may be represented, chiefly, two different ways; that is, he may be
preparing to do it, or the act may be already performed. If you mean to
place him in the act of preparation, the inside of the foot upon which
he rests will be under the perpendicular line of the pit of the neck;
and if it be the right foot, the left shoulder will be perpendicular
over the toes of the same foot.
/Chap. XCI./--_On the Motion of driving any Thing into or drawing it
out of the Ground._
/He/ who wishes to pitch a pole into the ground, or draw one out of it,
will raise the leg and bend the knee opposite to the arm which acts,
in order to balance himself upon the foot that rests, without which he
could neither drive in, nor pull out any thing.
/Chap. XCII./--_Of forcible Motions_, Plate XVI.
/Of/ the two arms, that will be most powerful in its effort, which,
having been farthest removed from its natural situation, is assisted
more strongly by the other parts to bring it to the place where it
means to go. As the man A, who moves the arm with a club E, and brings
it to the opposite side B, assisted by the motion of the whole body.
[Illustration:
_Page 38_.
_Chap. 90_.
_Plate 15_.
_London, Published by J. Taylor High Holborn._]
[Illustration:
_Page 39_.
_Chap. 92_.
_Plate 16_.
_London, Published by J. Taylor High Holborn._]
/Chap. XCIII./--_The Action of Jumping._
/Nature/ will of itself, and without any reasoning in the mind of a man
going to jump, prompt him to raise his arms and shoulders by a sudden
motion, together with a great part of his body, and to lift them up
high, till the power of the effort subsides. This impetuous motion
is accompanied by an instantaneous extension of the body which had
bent itself, like a spring or bow, along the back, the joints of the
thighs, knees, and feet, and is let off obliquely, that is, upwards
and forwards; so that the disposition of the body tending forwards
and upwards, makes it describe a great arch when it springs up, which
increases the leap.
/Chap. XCIV./--_Of the three Motions in jumping upwards._
/When/ a man jumps upwards, the motion of the head is three times
quicker than that of the heel, before the extremity of the foot quits
the ground, and twice as quick as that of the hips; because three
angles are opened and extended at the same time: the superior one is
that formed by the body at its joint with the thigh before, the second
is at the joint of the thighs and legs behind, and the third is at the
instep before[22].
/Chap. XCV./--_Of the easy Motions of Members._
/In/ regard to the freedom and ease of motions, it is very necessary
to observe, that when you mean to represent a figure which has to turn
itself a little round, the feet and all the other members are not to
move in the same direction as the head. But you will divide that motion
among four joints, viz. the feet, the knees, the hips, and the neck.
If it rests upon the right leg, the left knee should be a little bent
inward, with its foot somewhat raised outward. The left shoulder should
be lower than the other, and the nape of the neck turned on the same
side as the outward ankle of the left foot, and the left shoulder
perpendicular over the great toe of the right foot. And take it as a
general maxim, that figures do not turn their heads straight with the
chest, Nature having for our convenience formed the neck so as to turn
with ease on every side, when the eyes want to look round; and to this
the other joints are in some measure subservient. If the figure be
sitting, and the arms have some employment across the body, the breast
will turn over the joint of the hip.
[Illustration:
_Page 41_.
_Chap. 96_.
_Plate 17_.
_London, Published by J. Taylor High Holborn._]
/Chap. XCVI./--_The greatest Twist which a Man can make, in turning to
look at himself behind._ Plate XVII.
/The/ greatest twist that the body can perform is when the back of
the heels and the front of the face are seen at the same time. It is
not done without difficulty, and is effected by bending the leg and
lowering the shoulder on that side towards which the head turns. The
cause of this motion, and also which of the muscles move first and
which last, I shall explain in my treatise on anatomy[23].
/Chap. XCVII./--_Of turning the Leg without the Thigh._
/It/ is impossible to turn the leg inwards or outwards without turning
the thigh by the same motion, because the setting in of the bones at
the knee is such, that they have no motion but backwards and forwards,
and no more than is necessary for walking or kneeling; never sideways,
because the form of the bones at the joint of the knee does not allow
it. If this joint had been made pliable on all sides, as that of the
shoulder, or that of the thigh bone with the hip, a man would have
had his legs bent on each side as often as backwards and forwards,
and seldom or never straight with the thigh. Besides, this joint can
bend only one way, so that in walking it can never go beyond the
straight line of the leg; it bends only forwards, for if it could bend
backwards, a man could never get up again upon his feet, if once he
were kneeling; as when he means to get up from the kneeling posture (on
both knees), he gives the whole weight of his body to one of the knees
to support, unloading the other, which at that time feels no other
weight than its own, and therefore is lifted up with ease, and rests
his foot flat upon the ground; then returning the whole weight upon
that foot, and leaning his hand upon his knee, he at once extends the
other arm, raises his head, and straightening the thigh with the body,
he springs up, and rests upon the same foot, while he brings up the
other.
