that are dark, will cause them to have great relievo, particularly if
the light be placed high; and the reason is, that the most prominent
parts of those faces are illumined by the general light striking them
in front, which light produces very faint shadows on the part where it
strikes; but as it turns towards the sides, it begins to participate
of the dark shadows of the room, which grow darker in proportion as
it sinks into them. Besides, when the light comes from on high, it
does not strike on every part of the face alike, but one part produces
great shadows upon another; as the eyebrows, which deprive the whole
sockets of the eyes of light. The nose keeps it off from great part of
the mouth, and the chin from the neck, and such other parts. This, by
concentrating the light upon the most projecting parts, produces a very
great relief.
/Chap. CXCII./--_Of the Difference of Lights according to the
Situation._
/A small/ light will cast large and determined shadows upon the
surrounding bodies. A large light, on the contrary, will cast small
shadows on them, and they will be much confused in their termination.
When a small but strong light is surrounded by a broad but weaker
light, the latter will appear like a demi-tint to the other, as the sky
round the sun. And the bodies which receive the light from the one,
will serve as demi-tints to those which receive the light from the
other.
/Chap. CXCIII./--_How to distribute the Light on Figures._
/The/ lights are to be distributed according to the natural situation
you mean your figures should occupy. If you suppose them in sunshine,
the shades must be dark, the lights broad and extended, and the shadows
of all the surrounding objects distinctly marked upon the ground. If
seen in a gloomy day, there will be very little difference between
the lights and shades, and no shadows at the feet. If the figures
be represented within doors, the lights and shadows will again be
distinctly divided, and produce shadows on the ground. But if you
suppose a paper blind at the window, and the walls painted white,
the effect will be the same as in a gloomy day, when the lights and
shadows have little difference. If the figures are enlightened by the
fire, the lights must be red and powerful, the shadows dark, and the
shadows upon the ground and upon the walls must be precise; observing
that they spread wider as they go off from the body. If the figures
be enlightened, partly by the sky and partly by the fire, that side
which receives the light from the sky will be the brightest, and on
the other side it will be reddish, somewhat of the colour of the fire.
Above all, contrive, that your figures receive a broad light, and that
from above; particularly in portraits, because the people we see in the
street receive all the light from above; and it is curious to observe,
that there is not a face ever so well known amongst your acquaintance,
but would be recognised with difficulty, if it were enlightened from
beneath.
/Chap. CXCIV./--_Of the Beauty of Faces._
/You/ must not mark any muscles with hardness of line, but let the
soft light glide upon them, and terminate imperceptibly in delightful
shadows: from this will arise grace and beauty to the face.
/Chap. CXCV./--_How, in drawing a Face, to give it Grace, by the
Management of Light and Shade._
/A face/ placed in the dark part of a room, acquires great additional
grace by means of light and shadow. The shadowed part of the face
blends with the darkness of the ground, and the light part receives
an increase of brightness from the open air, the shadows on this side
becoming almost insensible; and from this augmentation of light and
shadow, the face has much relief, and acquires great beauty.
/Chap. CXCVI./--_How to give Grace and Relief to Faces._
/In/ streets running towards the west, when the sun is in the meridian,
and the walls on each side so high that they cast no reflexions on that
side of the bodies which is in shade, and the sky is not too bright,
we find the most advantageous situation for giving relief and grace to
figures, particularly to faces; because both sides of the face will
participate of the shadows of the walls. The sides of the nose and
the face towards the west, will be light, and the man whom we suppose
placed at the entrance, and in the middle of the street, will see all
the parts of that face, which are before him, perfectly illumined,
while both sides of it, towards the walls, will be in shadow. What
gives additional grace is, that these shades do not appear cutting,
hard, or dry, but softly blended and lost in each other. The reason of
it is, that the light which is spread all over in the air, strikes also
the pavement of the street, and reflecting upon the shady part of the
face, it tinges that slightly with the same hue: while the great light
which comes from above being confined by the tops of houses, strikes
on the face from different points, almost to the very beginning of
the shadows under the projecting parts of the face. It diminishes by
degrees the strength of them, increasing the light till it comes upon
the chin, where it terminates, and loses itself, blending softly into
the shades on all sides. For instance, if such light were A E, the line
F E would give light even to the bottom of the nose. The line C F will
give light only to the under lip; but the line A H would extend the
shadow to all the under parts of the face, and under the chin.
