model in Nature; and after having measured that, he ought to measure
himself also, and be perfectly acquainted with his own defects or
deficiencies; and having acquired this knowledge, his constant care
should be to avoid conveying into his work those defects which he has
found in his own person; for these defects, becoming habitual to his
observation, mislead his judgment, and he perceives them no longer. We
ought, therefore, to struggle against such a prejudice, which grows
up with us; for the mind, being fond of its own habitation, is apt to
represent it to our imagination as beautiful. From the same motive it
may be, that there is not a woman, however plain in her person, who may
not find her admirer, if she be not a monster. Against this bent of the
mind you ought very cautiously to be on your guard.
/Chap. CXXIX./--_Variety in Figures._
/A painter/ ought to aim at universal excellence; for he will be
greatly wanting in dignity, if he do one thing well and another badly,
as many do, who study only the naked figure, measured and proportioned
by a pair of compasses in their hands, and do not seek for variety. A
man may be well proportioned, and yet be tall or short, large or lean,
or of a middle size; and whoever does not make great use of these
varieties, which are all existing in Nature in its most perfect state,
will produce figures as if cast in one and the same mould, which is
highly reprehensible.
/Chap. CXXX./--_How a Painter ought to proceed in his Studies._
/The/ painter ought always to form in his mind a kind of system of
reasoning or discussion within himself on any remarkable object
before him. He should stop, take notes, and form some rule upon it;
considering the place, the circumstances, the lights and shadows.
/Chap. CXXXI./--_Of sketching Histories and Figures._
/Sketches/ of historical subjects must be slight, attending only to the
situation of the figures, without regard to the finishing of particular
members, which may be done afterwards at leisure, when the mind is so
disposed.
/Chap. CXXXII./--_How to study Composition._
/The/ young student should begin by sketching slightly some single
figure, and turn that on all sides, knowing already how to contract,
and how to extend the members; after which, he may put two together in
various attitudes, we will suppose in the act of fighting boldly. This
composition also he must try on all sides, and in a variety of ways,
tending to the same expression. Then he may imagine one of them very
courageous, while the other is a coward. Let these attitudes, and many
other accidental affections of the mind, be with great care studied,
examined, and dwelt upon.
/Chap. CXXXIII./--_Of the Attitudes of Men._
/The/ attitudes and all the members are to be disposed in such
a manner, that by them the intentions of the mind may be easily
discovered.
/Chap. CXXXIV./--_Variety of Positions._
/The/ positions of the human figure are to be adapted to the age and
rank; and to be varied according to the difference of the sexes, men or
women.
/Chap. CXXXV./--_Of Studies from Nature for History._
/It/ is necessary to consider well the situation for which the history
is to be painted, particularly the height; and let the painter place
accordingly the model, from which he means to make his studies for that
historical picture; and set himself as much below the object, as the
picture is to be above the eye of the spectator, otherwise the work
will be faulty.
/Chap. CXXXVI./--_Of the Variety of Figures in History Painting._
/History/ painting must exhibit variety in its fullest extent. In
temper, size, complexion, actions, plumpness, leanness, thick, thin,
large, small, rough, smooth, old age and youth, strong and muscular,
weak, with little appearance of muscles, cheerfulness and melancholy.
Some should be with curled hair, and some with straight; some short,
some long, some quick in their motions, and some slow, with a variety
of dresses and colours, according as the subject may require.
/Chap. CXXXVII./--_Of Variety in History._
/A painter/ should delight in introducing great variety into his
compositions, avoiding repetition, that by this fertility of invention
he may attract and charm the eye of the beholder. If it be requisite
according to the subject meant to be represented, that there should be
a mixture of men differing in their faces, ages, and dress, grouped
with women, children, dogs, and horses, buildings, hills and flat
country; observe dignity and decorum in the principal figure; such
as a king, magistrate, or philosopher, separating them from the low
classes of the people. Mix not afflicted or weeping figures with joyful
and laughing ones; for Nature dictates that the cheerful be attended
by others of the same disposition of mind. Laughter is productive of
laughter, and _vice versâ_.
