the discharge of artillery and musquetry, and the dust raised by the
horses of the combatants; and observe, that dust being of an earthy
nature, is heavy; but yet, by reason of its minute particles, it is
easily impelled upwards, and mixes with the air; nevertheless, it
naturally falls downwards again, the most subtle parts of it alone
gaining any considerable degree of elevation, and at its utmost height
it is so thin and transparent, as to appear nearly of the colour of
the air. The smoke, thus mixing with the dusty air, forms a kind of
dark cloud, at the top of which it is distinguished from the dust by a
blueish cast, the dust retaining more of its natural colour. On that
part from which the light proceeds, this mixture of air, smoke, and
dust, will appear much brighter than on the opposite side. The more the
combatants are involved in this turbulent mist, the less distinctly
they will be seen, and the more confused will they be in their lights
and shades. Let the faces of the musketeers, their bodies, and every
object near them, be tinged with a reddish hue, even the air or cloud
of dust; in short, all that surrounds them. This red tinge you will
diminish, in proportion to their distance, from the primary cause. The
groups of figures, which appear at a distance between the spectator
and the light, will form a dark mass upon a light ground; and their
legs will be more undetermined and lost as they approach nearer to the
ground; because there the dust is heavier and thicker.
If you mean to represent some straggling horses, running out of the
main body, introduce also some small clouds of dust, as far distant
from each other as the leap of the horse, and these little clouds will
become fainter, more scanty, and diffused, in proportion to their
distance from the horse. That nearest to his feet will consequently be
the most determined, smallest, and the thickest of all.
Let the air be full of arrows, in all directions; some ascending, some
falling down, and some darting straight forwards. The bullets of the
musketry, though not seen, will be marked in their course by a train
of smoke, which breaks through the general confusion. The figures in
the fore-ground should have their hair covered with dust, as also their
eyebrows, and all parts liable to receive it.
The victorious party will be running forwards, their hair and other
light parts flying in the wind, their eyebrows lowered, and the motion
of every member properly contrasted; for instance, in moving the right
foot forwards, the left arm must be brought forwards also. If you make
any of them fallen down, mark the trace of his fall on the slippery,
gore-stained dust; and where the ground is less impregnated with blood,
let the print of men's feet and of horses, that have passed that
way, be marked. Let there be some horses dragging the bodies of their
riders, and leaving behind them a furrow, made by the body thus trailed
along.
The countenances of the vanquished will appear pale and dejected. Their
eyebrows raised, and much wrinkled about the forehead and cheeks.
The tip of their noses somewhat divided from the nostrils by arched
wrinkles terminating at the corner of the eyes, those wrinkles being
occasioned by the opening and raising of the nostrils; the upper
lips turned up, discovering the teeth. Their mouths wide open, and
expressive of violent lamentation. One may be seen fallen wounded
on the ground, endeavouring with one hand to support his body, and
covering his eyes with the other, the palm of which is turned towards
the enemy. Others running away, and with open mouths seeming to cry
aloud. Between the legs of the combatants let the ground be strewed
with all sorts of arms; as broken shields, spears, swords, and the
like. Many dead bodies should be introduced, some entirely covered
with dust, others in part only; let the blood, which seems to issue
immediately from the wound, appear of its natural colour, and running
in a winding course, till, mixing with the dust, it forms a reddish
kind of mud. Some should be in the agonies of death; their teeth shut,
their eyes wildly staring, their fists clenched, and their legs in a
distorted position. Some may appear disarmed, and beaten down by the
enemy, still fighting with their fists and teeth, and endeavouring
to take a passionate, though unavailing revenge. There may be also a
straggling horse without a rider, running in wild disorder; his mane
flying in the wind, beating down with his feet all before him, and
doing a deal of damage. A wounded soldier may also be seen falling to
the ground, and attempting to cover himself with his shield, while an
enemy bending over him endeavours to give him the finishing stroke.
Several dead bodies should be heaped together under a dead horse. Some
of the conquerors, as having ceased fighting, may be wiping their faces
from the dirt, collected on them by the mixture of dust with the water
from their eyes.