In this situation the nose receives a very strong light from all the
points A B C D E.
[Illustration]
/Chap. CXCVII./--_Of the Termination of Bodies upon each other._
/When/ a body, of a cylindrical or convex surface, terminates upon
another body of the same colour, it will appear darker on the edge,
than the body upon which it terminates. And any flat body, adjacent to
a white surface, will appear very dark; but upon a dark ground it will
appear lighter than any other part, though the lights be equal.
/Chap. CXCVIII./--_Of the Back-grounds of painted Objects._
/The/ ground which surrounds the figures in any painting, ought to
be darker than the light part of those figures, and lighter than the
shadowed part.
/Chap. CXCIX./--_How to detach and bring forward Figures out of their
Back-ground._
/If/ your figure be dark, place it on a light ground; if it be light,
upon a dark ground; and if it be partly light and partly dark, as is
generally the case, contrive that the dark part of the figure be upon
the light part of the ground, and the light side of it against the
dark[39].
/Chap. CC./--_Of proper Back-grounds._
/It/ is of the greatest importance to consider well the nature of
back-grounds, upon which any opake body is to be placed. In order to
detach it properly, you should place the light part of such opake body
against the dark part of the back-ground, and the dark parts on a light
ground[40]; as in the cut[41].
[Illustration]
/Chap. CCI./--_Of the general Light diffused over Figures._
/In/ compositions of many figures and animals, observe, that the parts
of these different objects ought to be darker in proportion as they are
lower, and as they are nearer the middle of the groups, though they
are all of an uniform colour. This is necessary, because a smaller
portion of the sky (from which all bodies are illuminated) can give
light to the lower spaces between these different figures, than to the
upper parts of the spaces. It is proved thus: A B C D is that portion
of the sky which gives light to all the objects beneath; M and N are
the bodies which occupy the space S T R H, in which it is evidently
perceived, that the point F, receiving the light only from the portion
of the sky C D, has a smaller quantity of it than the point E which
receives it from the whole space A B (a larger portion than C D);
therefore it will be lighter in E than in F.
[Illustration]
/Chap. CCII./--_Of those Parts in Shadows which appear the darkest at a
Distance._
[Illustration]
/The/ neck, or any other part which is raised straight upwards, and
has a projection over it, will be darker than the perpendicular
front of that projection; and this projecting part will be lighter,
in proportion as it presents a larger surface to the light. For
instance, the recess A receives no light from any part of the sky G
K, but B begins to receive the light from the part of the sky H K,
and C from G K; and the point D receives the whole of F K. Therefore
the chest will be as light as the forehead, nose, and chin. But what
I have particularly to recommend, in regard to faces, is, that you
observe well those different qualities of shades which are lost at
different distances (while there remain only the first and principal
spots or strokes of shades, such as those of the sockets of the eyes,
and other similar recesses, which are always dark), and at last the
whole face becomes obscured; because the greatest lights (being small
in proportion to the demi-tints) are lost. The quality, therefore,
and quantity of the principal lights and shades are by means of great
distance blended together into a general half-tint; and this is the
reason why trees and other objects are found to be in appearance darker
at some distance than they are in reality, when nearer to the eye.
But then the air, which interposes between the objects and the eye,
will render them light again by tinging them with azure, rather in the
shades than in the lights; for the lights will preserve the truth of
the different colours much longer.
/Chap. CCIII./--_Of the Eye viewing the Folds of Draperies surrounding
a Figure._
/The/ shadows between the folds of a drapery surrounding the parts of
the human body will be darker as the deep hollows where the shadows are
generated are more directly opposite the eye. This is to be observed
only when the eye is placed between the light and the shady part of the
figure.
/Chap. CCIV./--_Of the Relief of Figures remote from the Eye._
/Any/ opake body appears less relieved in proportion as it is farther
distant from the eye; because the air, interposed between the eye
and such body, being lighter than the shadow of it, it tarnishes and
weakens that shadow, lessens its power, and consequently lessens also
its relief.
