plantations and forests, and
specially protected the boundaries of fields.
Silvanus is represented as a hale old man, carrying a cypress-tree, for,
according to Roman mythology, the transformation of the youth Cyparissus
into the tree which bears his name was attributed to him.
His sacrifices consisted of milk, meat, wine, grapes, wheat-ears, and pigs.
TERMINUS.
Terminus was the god who presided over all boundaries and landmarks.
He was originally represented by a simple block of stone, which in later
times became surmounted by a {183} head of this divinity. Numa Pompilius,
the great benefactor of his people, anxious to inculcate respect for the
rights of property, specially enjoined the erection of these blocks of
stone, as a durable monument to mark the line dividing one property from
another. He also caused altars to be raised to Terminus, and instituted his
festival (the Terminalia), which was celebrated on the 23rd of February.
Upon one occasion, when Tarquin wished to remove the altars of several
deities, in order to build a new temple, it is said that Terminus and
Juventas alone objected to being displaced. This obstinate refusal on their
part was interpreted as a good omen, signifying that the city of Rome would
never lose her boundaries, and would remain ever young and vigorous.
CONSUS.
Consus was the god of secret counsel.
The Romans believed that when an idea developed itself spontaneously within
the mind of an individual, it was Consus who had prompted the suggestion.
This applied, however, more particularly to plans which resulted
satisfactorily.
An altar was erected to this divinity on the Circus Maximus, which was kept
always covered, except during his festival, the Consualia, which was
celebrated on the 18th of August.
LIBITINA.
Libitina was the goddess who presided over funerals. This divinity was
identified with Venus, possibly because the ancients considered that the
power of love extended even to the realms of death.
Her temple in Rome, which was erected by Servius Tullius, contained all the
requisites for funerals, and these could either be bought or hired there. A
register of all deaths which occurred in the city of Rome was kept in {184}
this temple, and in order to ascertain the rate of mortality, a piece of
money was paid by command of Servius Tullius, on the demise of each person.
LAVERNA.
Laverna was the presiding goddess of thieves, and of all artifice and
fraud. There was an altar erected to her near the Porta Lavernalis, which
was called after her, and she possessed a sacred grove on the Via Salavia.
COMUS.
Comus was the presiding genius of banquets, festive scenes, revelry, and
all joyous pleasures and reckless gaiety.
He is represented as a young man crowned with flowers, his face heated and
flushed with wine, leaning against a post in a half-sleepy and drunken
attitude, with a torch falling from his hand.
THE CAMENAE.
The Camenae were prophetic nymphs held in high veneration by the ancient
Italians. They were four in number, the best known of whom are Carmenta and
Egeria.
Carmenta was celebrated as being the mother of Evander, who led an Arcadian
colony into Italy, and founded a town on the river Tiber, which became
afterwards incorporated with the city of Rome. Evander is said to have been
the first who introduced Greek art and civilization into Italy, and also
the worship of Greek divinities.
A temple was erected to Carmenta on the Capitoline Hill, and a festival,
called the Carmentalia, was celebrated in her honour on the 11th of
January.
Egeria is said to have initiated Numa Pompilius in the forms of religious
worship, which he introduced among his people. She was regarded as the
giver of {185} life, and was therefore invoked by women before the birth of
their children.
The Camenae are frequently identified by Roman writers with the Muses.
GENII.
A comforting and assuring belief existed among the Romans, that each
individual was accompanied through life, from the hour of his birth to that
of his death, by a protecting spirit, called his genius, who prompted him
to good and noble deeds, and acted towards him as a guardian angel,
comforting him in sorrow, and guiding him throughout his earthly career.
In the course of time a second genius was believed to exist, of an evil
nature, who, as the instigator of all wrong-doing, was ever at war with the
beneficent genius; and on the issue of the conflict between these
antagonistic influences, depended the fate of the individual. The genii
were depicted as winged beings, greatly resembling our modern
representations of guardian angels.