The _corps de reserve_ will be seen advancing gaily, but cautiously,
their eyebrows directed forwards, shading their eyes with their hands
to observe the motions of the enemy, amidst clouds of dust and smoke,
and seeming attentive to the orders of their chief. You may also make
their commander holding up his staff, pushing forwards, and pointing
towards the place where they are wanted. A river may likewise be
introduced, with horses fording it, dashing the water about between
their legs, and in the air, covering all the adjacent ground with water
and foam. Not a spot is to be left without some marks of blood and
carnage.
/Chap. CLIX./--_The Representation of an Orator and his Audience._
/If/ you have to represent a man who is speaking to a large assembly of
people, you are to consider the subject matter of his discourse, and
to adapt his attitude to such subject. If he means to persuade, let it
be known by his gesture. If he is giving an explanation, deduced from
several reasons, let him put two fingers of the right hand within one
of the left, having the other two bent close, his face turned towards
the audience, with the mouth half open, seeming to speak. If he is
sitting, let him appear as going to raise himself up a little, and his
head be forward. But if he is represented standing, let him bend his
chest and his head forward towards the people.
The auditory are to appear silent and attentive, with their eyes upon
the speaker, in the act of admiration. There should be some old men,
with their mouths close shut, in token of approbation, and their lips
pressed together, so as to form wrinkles at the corners of the mouth,
and about the cheeks, and forming others about the forehead, by raising
the eyebrows, as if struck with astonishment. Some others of those
sitting by, should be seated with their hands within each other, round
one of their knees; some with one knee upon the other, and upon that,
one hand receiving the elbow, the other supporting the chin, covered
with a venerable beard.
/Chap. CLX./--_Of demonstrative Gestures._
/The/ action by which a figure points at any thing near, either in
regard to time or situation, is to be expressed by the hand very little
removed from the body. But if the same thing is far distant, the hand
must also be far removed from the body, and the face of the figure
pointing, must be turned towards those to whom he is pointing it out.
/Chap. CLXI./--_Of the Attitudes of the By-standers at some remarkable
Event._
/All/ those who are present at some event deserving notice, express
their admiration, but in various manners. As when the hand of justice
punishes some malefactor. If the subject be an act of devotion, the
eyes of all present should be directed towards the object of their
adoration, aided by a variety of pious actions with the other members;
as at the elevation of the host at mass, and other similar ceremonies.
If it be a laughable subject, or one exciting compassion and moving to
tears, in those cases it will not be necessary for all to have their
eyes turned towards the object, but they will express their feelings
by different actions; and let there be several assembled in groups, to
rejoice or lament together. If the event be terrific, let the faces of
those who run away from the fight, be strongly expressive of fright,
with various motions; as shall be described in the tract on Motion.
/Chap. CLXII./--_How to represent Night._
/Those/ objects which are entirely deprived of light, are lost to the
sight, as in the night; therefore if you mean to paint a history under
those circumstances, you must suppose a large fire, and those objects
that are near it to be tinged with its colour, and the nearer they are
the more they will partake of it. The fire being red, all those objects
which receive light from it will appear of a reddish colour, and
those that are most distant from it will partake of the darkness that
surrounds them. The figures which are represented before the fire will
appear dark in proportion to the brightness of the fire, because those
parts of them which we see, are tinged by that darkness of the night,
and not by the light of the fire, which they intercept. Those that are
on either side of the fire, will be half in the shade of night, and
half in the red light. Those seen beyond the extent of the flames,
will be all of a reddish light upon a black ground. In regard to their
attitudes, let those who are nearest the fire, make screens of their
hands and cloaks, against the scorching heat, with their faces turned
on the contrary side, as if ready to run away from it. The most remote
will only be shading their eyes with their hands, as if hurt by the too
great glare.
/Chap. CLXIII./--_The Method of awakening the Mind to a Variety of
Inventions._
/I will/ not omit to introduce among these precepts a new kind of
speculative invention, which though apparently trifling, and almost
laughable, is nevertheless of great utility in assisting the genius to
find variety for composition.