/Chap. CCV./--_Of Outlines of Objects on the Side towards the Light._
/The/ extremities of any object on the side which receives the light,
will appear darker if upon a lighter ground, and lighter if seen upon a
darker ground. But if such body be flat, and seen upon a ground equal
in point of light with itself, and of the same colour, such boundaries,
or outlines, will be entirely lost to the sight[42].
/Chap. CCVI./--_How to make Objects detach from their Ground, that is
to say, from the Surface on which they are painted._
/Objects/ contrasted with a light ground will appear much more detached
than those which are placed against a dark one. The reason is, that
if you wish to give relief to your figures, you will make those parts
which are the farthest from the light, participate the least of it;
therefore they will remain the darkest, and every distinction of
outline would be lost in the general mass of shadows. But to give it
grace, roundness, and effect, those dark shades are always attended by
reflexes, or else they would either cut too hard upon the ground, or
stick to it, by the similarity of shade, and relieve the less as the
ground is darker; for at some distance nothing would be seen but the
light parts, therefore your figures would appear mutilated of all that
remains lost in the back-ground.
CONTRASTE AND EFFECT.
/Chap. CCVII./--_A Precept._
/Figures/ will have more grace, placed in the open and general light,
than in any particular or small one; because the powerful and
extended light will surround and embrace the objects: and works done
in that kind of light appear pleasant and graceful when placed at a
distance[43], while those which are drawn in a narrow light, will
receive great force of shadow, but will never appear at a great
distance, but as painted objects.
/Chap. CCVIII./--_Of the Interposition of transparent Bodies between
the Eye and the Object._
/The/ greater the transparent interposition is between the eye and the
object, the more the colour of that object will participate of, or be
changed into that of the transparent medium[44].
When an opake body is situated between the eye and the luminary, so
that the central line of the one passes also through the centre of the
other, that object will be entirely deprived of light.
/Chap. CCIX./--_Of proper Back-grounds for Figures._
/As/ we find by experience, that all bodies are surrounded by lights
and shadows, I would have the painter to accommodate that part which is
enlightened, so as to terminate upon something dark; and to manage the
dark parts so that they may terminate on a light ground. This will be
of great assistance in detaching and bringing out his figures[45].
/Chap. CCX./--_Of Back-grounds._
/To/ give a great effect to figures, you must oppose to a light one a
dark ground, and to a dark figure a light ground, contrasting white
with black, and black with white. In general, all contraries give a
particular force and brilliancy of effect by their opposition[46].
REFLEXES.
/Chap. CCXI./--_Of Objects placed on a light Ground, and why such a
Practice is useful in Painting._
/When/ a darkish body terminates upon a light ground, it will appear
detached from that ground; because all opake bodies of a curved
surface are not only dark on that side which receives no light, and
consequently very different from the ground; but even that side of the
curved surface which is enlightened, will not carry its principal light
to the extremities, but have between the ground and the principal light
a certain demi-tint, darker than either the ground or that light.
/Chap. CCXII./--_Of the different Effects of White, according to the
Difference of Back-grounds._
/Any/ thing white will appear whiter, by being opposed to a dark
ground; and, on the contrary, darker upon a light ground. This we learn
from observing snow as it falls; while it is descending it appears
darker against the sky, than when we see it against an open window,
which (owing to the darkness of the inside of the house) makes it
appear very white. Observe also, that snow appears to fall very quick
and in a great quantity when near the eye; but when at some distance,
it seems to come down slowly, and in a smaller quantity[47].
/Chap. CCXIII./--_Of Reverberation._
/Reverberations/ are produced by all bodies of a bright nature, that
have a smooth and tolerably hard surface, which, repelling the light it
receives, makes it rebound like a foot-ball against the first object
opposed to it.