Every state, town, or city, (as well as every man), possessed its special
genius. The sacrifices to the genii consisted of wine, cakes, and incense,
which were offered to them on birthdays.
The genius which guided a woman was called, after the queen of heaven,
Juno.
Among the Greeks, beings called Daemons were regarded as exercising similar
functions to those of the Roman genii. They were believed to be the spirits
of the righteous race which existed in the Golden Age, who watched over
mankind, carrying their prayers to the gods, and the gifts of the gods to
them.
MANES.
LEMURES (LARVAE) AND LARES.
The Manes were the spirits of the departed, and were of two kinds, viz.,
Lemures (or Larvae) and Lares. {186}
The Lemures were those Manes who haunted their former abodes on earth as
evil spirits, appearing at night under awful forms and hideous shapes,
greatly to the alarm of their friends and relatives. They were so feared
that a festival, called the Lemuralia, was celebrated in order to
propitiate them.
It appears extremely probable that the superstitions with regard to ghosts,
haunted houses, &c., which exist even at the present day, owe their origin
to this very ancient pagan source.
The Lares Familiares were a much more pleasing conception. They were the
spirits of the ancestors of each family, who exercised after death a
protecting power over the well-being and prosperity of the family to which
they had in life belonged. The place of honour beside the hearth was
occupied by the statue of the Lar of the house, who was supposed to have
been the founder of the family. This statue was the object of profound
veneration, and was honoured on all occasions by every member of the
family; a portion of each meal was laid before it, and it was believed to
take an active part in all family affairs and domestic events, whether of a
sad or joyful nature. Before starting on any expedition the master of the
house saluted the statue of the Lar, and, on his return, a solemn
thanksgiving was offered to this, the presiding deity of his hearth and
home, in grateful acknowledgment of his protection; whereupon the statue
was crowned with garlands of flowers, these being the favourite offerings
to the Lares on all occasions of especial family rejoicing.
The first act of a bride on entering her new abode was to do homage to the
Lar, in the belief that he would exercise over her a protecting influence
and shield her from evil.
In addition to those above enumerated there were also public Lares, who
were guardians of the state, highroads, country, and sea. Their temples
were always open for any pious worshipper to enter, and on their altars
public sacrifices were offered for the welfare of the state or city. {187}
PENATES.
The Penates were deities selected by each family, and frequently by its
individual members, as a special protector. Various causes led to this
selection. If, for instance, a child were born on the festival of Vesta, it
was thought that that deity would henceforward act as its special guardian.
If a youth possessed great business talents he adopted Mercury as his
tutelary deity; should he, on the other hand, develop a passion for music,
Apollo was selected as his patron god, and so forth. These became regarded
as the special divinities of the household, small images of them adorned
the surroundings of the hearth, and honours similar to those paid to the
Lares were accorded to them.
Just as there were public Lares so there were public Penates, which were
worshipped by the Roman people under the form of two youthful warriors,
who, in later times, were regarded as identical with Castor and Pollux.
They are generally represented on horseback, with conical caps on their
heads, and bearing long spears in their hands.
{188}
[Illustration]
PUBLIC WORSHIP OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS.
TEMPLES.
In very remote times the Greeks had no shrines or sanctuaries devoted to
public worship, but performed their devotions beneath the vast and
boundless canopy of heaven, in the great temple of nature itself. Believing
that their divinities throned above the clouds, pious worshippers naturally
sought the highest available points, in order to place themselves in the
closest communion possible with their gods; hence the summits of high
mountains were selected for devotional purposes, and the more exalted the
rank and importance of the divinity invoked, the more elevated was the site
selected for his or her worship. But the inconvenience attending this mode
of worship gradually suggested the idea of erecting edifices which would
afford means of shelter from the inclemency of the weather.