By looking attentively at old and smeared walls, or stones and veined
marble of various colours, you may fancy that you see in them several
compositions, landscapes, battles, figures in quick motion, strange
countenances, and dresses, with an infinity of other objects. By these
confused lines the inventive genius is excited to new exertions.
/Chap. CLXIV./--_Of Composition in History._
/When/ the painter has only a single figure to represent, he must avoid
any shortening whatever, as well of any particular member, as of the
whole figure, because he would have to contend with the prejudices of
those who have no knowledge in that branch of the art. But in subjects
of history, composed of many figures, shortenings may be introduced
with great propriety, nay, they are indispensable, and ought to be used
without reserve, as the subject may require; particularly in battles,
where of course many shortenings and contortions of figures happen,
amongst such an enraged multitude of actors, possessed, as it were, of
a brutal madness.
EXPRESSION /and/ CHARACTER.
/Chap. CLXV./--_Of expressive Motions._
/Let/ your figures have actions appropriated to what they are intended
to think or say, and these will be well learnt by imitating the deaf,
who by the motion of their hands, eyes, eyebrows, and the whole body,
endeavour to express the sentiments of their mind. Do not ridicule the
thought of a master without a tongue teaching you an art he does not
understand; he will do it better by his expressive motions, than all
the rest by their words and examples. Let then the painter, of whatever
school, attend well to this maxim, and apply it to the different
qualities of the figures he represents, and to the nature of the
subject in which they are actors.
/Chap. CLXVI./--_How to paint Children._
/Children/ are to be represented with quick and contorted motions,
when they are sitting; but when standing, with fearful and timid
motions.
/Chap. CLXVII./--_How to represent old Men._
/Old/ men must have slow and heavy motions; their legs and knees must
be bent when they are standing, and their feet placed parallel and wide
asunder. Let them be bowed downwards, the head leaning much forward,
and their arms very little extended.
/Chap. CLXVIII./--_How to paint old Women._
/Old/ women, on the contrary, are to be represented bold and quick,
with passionate motions, like furies[33]. But the motions are to appear
a great deal quicker in their arms than in their legs.
/Chap. CLXIX./--_How to paint Women._
/Women/ are to be represented in modest and reserved attitudes, with
their knees rather close, their arms drawing near each other, or folded
about the body; their heads looking downwards, and leaning a little on
one side.
/Chap. CLXX./--_Of the Variety of Faces._
/The/ countenances of your figures should be expressive of their
different situations: men at work, at rest, weeping, laughing, crying
out, in fear, or joy, and the like. The attitudes also, and all the
members, ought to correspond with the sentiment expressed in the faces.
/Chap. CLXXI./--_The Parts of the Face, and their Motions._
/The/ motions of the different parts of the face, occasioned by sudden
agitations of the mind, are many. The principal of these are, Laughter,
Weeping, Calling out, Singing, either in a high or low pitch,
Admiration, Anger, Joy, Sadness, Fear, Pain, and others, of which
I propose to treat. First, of Laughing and Weeping, which are very
similar in the motion of the mouth, the cheeks, the shutting of the
eyebrows, and the space between them; as we shall explain in its place,
in treating of the changes which happen in the face, hands, fingers,
and all the other parts of the body, as they are affected by the
different emotions of the soul; the knowledge of which is absolutely
necessary to a painter, or else his figures may be said to be twice
dead. But it is very necessary also that he be careful not to fall into
the contrary extreme; giving extraordinary motions to his figures, so
that in a quiet and peaceable subject, he does not seem to represent a
battle, or the revellings of drunken men: but, above all, the actors in
any point of history must be attentive to what they are about, or to
what is going forward; with actions that denote admiration, respect,
pain, suspicion, fear, and joy, according as the occasion, for which
they are brought together, may require. Endeavour that different points
of history be not placed one above the other on the same canvass, nor
walls with different horizons[34], as if it were a jeweller's shop,
shewing the goods in different square caskets.
/Chap. CLXXII./--_Laughing and Weeping._
/Between/ the expression of laughter and that of weeping there is no
difference in the motion of the features either in the eyes, mouth,
or cheeks; only in the ruffling of the brows, which is added when
weeping, but more elevated and extended in laughing. One may represent
the figure weeping as tearing his clothes, or some other expression,
as various as the cause of his feeling may be; because some weep
for anger, some through fear, others for tenderness and joy, or for
suspicion; some for real pain and torment; whilst others weep through
compassion, or regret at the loss of some friend and near relation.