/Chap. CXXXVIII./--_Of the Age of Figures._
/Do/ not bring together a number of boys with as many old men, nor
young men with infants, nor women with men; if the subject you mean to
represent does not oblige you to it.
/Chap. CXXXIX./--_Of Variety of Faces._
/The/ Italian painters have been accused of a common fault, that is,
of introducing into their compositions the faces, and even the whole
figures, of Roman emperors, which they take from the antique. To
avoid such an error, let no repetition take place, either in parts,
or the whole of a figure; nor let there be even the same face in
another composition: and the more the figures are contrasted, viz. the
deformed opposed to the beautiful, the old to the young, the strong
to the feeble, the more the picture will please and be admired. These
different characters, contrasted with each other, will increase the
beauty of the whole.
It frequently happens that a painter, while he is composing, will use
any little sketch or scrap of drawing he has by him, and endeavour to
make it serve his purpose; but this is extremely injudicious, because
he may very often find that the members he has drawn have not the
motion suited to what he means to express; and after he has adopted,
accurately drawn, and even well finished them, he will be loth to rub
out and change them for others.
/Chap. CXL./--_A Fault in Painters._
/It/ is a very great fault in a painter to repeat the same motions in
figures, and the same folds in draperies in the same composition, as
also to make all the faces alike.
/Chap. CXLI./--_How you may learn to compose Groups for History
Painting._
/When/ you are well instructed in perspective, and know perfectly how
to draw the anatomy and forms of different bodies or objects, it should
be your delight to observe and consider in your walks the different
actions of men, when they are talking, or quarrelling; when they laugh,
and when they fight. Attend to their positions, and to those of the
spectators; whether they are attempting to separate those who fight,
or merely lookers-on. Be quick in sketching these with slight strokes
in your pocket-book, which should always be about you, and made of
stained paper, as you ought not to rub out. When it is full, take
another, for these are not things to be rubbed out, but kept with the
greatest care; because forms and motions of bodies are so infinitely
various, that the memory is not able to retain them; therefore preserve
these sketches as your assistants and masters.
/Chap. CXLII./--_How to study the Motions of the human Body._
/The/ first requisite towards a perfect acquaintance with the various
motions of the human body, is the knowledge of all the parts,
particularly the joints, in all the attitudes in which it may be
placed. Then make slight sketches in your pocket-book, as opportunities
occur, of the actions of men, as they happen to meet your eye, without
being perceived by them; because, if they were to observe you, they
would be disturbed from that freedom of action, which is prompted by
inward feeling; as when two men are quarrelling and angry, each of
them seeming to be in the right, and with great vehemence move their
eyebrows, arms, and all the other members, using motions appropriated
to their words and feelings. This they could not do, if you wanted them
to imitate anger, or any other accidental emotion; such as laughter,
weeping, pain, admiration, fear, and the like. For that reason, take
care never to be without a little book, for the purpose of sketching
those various motions, and also groups of people standing by. This
will teach you how to compose history. Two things demand the principal
attention of a good painter. One is the exact outline and shape of the
figure; the other, the true expression of what passes in the mind of
that figure, which he must feel, and that is very important.