These structures were, in the first instance, of the most simple form, and
without decoration; but when, with the progress of civilization, the Greeks
became a {189} wealthy and powerful people, temples were built and adorned
with the greatest splendour and magnificence, talent, labour, and wealth
being lavished unsparingly on their erection and decoration; indeed so
massively were they constructed, that some of them have, to a certain
extent, withstood the ravages of time. The city of Athens especially
contains numerous remains of these buildings of antiquity. On the Acropolis
we may still behold, among other monuments of ancient art, the temple of
Athene-Polias, and that of Theseus, the latter of which is the most entire
ancient edifice in the world. In the island of Delos, also, are to be seen
the ruins of the temples of Apollo and Artemis, both of which are in a
wonderful state of preservation. These ruins are most valuable, being
sufficiently complete to enable us to study, by their aid, the plan and
character of the original structure.
Among the Lacedaemonians, however, we find no vestiges of these stately
temples, for they were specially enjoined by a law of Lycurgus to serve the
gods with as little outlay as possible. When the great lawgiver was asked
the reason of this injunction, he replied that the Lacedaemonians, being a
poor nation, might otherwise abstain altogether from the observance of
their religious duties, and wisely added that magnificent edifices and
costly sacrifices were not so pleasing to the gods, as the true piety and
unfeigned devotion of their worshippers.
The most ancient temples known to us served a double purpose: they were not
only consecrated to the service of the gods, but were at the same time
venerable monuments in honour of the dead. Thus, for instance, the temple
of Pallas-Athene, in the tower of the city of Larissa, served as the
sepulchre of Acrisius, and the Acropolis at Athens received the ashes of
Cecrops, founder of the city.
A temple was frequently dedicated to two or more gods, and was always built
after the manner considered most acceptable to the particular divinities to
whom it was consecrated; for just as trees, birds, and animals of {190}
every description were held to be sacred to certain deities, so almost
every god had a form of building peculiar to himself, which was deemed more
acceptable to him than any other. Thus the Doric style of architecture was
sacred to Zeus, Ares, and Heracles; the Ionic to Apollo, Artemis, and
Dionysus; and the Corinthian to Hestia.
In the porch of the temple stood a vessel of stone or brass, containing
holy water (which had been consecrated by putting into it a burning torch,
taken from the altar), with which all those admitted to take part in the
sacrifices were besprinkled. In the inmost recess of the sanctuary was the
most holy place, into which none but the priests were suffered to enter.
Temples in the country were usually surrounded with groves of trees. The
solitude of these shady retreats naturally tended to inspire the worshipper
with awe and reverence, added to which the delightful shade and coolness
afforded by tall leafy trees is peculiarly grateful in hot countries.
Indeed so general did this custom of building temples in groves become,
that all places devoted to sacred purposes, even where no trees existed,
were called groves. That this practice must be of very remote antiquity is
proved by the Biblical injunction, having for its object the separation of
the Jews from all idolatrous practices: "Thou shalt not plant thee a grove
of trees near unto the altar of the Lord thy God."
STATUES.
The Greeks worshipped their gods without any visible representations of
them until the time of Cecrops. The most ancient of these representations
consisted of square blocks of stone, upon which the name of the deity
intended to be represented was engraved. The first attempts at sculpture
were rude stocks, with a head at one end and a shapeless trunk at the
other, tapering slightly down to the feet, which, however, were not
divided, the limbs being in no way defined. But the artists of later times
devoted all their genius to the {191} successful production of the highest
ideals of their gods, some of which are preserved to this day, and are
regarded as examples of purest art.
On a pedestal in the centre of the edifice stood the statue of the divinity
to whom the temple was dedicated, surrounded by images of other gods, all
of which were fenced off by rails.
ALTARS.
The altar in a Greek temple, which stood in the centre of the building and
in front of the statue of the presiding deity, was generally of a circular
form, and constructed of stone. It was customary to engrave upon it the
name or distinguishing symbol of the divinity to whom it was dedicated; and
it was held so sacred that if any malefactor fled to it his life was safe
from his pursuers, and it was considered one of the greatest acts of
sacrilege to force him from this asylum.