These different feelings will be expressed by some with marks of
despair, by others with moderation; some only shed tears, others cry
aloud, while another has his face turned towards heaven, with his
hand depressed, and his fingers twisted. Some again will be full of
apprehension, with their shoulders raised up to their ears, and so on,
according to the above causes.
Those who weep, raise the brows, and bring them close together above
the nose, forming many wrinkles on the forehead, and the corners of the
mouth are turned downwards. Those who laugh have them turned upwards,
and the brows open and extended.
/Chap. CLXXIII./--_Of Anger._
/If/ you represent a man in a violent fit of anger, make him seize
another by the hair, holding his head writhed down against the ground,
with his knee fixed upon the ribs of his antagonist; his right arm up,
and his fist ready to strike; his hair standing on end, his eyebrows
low and straight; his teeth close, and seen at the corner of the mouth;
his neck swelled, and his body covered in the Abdomen with creases,
occasioned by his bending over his enemy, and the excess of his passion.
/Chap. CLXXIV./--_Despair._
/The/ last act of despondency is, when a man is in the act of putting a
period to his own existence. He should be represented with a knife in
one hand, with which he has already inflicted the wound, and tearing it
open with the other. His garments and hair should be already torn. He
will be standing with his feet asunder, his knees a little bent, and
his body leaning forward, as if ready to fall to the ground.
LIGHT /and/ SHADOW.
/Chap. CLXXV./--_The Course of Study to be pursued._
/The/ student who is desirous of making great proficiency in the art
of imitating the works of Nature, should not only learn the shape of
figures or other objects, and be able to delineate them with truth and
precision, but he must also accompany them with their proper lights and
shadows, according to the situation in which those objects appear.
/Chap. CLXXVI./--_Which of the two is the most useful Knowledge, the
Outlines of Figures, or that of Light and Shadow._
/The/ knowledge of the outline is of most consequence, and yet may be
acquired to great certainty by dint of study; as the outlines of the
different parts of the human figure, particularly those which do not
bend, are invariably the same. But the knowledge of the situation,
quality, and quantity of shadows, being infinite, requires the most
extensive study.
/Chap. CLXXVII./--_Which is the most important, the Shadows or Outlines
in Painting._
/It/ requires much more observation and study to arrive at perfection
in the shadowing of a picture, than in merely drawing the lines of it.
The proof of this is, that the lines may be traced upon a veil or a
flat glass placed between the eye and the object to be imitated. But
that cannot be of any use in shadowing, on account of the infinite
gradation of shades, and the blending of them, which does not allow of
any precise termination; and most frequently they are confused, as will
be demonstrated in another place[35].
/Chap. CLXXVIII./--_What is a Painter's first Aim, and Object._
/The/ first object of a painter is to make a simple flat surface appear
like a relievo, and some of its parts detached from the ground; he
who excels all others in that part of the art, deserves the greatest
praise. This perfection of the art depends on the correct distribution
of lights and shades, called _Chiaro-scuro_. If the painter then avoids
shadows, he may be said to avoid the glory of the art, and to render
his work despicable to real connoisseurs, for the sake of acquiring the
esteem of vulgar and ignorant admirers of fine colours, who never have
any knowledge of relievo.
/Chap. CLXXIX./--_The Difference of Superficies, in regard to Painting._
/Solid/ bodies are of two sorts: the one has the surface curvilinear,
oval, or spherical; the other has several surfaces, or sides producing
angles, either regular or irregular. Spherical, or oval bodies, will
always appear detached from their ground, though they are exactly of
the same colour. Bodies also of different sides and angles will always
detach, because they are always disposed so as to produce shades on
some of their sides, which cannot happen to a plain superficies[36].
/Chap. CLXXX./--_How a Painter may become universal._
/The/ painter who wishes to be universal, and please a variety of
judges, must unite in the same composition, objects susceptible of
great force in the shadows, and great sweetness in the management of
them; accounting, however, in every instance, for such boldness and
softenings.