/Chap. CCXIV./--_Where there cannot be any Reverberation of Light._
/The/ surfaces of hard bodies are surrounded by various qualities of
light and shadow. The lights are of two sorts; one is called original,
the other derivative. The original light is that which comes from the
sun, or the brightness of fire, or else from the air. The derivative is
a reflected light. But to return to our definition, I say, there can
be no reflexion on that side which is turned towards any dark body;
such as roofs, either high or low, shrubs, grass, wood, either dry
or green; because, though every individual part of those objects be
turned towards the original light, and struck by it; yet the quantity
of shadow which every one of these parts produces upon the others, is
so great, that, upon the whole, the light, not forming a compact mass,
loses its effect, so that those objects cannot reflect any light upon
the opposite bodies.
/Chap. CCXV./--_In what Part the Reflexes have more or less Brightness._
/The/ reflected lights will be more or less apparent or bright, in
proportion as they are seen against a darker or fainter ground; because
if the ground be darker than the reflex, then this reflex will appear
stronger on account of the great difference of colour. But, on the
contrary, if this reflexion has behind it a ground lighter than itself,
it will appear dark, in comparison to the brightness which is close to
it, and therefore it will be hardly perceptible[48].
/Chap. CCXVI./--_Of the reflected Lights which surround the Shadows._
/The/ reflected lights which strike upon the midst of shadows, will
brighten up or lessen their obscurity in proportion to the strength
of those lights, and their proximity to those shadows. Many painters
neglect this observation, while others attend to and deduce their
practice from it. This difference of opinion and practice divides the
sentiments of artists, so that they blame each other for not thinking
and acting as they themselves do. The best way is to steer a middle
course, and not to admit of any reflected light, but when the cause of
it is evident to every eye; and _vice versâ_, if you introduce none
at all, let it appear evident that there was no reasonable cause for
it. In doing so, you will neither be totally blamed nor praised by the
variety of opinion, which, if not proceeding from entire ignorance,
will ensure to you the approbation of both parties.
/Chap. CCXVII./--_Where Reflexes are to be most apparent._
/Of/ all reflected lights, that is to be the most apparent, bold, and
precise, which detaches from the darkest ground; and, on the contrary,
that which is upon a lighter ground will be less apparent. And this
proceeds from the contraste of shades, by which the faintest makes the
dark ones appear still darker; so in contrasted lights, the brightest
cause the others to appear less bright than they really are[49].
/Chap. CCXVIII./--_What Part of a Reflex is to be the lightest._
/That/ part will be the brightest which receives the reflected light
between angles the most nearly equal. For example, let N be the
luminary, and A B the illuminated part of the object, reflecting the
light over all the shady part of the concavity opposite to it. The
light which reflects upon F will be placed between equal angles. But
E at the base will not be reflected by equal angles, as it is evident
that the angle E A B is more obtuse than the angle E B A. The angle
A F B however, though it is between angles of less quality than the
angle E, and has a common base B A, is between angles more nearly equal
than E, therefore it will be lighter in F than in E; and it will also
be brighter, because it is nearer to the part which gives them light.
According to the 6th rule[50], which says, that part of the body is to
be the lightest, which is nearest to the luminary.
[Illustration]
/Chap. CCXIX./--_Of the Termination of Reflexes on their Grounds._
/The/ termination of a reflected light on a ground lighter than that
reflex, will not be perceivable; but if such a reflex terminates upon a
ground darker than itself, it will be plainly seen; and the more so in
proportion as that ground is darker, and _vice versa_[51].
/Chap. CCXX./--_Of double and treble Reflexions of Light._
/Double/ reflexes are stronger than single ones, and the shadows which
interpose between the common light and these reflexes are very faint.
For instance, let A be the luminous body, A N, A S, are the direct
rays, and S N the parts which receive the light from them. O and E are
the places enlightened by the reflexion of that light in those parts.
A N E is a single reflex, but A N O, A S O is the double reflex. The
single reflex is that which proceeds from a single light, but the
double reflexion is produced by two different lights. The single one
E is produced by the light striking on B D, while the double one O
proceeds from the enlightened bodies B D and D R co-operating together;
and the shadows which are between N O and S O will be very faint.
[Illustration]
/Chap. CCXXI./--_Reflexes in the Water, and particularly those of the
Air._
/The/ only portion of air that will be seen reflected in the water,
will be that which is reflected by the surface of the water to the eye
between equal angles; that is to say, the angle of incidence must be
equal to the angle of reflexion.