The most ancient altars were adorned with horns, which in former times were
emblems of power and dignity, as wealth, and consequently importance,
consisted among most primitive nations in flocks and herds.
In addition to those erected in places of public worship, altars were
frequently raised in groves, on highways, or in the market-places of
cities.
The gods of the lower world had no altars whatever, ditches or trenches
being dug for the reception of the blood of the sacrifices offered to them.
PRIESTS.
In ancient times the priests were recognized as a special social caste, and
were distinguished not only by their sacerdotal vestments, but also by
their piety, wisdom, and blameless life. They were the chosen mediators
between gods and men, and offered prayers and sacrifices in the name of the
people, whom they also instructed as to what vows, gifts, and offerings
would be most acceptable to the gods.
{192}
Every deity had a different order of priests consecrated to his worship,
and in every place a high-priest was appointed, whose duty it was to
superintend the rest of his order, and also to carry out the more sacred
rites and religious observances.
Priests and priestesses were permitted to marry, but not a second time;
some, however, voluntarily adopted a life of celibacy.
SACRIFICES.
There is no doubt that a feeling of gratitude to the gods for their
protecting care, and the abundance with which they were believed to bless
mankind, has induced men of all nations and in all countries to feel a
desire to sacrifice to their divinities some portion of the gifts so
generously lavished upon them.
Among the Greeks, sacrifices were of various kinds. They consisted of
_free-will offerings_, _propitiatory offerings_, &c.
_Free-will offerings_ were grateful acknowledgments for benefits received,
and usually consisted of the first-fruits of the field, or the finest of
the flocks and herds, which were required to be without spot or blemish.
_Propitiatory offerings_ were brought with the object of appeasing the
anger of the gods.
In addition to those above enumerated, sacrifices were made, either with a
view of obtaining success in an enterprise about to be undertaken, or in
fulfilment of a vow, or at the command of an oracle.
Every sacrifice was accompanied by salt and also by a libation, which
usually consisted of wine, the cup being always filled to the brim,
indicating that the offering was made without stint. When sacrificing to
the infernal gods the cup containing the libation was filled with blood.
The animals offered to the Olympian divinities were white, whilst those to
the gods of the lower world were black. When a man offered a special
sacrifice for himself or his family it partook of the nature of his {193}
occupation; thus a shepherd brought a sheep, a vine-grower his grapes, and
so forth. But in the case of public sacrifices, the supposed individuality
of the deity was always consulted. For instance, to Demeter a sow was
offered, because that animal is apt to root up the seed-corn; to Dionysus a
goat, on account of its being destructive to vineyards, &c.
The value of offerings depended greatly upon the position of the
individual; it being regarded as a contempt of the gods for a rich man to
bring a sordid offering, whilst from a poor man the smallest oblation was
considered acceptable.
Hecatombs consisted of a hundred animals, and were offered by entire
communities, or by wealthy individuals who either desired, or had obtained
some special favour from the gods.
When a sacrifice was to be offered, a fire was kindled on the altar, into
which wine and frankincense were poured, in order to increase the flame. In
very ancient times, the victim was laid upon the altar and burned whole;
but after the time of Prometheus portions only of the shoulders, thighs,
entrails, &c., were sacrificed, the remainder becoming the perquisites of
the priests.
The officiating priests wore a crown composed of the leaves of the tree
sacred to the deity they invoked. Thus when sacrificing to Apollo the
crowns were of laurel; when to Heracles, of poplar. This practice of
wearing crowns was, at a later period, adopted by the general public at
banquets and other festivities.
On occasions of special solemnity the horns of the victim were overlaid
with gold, and the altars decked with flowers and sacred herbs.
The mode of conducting the sacrifices was as follows:--All things being
prepared, a salt cake, the sacrificial knife, and the crowns, were placed
in a small basket, and carried to the sanctuary by a young maiden,
whereupon the victim was conducted into the temple, frequently to the
accompaniment of music. If a small animal, it was driven loose to the
altar; if a large one, it was led by a {194} long trailing rope, in order
to indicate that it was not an unwilling sacrifice.