/Chap. CLXXXI./--_Accuracy ought to be learnt before Dispatch in the
Execution._
/If/ you wish to make good and useful studies, use great deliberation
in your drawings, observe well among the lights which, and how many,
hold the first rank in point of brightness; and so among the shadows,
which are darker than others, and in what manner they blend together;
compare the quality and quantity of one with the other, and observe
to what part they are directed. Be careful also in your outlines, or
divisions of the members. Remark well what quantity of parts are to be
on one side, and what on the other; and where they are more or less
apparent, or broad, or slender. Lastly, take care that the shadows and
lights be united, or lost in each other; without any hard strokes, or
lines: as smoke loses itself in the air, so are your lights and shadows
to pass from the one to the other, without any apparent separation.
When you have acquired the habit, and formed your hand to accuracy,
quickness of execution will come of itself[37].
/Chap. CLXXXII./--_How the Painter is to place himself in regard to the
Light, and his Model._
/Let/ A B be the window, M the centre of it, C the model. The best
situation for the painter will be a little sideways, between the window
and his model, as D, so that he may see his object partly in the light
and partly in the shadow.
[Illustration]
/Chap. CLXXXIII./--_Of the best Light._
/The/ light from on high, and not too powerful, will be found the best
calculated to shew the parts to advantage.
/Chap. CLXXXIV./--_Of Drawing by Candle-light._
/To/ this artificial light apply a paper blind, and you will see the
shadows undetermined and soft.
/Chap. CLXXXV./--_Of those Painters who draw at Home from one Light,
and afterwards adapt their Studies to another Situation in the Country,
and a different Light._
/It/ is a great error in some painters who draw a figure from Nature at
home, by any particular light, and afterwards make use of that drawing
in a picture representing an open country, which receives the general
light of the sky, where the surrounding air gives light on all sides.
This painter would put dark shadows, where Nature would either produce
none, or, if any, so very faint as to be almost imperceptible; and he
would throw reflected lights where it is impossible there should be any.
/Chap. CLXXXVI./--_How high the Light should be in drawing from Nature._
/To/ paint well from Nature, your window should be to the North, that
the lights may not vary. If it be to the South, you must have paper
blinds, that the sun, in going round, may not alter the shadows. The
situation of the light should be such as to produce upon the ground a
shadow from your model as long as that is high.
/Chap. CLXXXVII./--_What Light the Painter must make use of to give
most Relief to his Figures._
/The/ figures which receive a particular light shew more relief than
those which receive an universal one; because the particular light
occasions some reflexes, which proceed from the light of one object
upon the shadows of another, and helps to detach it from the dark
ground. But a figure placed in front of a dark and large space, and
receiving a particular light, can receive no reflexion from any other
objects, and nothing is seen of the figure but what the light strikes
on, the rest being blended and lost in the darkness of the back ground.
This is to be applied only to the imitation of night subjects with very
little light.
/Chap. CLXXXVIII./--_Advice to Painters._
/Be/ very careful, in painting, to observe, that between the shadows
there are other shadows, almost imperceptible, both for darkness and
shape; and this is proved by the third proposition[38], which says,
that the surfaces of globular or convex bodies have as great a variety
of lights and shadows as the bodies that surround them have.
/Chap. CLXXXIX./--_Of Shadows._
/Those/ shadows which in Nature are undetermined, and the extremities of
which can hardly be perceived, are to be copied in your painting in
the same manner, never to be precisely finished, but left confused and
blended. This apparent neglect will shew great judgment, and be the
ingenious result of your observation of Nature.
/Chap. CXC./--_Of the Kind of Light proper for drawing from Relievos,
or from Nature._
/Lights/ separated from the shadows with too much precision, have a
very bad effect. In order, therefore, to avoid this inconvenience,
if the object be in the open country, you need not let your figures
be illumined by the sun; but may suppose some transparent clouds
interposed, so that the sun not being visible, the termination of the
shadows will be also imperceptible and soft.
/Chap. CXCI./--_Whether the Light should be admitted in Front or
sideways; and which is most pleasing and graceful._