/Chap. CXLIII./--_Of Dresses, and of Draperies and Folds._
/The/ draperies with which you dress figures ought to have their
folds so accommodated as to surround the parts they are intended to
cover; that in the mass of light there be not any dark fold, and in
the mass of shadows none receiving too great a light. They must go
gently over, describing the parts; but not with lines across, cutting
the members with hard notches, deeper than the part can possibly
be; at the same time, it must fit the body, and not appear like an
empty bundle of cloth; a fault of many painters, who, enamoured of
the quantity and variety of folds, have encumbered their figures,
forgetting the intention of clothes, which is to dress and surround the
parts gracefully wherever they touch; and not to be filled with wind,
like bladders, puffed up where the parts project. I do not deny that
we ought not to neglect introducing some handsome folds among these
draperies, but it must be done with great judgment, and suited to the
parts, where, by the actions of the limbs and position of the whole
body, they gather together. Above all, be careful to vary the quality
and quantity of your folds in compositions of many figures; so that,
if some have large folds, produced by thick woollen cloth; others,
being dressed in thinner stuff, may have them narrower; some sharp and
straight, others soft and undulating.
/Chap. CXLIV./--_Of the Nature of Folds in Draperies._
/Many/ painters prefer making the folds of their draperies with acute
angles, deep and precise; others with angles hardly perceptible; and
some with none at all; but instead of them, certain curved lines.
/Chap. CXLV./--_How the Folds of Draperies ought to be represented_,
Plate XVIII.
/That/ part of the drapery, which is the farthest from the place where
it is gathered, will appear more approaching its natural state. Every
thing naturally inclines to preserve its primitive form. Therefore a
stuff or cloth, which is of equal thickness on both sides, will always
incline to remain flat. For that reason, when it is constrained by some
fold to relinquish its flat situation, it is observed that, at the part
of its greatest restraint, it is continually making efforts to return
to its natural shape; and the parts most distant from it reassume more
of their primitive state by ample and distended folds. For example, let
A B C be the drapery mentioned above; A B the place where it is folded
or restrained. I have said that the part, which is farthest from the
place of its restraint, would return more towards its primitive shape.
Therefore C being the farthest, will be broader and more extended than
any other part.
[Illustration:
_Page 68_.
_Chap. 145_.
_Plate 18_.
_London, Published by J. Taylor High Holborn._]
[Illustration:
_Page 69_.
_Chap. 147_.
_Plate 19_.
_London, Published by J. Taylor High Holborn._]
/Chap. CXLVI./--_How the Folds in Draperies ought to be made._
/Draperies/ are not to be encumbered with many folds: on the contrary,
there ought to be some only where they are held up with the hands or
arms of the figures, and the rest left to fall with natural simplicity.
They ought to be studied from Nature; that is to say, if a woollen
cloth be intended, the folds ought to be drawn after such cloth; if it
be of silk, or thin stuff, or else very thick for labourers, let it
be distinguished by the nature of the folds. But never copy them, as
some do, after models dressed in paper, or thin leather, for it greatly
misleads.
/Chap. CXLVII./--_Fore-shortening of Folds_, Plate XIX.
/Where/ the figure is fore-shortened, there ought to appear a greater
number of folds, than on the other parts, all surrounding it in a
circular manner. Let E be the situation of the eye. M N will have the
middle of every circular fold successively removed farther from its
outline, in proportion as it is more distant from the eye. In M O of
the other figure the outlines of these circular folds will appear
almost straight, because it is situated opposite the eye; but in P and
Q quite the contrary, as in N and M.
/Chap. CXLVIII./--_Of Folds._
/The/ folds of draperies, whatever be the motion of the figure, ought
always to shew, by the form of their outlines, the attitude of such
figure; so as to leave, in the mind of the beholder, no doubt or
confusion in regard to the true position of the body; and let there be
no fold, which, by its shadow, breaks through any of the members; that
is to say, appearing to go in deeper than the surface of the part it
covers. And if you represent the figure clothed with several garments,
one over the other, let it not appear as if the upper one covered only
a mere skeleton; but let it express that it is also well furnished with
flesh, and a thickness of folds, suitable to the number of its under
garments.
The folds surrounding the members ought to diminish in thickness near
the extremities of the part they surround.
The length of the folds, which are close to the members, ought to
produce other folds on that side where the member is diminished by
fore-shortening, and be more extended on the opposite side.