When all were assembled, the priest, after walking in solemn state round
the altar, besprinkled it with a mixture of meal and holy water, after
which he also besprinkled the assembled worshippers, and exhorted them to
join with him in prayer. The service being ended, the priest first tasted
the libation, and after causing the congregation to do the like, poured the
remainder between the horns of the victim, after which frankincense was
strewn upon the altar, and a portion of the meal and water poured upon the
animal, which was then killed. If by any chance the victim escaped the
stroke, or became in any way restless, it was regarded as an evil omen; if,
on the contrary, it expired without a struggle, it was considered
auspicious.
At the sacrifices to the aerial divinities music was added, whilst dances
were performed round the altar, and sacred hymns sung. These hymns were
generally composed in honour of the gods, and contained an account of their
famous actions, their clemency and beneficence, and the gifts conferred by
them on mankind. In conclusion, the gods were invoked for a continuance of
their favour, and when the service was ended a feast was held.
ORACLES.
The desire to penetrate the dark veil of futurity, and thereby to avert, if
possible, threatened danger, has animated mankind in all ages of the world.
Prophetic knowledge was sought by the Greeks at the mouth of oracles, whose
predictions were interpreted to the people by priests, specially appointed
for the purpose.
The most famous of these institutions was the oracle of Apollo at Delphi,
which was held in general repute all over the world. People flocked from
far and near to consult this wonderful mouth-piece of the gods, one month
in the year being specially set apart for the purpose.
{195}
The priestess who delivered the oracles was called the Pythia, after the
serpent Python, which was killed by Apollo. Having first bathed in the
waters of the Castalian spring, she was conducted into the temple by the
priests, and was seated on a sort of three-legged stool or table, called a
tripod, which was placed over the mouth of a cave whence issued sulphurous
vapours. Here she gradually became affected in a remarkable manner, and
fell into an ecstatic condition, in which she uttered wild and
extraordinary phrases, which were held to be the utterance of Apollo
himself; these the priests interpreted to the people, but in most cases in
so ambiguous a manner that the fulfilment of the prediction could not
easily be disputed. During the ceremony, clouds of incense filled the
temple, and hid the priestess from the view of the uninitiated, and at its
conclusion she was reconducted, in a fainting condition, to her cell.
The following is a striking instance of the ambiguity of oracular
predictions:--Croesus, the rich king of Lydia, before going to war with
Cyrus, king of Persia, consulted an oracle as to the probable success of
the expedition. The reply he received was, that if he crossed a certain
river he would destroy a great empire. Interpreting the response as being
favourable to his design, Croesus crossed the river, and encountered the
Persian king, by whom he was entirely defeated; and his own empire being
destroyed, the prediction of the oracle was said to have been fulfilled.
SOOTHSAYERS (AUGURS).
In addition to the manifestation of the will of the gods by means of
oracles, the Greeks also believed that certain men, called soothsayers,
were gifted with the power of foretelling future events from dreams, from
observing the flight of birds, the entrails of sacrificed animals, and even
the direction of the flames and smoke from the altar, &c. {196}
AUGURS.
The Roman soothsayers were called augurs, and played an important part in
the history of the Romans, as no enterprise was ever undertaken without
first consulting them with regard to its ultimate success.
FESTIVALS.
Festivals were instituted as seasons of rest, rejoicing, and thanksgiving,
and also as anniversaries to commemorate events of national importance. The
most ancient festivals were those held after the ingathering of the harvest
or vintage, and were celebrated with rejoicings and merry-makings, which
lasted many days, during which time the first-fruits of the fields were
offered to the gods, accompanied by prayers and thanksgiving.