COLOURS /and/ COLOURING.
COLOURS.
/Chap. CCXXII./--_What Surface is best calculated to receive most
Colours._
/White/ is more capable of receiving all sorts of colours, than the
surface of any body whatever, that is not transparent. To prove it, we
shall say, that any void space is capable of receiving what another
space, not void, cannot receive. In the same manner, a white surface,
like a void space, being destitute of any colour, will be fittest to
receive such as are conveyed to it from any other enlightened body, and
will participate more of the colour than black can do; which latter,
like a broken vessel, is not able to contain any thing.
/Chap. CCXXIII./--_What Surface will shew most perfectly its true
Colour._
/That/ opake body will shew its colour more perfect and beautiful,
which has near it another body of the same colour.
/Chap. CCXXIV./--_On what Surfaces the true Colour is least apparent._
/Polished/ and glossy surfaces shew least of their genuine colour. This
is exemplified in the grass of the fields, and the leaves of trees,
which, being smooth and glossy, will reflect the colour of the sun, and
the air, where they strike, so that the parts which receive the light
do not shew their natural colour.
/Chap. CCXXV./--_What Surfaces shew most of their true and genuine
Colour._
/Those/ objects that are the least smooth and polished shew their
natural colours best; as we see in cloth, and in the leaves of such
grass or trees as are of a woolly nature; which, having no lustre,
are exhibited to the eye in their true natural colour; unless that
colour happen to be confused by that of another body casting on them
reflexions of an opposite colour, such as the redness of the setting
sun, when all the clouds are tinged with its colour.
/Chap. CCXXVI./--_Of the Mixture of Colours._
/Although/ the mixture of colours may be extended to an infinite
variety, almost impossible to be described, I will not omit touching
slightly upon it, setting down at first a certain number of simple
colours to serve as a foundation, and with each of these mixing one
of the others; one with one, then two with two, and three with three,
proceeding in this manner to the full mixture of all the colors
together: then I would begin again, mixing two of these colours with
two others, and three with three, four with four, and so on to the end.
To these two colours we shall put three; to these three add three more,
and then six, increasing always in the same proportion.
I call those simple colours, which are not composed, and cannot be made
or supplied by any mixture of other colours. Black and White are not
reckoned among colours; the one is the representative of darkness, the
other of light: that is, one is a simple privation of light, the other
is light itself. Yet I will not omit mentioning them, because there is
nothing in painting more useful and necessary; since painting is but an
effect produced by lights and shadows, viz. _chiaro-scuro_. After Black
and White come Blue and Yellow, then Green, and Tawny or Umber, and
then Purple and Red. These eight colours are all that Nature produces.
With these I begin my mixtures, first Black and White, Black and
Yellow, Black and Red; then Yellow and Red: but I shall treat more at
length of these mixtures in a separate work[52], which will be of great
utility, nay very necessary. I shall place this subject between theory
and practice.
/Chap. CCXXVII./--_Of the Colours produced by the Mixture of other
Colours, called secondary Colours._
/The/ first of all simple colours is White, though philosophers will
not acknowledge either White or Black to be colours; because the first
is the cause, or the receiver of colours, the other totally deprived
of them. But as painters cannot do without either, we shall place them
among the others; and according to this order of things, White will
be the first, Yellow the second, Green the third, Blue the fourth,
Red the fifth, and Black the sixth. We shall set down White for the
representative of light, without which no colour can be seen; Yellow
for the earth; Green for water; Blue for air; Red for fire; and Black
for total darkness.
If you wish to see by a short process the variety of all the mixed, or
composed colours, take some coloured glasses, and, through them, look
at all the country round: you will find that the colour of each object
will be altered and mixed with the colour of the glass through which it
is seen; observe which colour is made better, and which is hurt by the
mixture. If the glass be yellow, the colour of the objects may either
be improved, or greatly impaired by it. Black and White will be most
altered, while Green and Yellow will be meliorated. In the same manner
you may go through all the mixtures of colours, which are infinite.
Select those which are new and agreeable to the sight; and following
the same method you may go on with two glasses, or three, till you have
found what will best answer your purpose.
/Chap. CCXXVIII./--_Of Verdegris._