/Chap. CXLIX./--_Of Decorum._
/Observe/ decorum in every thing you represent, that is, fitness of
action, dress, and situation, according to the dignity or meanness of
the subject to be represented. Be careful that a king, for instance,
be grave and majestic in his countenance and dress; that the place be
well decorated; and that his attendants, or the by-standers, express
reverence and admiration, and appear as noble, in dresses suitable to a
royal court.
On the contrary, in the representation of a mean subject, let the
figures appear low and despicable; those about them with similar
countenances, and actions, denoting base and presumptuous minds, and
meanly clad. In short, in both cases, the parts must correspond with
the general sentiment of the composition.
The motions of old age should not be similar to those of youth; those
of a woman to those of a man; nor should the latter be the same as
those of a boy.
/Chap. CL./--_The Character of Figures in Composition._
/In/ general, the painter ought to introduce very few old men, in the
ordinary course of historical subjects, and those few separated from
young people; because old people are few, and their habits do not agree
with those of youth. Where there is no conformity of custom, there can
be no intimacy, and, without it, a company is soon separated. But if
the subject require an appearance of gravity, a meeting on important
business, as a council, for instance, let there be few young men
introduced, for youth willingly avoids such meetings.
/Chap. CLI./--_The Motion of the Muscles, when the Figures are in
natural Positions._
/A figure/, which does not express by its position the sentiments and
passions, by which we suppose it animated, will appear to indicate
that its muscles are not obedient to its will, and the painter very
deficient in judgment. For that reason, a figure is to shew great
eagerness and meaning; and its position is to be so well appropriated
to that meaning, that it cannot be mistaken, nor made use of for any
other.
/Chap. CLII./--_A Precept in Painting._
/The/ painter ought to notice those quick motions, which men are apt to
make without thinking, when impelled by strong and powerful affections
of the mind. He ought to take memorandums of them, and sketch them in
his pocket-book, in order to make use of them when they may answer his
purpose; and then to put a living model in the same position, to see
the quality and aspect of the muscles which are in action.
/Chap. CLIII./--_Of the Motion of Man_, Plates XX. and XXI.
/The/ first and principal part of the art is composition of any sort,
or putting things together. The second relates to the expression and
motion of the figures, and requires that they be well appropriated,
and seeming attentive to what they are about; appearing to move with
alacrity and spirit, according to the degree of expression suitable
to the occasion; expressing slow and tardy motions, as well as those
of eagerness in pursuit: and that quickness and ferocity be expressed
with such force as to give an idea of the sensations of the actors.
When a figure is to throw a dart, stones, or the like, let it be
seen evidently by the attitude and disposition of all the members,
that such is its intention; of which there are two examples in the
opposite plates, varied both in action and power. The first in point
of vigour is A. The second is B. But A will throw his weapon farther
than B, because, though they seem desirous of throwing it to the same
point, A having turned his feet towards the object, while his body is
twisted and bent back the contrary way, to increase his power, returns
with more velocity and force to the point to which he means to throw.
But the figure B having turned his feet the same way as his body,
it returns to its place with great inconvenience, and consequently
with weakened powers. For in the expression of great efforts, the
preparatory motions of the body must be strong and violent, twisting
and bending, so that it may return with convenient ease, and by that
means have a great effect. In the same manner, if a cross-bow be not
strung with force, the motion of whatever it shoots will be short and
without effect; because, where there is no impulse, there can be no
motion; and if the impulse be not violent, the motion is but tardy
and feeble. So a bow, which is not strong, has no motion; and, if it
be strung, it will remain in that state till the impulse be given
by another power which puts it in motion, and it will shoot with a
violence equal to that which was employed in bending it. In the same
manner, the man who does not twist and bend his body will have acquired
no power. Therefore, after A has thrown his dart, he will find himself
twisted the contrary way, viz. on the side where he has thrown; and
he will have acquired only power sufficient to serve him to return to
where he was at first.
[Illustration:
_Page 72_.