The festivals held in cities in honour of special divinities, or in
commemoration of particular events, were conducted with an elaborate
ceremonial. Gorgeous processions, games, chariot races, &c., were
conspicuous features on these occasions, and dramatic performances,
representing particular episodes in the lives of the gods and heroes,
frequently took place.
We subjoin a few of the most interesting of the Greek and Roman festivals.
* * * * *
GREEK FESTIVALS.
ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES.
One of the most ancient and important among the festivals observed by the
Greeks was that of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which was celebrated in honour
of Demeter and Persephone. The name was derived from Eleusis, a town in
Attica, where the Mysteries were first introduced by the goddess herself.
They were divided into the {197} Greater and Lesser Mysteries, and,
according to the general account, were held every five years. The Greater,
which were celebrated in honour of Demeter, and lasted nine days, were held
in autumn; the Lesser, dedicated to Persephone (who at these festivals was
affectionately called Cora, or the maiden), were held in spring.
It is supposed that the secrets taught to the initiated by the priests--the
expounders of the Mysteries--were moral meanings, elucidated from the myths
concerning Demeter and Persephone; but the most important belief inculcated
was the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. That the lessons taught
were of the highest moral character is universally admitted. "The souls of
those who participated in them were filled with the sweetest hopes both as
to this and the future world;" and it was a common saying among the
Athenians: "In the Mysteries no one is sad."
The initiation into these solemn rites (which was originally the exclusive
privilege of the Athenians) was accompanied with awe-inspiring ceremonies;
and secrecy was so strictly enjoined that its violation was punished by
death. At the conclusion of the initiation great rejoicings took place,
chariot-races, wrestling matches, &c., were held, and solemn sacrifices
offered.
The initiation into the Lesser Mysteries served as a preparation for the
Greater.
THESMOPHORIA.
The Thesmophoria was another festival held in honour of Demeter, in her
character as presiding over marriage and social institutions resulting from
the spread of agriculture.
This festival was celebrated exclusively by women.
DIONYSIA.
A joyous spring festival was held in honour of Dionysus, in the month of
March, and lasted several days.
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This festival, which was called the Greater Dionysia, was celebrated with
particular splendour at Athens, when strangers flocked from all parts of
the world to take part in the ceremonies. The city was gaily decorated, the
houses were garlanded with ivy-leaves, crowds perambulated the streets,
everything wore its holiday garb, and wine was freely indulged in.
[Illustration]
In the processions which took place during these festivities, the statue of
Dionysus was carried, and men and women, crowned with ivy and bearing the
thyrsus, were dressed in every description of grotesque costume, and played
on drums, pipes, flutes, cymbals, &c. Some representing Silenus rode on
asses, others wearing fawn-skins appeared as Pan or the Satyrs, and the
whole multitude sang paeans in honour of the wine-god. Public shows, games,
and sports took place, and the entire city was full of revelry.
What lent additional interest to these festivals was the custom of
introducing new comedies and tragedies to the public, representations of
which were given, and prizes awarded to those which elicited the greatest
admiration.
[Illustration]
The Lesser Dionysia were vintage festivals, celebrated in rural districts
in the month of November, and were characterized by drinking, feasting, and
joviality of all kinds.
In connection with some of the festivals in honour of Dionysus were certain
mystic observances, into which only women, called Menades or Bacchantes,
were initiated. Clad in fawn-skins, they assembled by night on the mountain
sides, {199} some carrying blazing torches, others thyrsi, and all animated
with religious enthusiasm and frenzy. They shouted, clapped their hands,
danced wildly, and worked themselves up to such a pitch of excitement and
fury that in their mad frenzy they tore in pieces the animal brought as a
sacrifice to Dionysus.
Under the name of Bacchanalia, these mystic rites were introduced into
Rome, where men also were allowed to participate in them; but they were
attended with such frightful excesses that the state authorities at length
interfered and prohibited them.
PANATHENAEA.
The Panathenaea was a famous festival celebrated in Athens in honour of
Athene-Polias, the guardian of the state. There were two festivals of this
name, the Lesser and the Greater Panathenaea. The former was held annually,
and the latter, which lasted several days, was celebrated every fourth
year.
For the Greater Panathenaea a garment, embroidered with gold, called the
Peplus, was specially woven by Athenian maidens, on which was represented
the victory gained by Athene over the Giants. This garment was suspended to
the mast of a ship which stood outside the city; and during the festival,
which was characterized by a grand procession, the ship (with the Peplus on
its mast) was impelled forward by means of invisible machinery, and formed
the most conspicuous feature of the pageant. The whole population, bearing
olive branches in their hands, took part in the procession; and amidst
music and rejoicings this imposing pageant wended its way to the temple of
Athene-Polias, where the Peplus was deposited on the statue of the goddess.
At this festival, Homer's poems were declaimed aloud, and poets also
introduced their own works to the public. Musical contests, foot and horse
races, and wrestling matches were held, and dances were performed by boys
in armour.
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Men who had deserved well of their country were presented at the festival
with a crown of gold, and the name of the person so distinguished was
announced publicly by a herald.
The victors in the races and athletic games received, as a prize, a vase of
oil, supposed to have been extracted from the fruit of the sacred
olive-tree of Athene.
DAPHNEPHORIA.
The Daphnephoria was celebrated at Thebes in honour of Apollo every ninth
year.
The distinguishing feature of this festival was a procession to the temple
of Apollo, in which a young priest (the Daphnephorus) of noble descent,
splendidly attired and wearing a crown of gold, was preceded by a youth,
carrying an emblematical representation of the sun, moon, stars, and days
of the year, and followed by beautiful maidens bearing laurel branches, and
singing hymns in honour of the god.
* * * * *
ROMAN FESTIVALS.
SATURNALIA.
The Saturnalia, a national festival held in December in honour of Saturn,
was celebrated after the ingathering of the harvest, and lasted several
days.
It was a time of universal rejoicing, cessation from labour, and
merry-making. School children had holidays, friends sent presents to each
other, the law-courts were closed, and no business was transacted.
Crowds of people from the surrounding country flocked to Rome for this
festival attired in every variety of masquerade dress; practical jokes were
given and received with the utmost good humour, shouts of exultation filled
{201} the air, all classes abandoned themselves to enjoyment, and
unrestrained hilarity reigned supreme. Social distinctions were for a time
suspended, or even reversed; and so heartily was the spirit of this
festival entered into, that masters waited upon their slaves at banquets
which they provided for them; the slaves being dressed upon these occasions
in the garments of their masters.
There appears little doubt that the modern Carnival is a survival of the
ancient Saturnalia.
CEREALIA.
This festival was celebrated in honour of Ceres. It was solemnized
exclusively by women, who, dressed in white garments, wandered about with
torches in their hands, to represent the search of the goddess for her
daughter Proserpine.
During this festival, games were celebrated in the Circus Maximus, to which
none were admitted unless clothed in white.
VESTALIA.
The Vestalia was a festival held in honour of Vesta on the 9th of June, and
was celebrated exclusively by women, who walked barefooted in procession to
the temple of the goddess.
The priestesses of Vesta, called Vestales or Vestal Virgins, played a
conspicuous part in these festivals. They were six in number, and were
chosen--between the ages of six and ten--from the noblest families in Rome.
Their term of office was thirty years. During the first ten years, they
were initiated in their religious duties, during the second ten they
performed them, and during the third they instructed novices. Their chief
duty was to watch and feed the ever-burning flame on the altar of Vesta,
the extinction of which was regarded as a national calamity of ominous
import.
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Great honours and privileges were accorded to them; the best seats were
reserved for their use at all public spectacles, and even the consuls and
praetors made way for them to pass. If they met a criminal on his way to
execution they had the power to pardon him, provided it could be proved
that the meeting was accidental.
The Vestales were vowed to chastity, a violation of which was visited by
the frightful punishment of being buried alive.
* * * * *
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