_Chap. 153_.
_Plate 20_.
_London, Published by J. Taylor High Holborn._]
[Illustration:
_Page 72_.
_Chap. 153_.
_Plate 21_.
_London, Published by J. Taylor High Holborn._]
/Chap. CLIV./--_Of Attitudes, and the Motions of the Members._
/The/ same attitude is not to be repeated in the same picture, nor the
same motion of members in the same figure, nay, not even in the hands
or fingers. And if the history requires a great number of figures, such
as a battle, or a massacre of soldiers, in which there are but three
ways of striking, viz. thrusting, cutting, or back-handed; in that
case you must take care, that all those who are cutting be expressed
in different views; some turning their backs, some their sides, and
others be seen in front; varying in the same manner the three different
ways of fighting, so that all the actions may have a relation to those
three principles. In battles, complex motions display great art, giving
spirit and animation to the whole. By complex motion is meant, for
instance, that of a single figure shewing the front of the legs, and at
the same time the profile of the shoulder. But of this I shall treat in
another place[31].
/Chap. CLV./--_Of a single Figure separate from an historical Group._
/The/ same motion of members should not be repeated in a figure which
you mean to be alone; for instance, if the figure be represented
running, it must not throw both hands forward; but one forward and the
other backward, or else it cannot run. If the right foot come forward,
the right arm must go backward and the left forward, because, without
such disposition and contraste of parts, it is impossible to run well.
If another figure be supposed to follow this, one of its legs should
be brought somewhat forward, and the other be perpendicular under the
head; the arm on the same side should pass forward. But of this we
shall treat more fully in the book on motion[32].
/Chap. CLVI./--_On the Attitudes of the human Figure._
/A painter/ is to be attentive to the motions and actions of men,
occasioned by some sudden accident. He must observe them on the spot,
take sketches, and not wait till he wants such expression, and then
have it counterfeited for him; for instance, setting a model to weep
when there is no cause; such an expression without a cause will be
neither quick nor natural. But it will be of great use to have observed
every action from nature, as it occurs, and then to have a model set in
the same attitude to help the recollection, and find out something to
the purpose, according to the subject in hand.
/Chap. CLVII./--_How to represent a Storm._
/To/ form a just idea of a storm, you must consider it attentively in
its effects. When the wind blows violently over the sea or land, it
removes and carries off with it every thing that is not firmly fixed
to the general mass. The clouds must appear straggling and broken,
carried according to the direction and the force of the wind, and
blended with clouds of dust raised from the sandy shore. Branches and
leaves of trees must be represented as carried along by the violence
of the storm, and, together with numberless other light substances,
scattered in the air. Trees and grass must be bent to the ground, as if
yielding to the course of the wind. Boughs must be twisted out of their
natural form, with their leaves reversed and entangled. Of the figures
dispersed in the picture, some should appear thrown on the ground, so
wrapped up in their cloaks and covered with dust, as to be scarcely
distinguishable. Of those who remain on their feet, some should be
sheltered by and holding fast behind some great trees, to avoid the
same fate: others bending to the ground, their hands over their faces
to ward off the dust; their hair and their clothes flying straight up
at the mercy of the wind.
The high tremendous waves of the stormy sea will be covered with
foaming froth; the most subtle parts of which, being raised by the
wind, like a thick mist, mix with the air. What vessels are seen should
appear with broken cordage, and torn sails, fluttering in the wind;
some with broken masts fallen across the hulk, already on its side
amidst the tempestuous waves. Some of the crew should be represented as
if crying aloud for help, and clinging to the remains of the shattered
vessel. Let the clouds appear as driven by tempestuous winds against
the summits of lofty mountains, enveloping those mountains, and
breaking and recoiling with redoubled force, like waves against a rocky
shore. The air should be rendered awfully dark, by the mist, dust, and
thick clouds.
/Chap. CLVIII./--_How to compose a Battle._