/Chap. XCVIII./--_Postures of Figures._
/Figures/ that are set in a fixed attitude, are nevertheless to have
some contrast of parts. If one arm come before, the other remains
still or goes behind. If the figure rest upon one leg, the shoulder on
that side will be lower than the other. This is observed by artists
of judgment, who always take care to balance the figure well upon its
feet, for fear it should appear to fall. Because by resting upon one
foot, the other leg, being a little bent, does not support the body any
more than if it were dead; therefore it is necessary that the parts
above that leg should transfer the centre of their weight upon the leg
which supports the body.
/Chap. XCIX./--_Of the Gracefulness of the Members._
/The/ members are to be suited to the body in graceful motions,
expressive of the meaning which the figure is intended to convey.
If it had to give the idea of genteel and agreeable carriage, the
members must be slender and well turned, but not lean; the muscles very
slightly marked, indicating in a soft manner such as must necessarily
appear; the arms, particularly, pliant, and no member in a straight
line with any other adjoining member. If it happen, on account of the
motion of the figure, that the right hip be higher than the left, make
the joint of the shoulder fall perpendicularly on the highest part of
that hip; and let that right shoulder be lower than the left. The pit
of the neck will always be perpendicular over the middle of the instep
of the foot that supports the body. The leg that does not bear will
have its knee a little lower than the other, and near the other leg.
In regard to the positions of the head and arms, they are infinite, and
for that reason I shall not enter into any detailed rule concerning
them; suffice it to say, that they are to be easy and free, graceful,
and varied in their bendings, so that they may not appear stiff like
pieces of wood.
/Chap. C./--_That it is impossible for any Memory to retain the Aspects
and Changes of the Members._
/It/ is impossible that any memory can be able to retain all the
aspects or motions of any member of any animal whatever. This case
we shall exemplify by the appearance of the hand. And because any
continued quantity is divisible _ad infinitum_, the motion of the eye
which looks at the hand, and moves from A to B, moves by a space A B,
which is also a continued quantity, and consequently divisible _ad
infinitum_, and in every part of the motion varies to its view the
aspect and figure of the hand; and so it will do if it move round the
whole circle. The same will the hand do which is raised in its motion,
that is, it will pass over a space, which is a continued quantity[24].
[Illustration]
/Chap. CI./--_The Motions of Figures._
/Never/ put the head straight upon the shoulders, but a little turned
sideways to the right or left, even though the figures should be
looking up or down, or straight, because it is necessary to give them
some motion of life and spirit. Nor ever compose a figure in such
a manner, either in a front or back view, as that every part falls
straight upon another from the top to the bottom. But if you wish to
introduce such a figure, use it for old age. Never repeat the same
motion of arms, or of legs, not only not in the same figure, but in
those which are standing by, or near; if the necessity of the case,
or the expression of the subject you represent, do not oblige you to
it[25].
/Chap. CII./--_Of common Motions._
/The/ variety of motions in man are equal to the variety of accidents
or thoughts affecting the mind, and each of these thoughts, or
accidents, will operate more or less, according to the temper and age
of the subject; for the same cause will in the actions of youth, or of
old age, produce very different effects.
/Chap. CIII./--_Of simple Motions._
/Simple/ motion is that which a man performs in merely bending
backwards or forwards.
/Chap. CIV./--_Complex Motion._
/Complex/ motion is that which, to produce some particular action,
requires the body to bend downwards and sideways at the same time. The
painter must be careful in his compositions to apply these complex
motions according to the nature of the subject, and not to weaken or
destroy the effect of it by introducing figures with simple motions,
without any connexion with the subject.
/Chap. CV./--_Motions appropriated to the Subject._
/The/ motions of your figures are to be expressive of the quantity of
strength requisite to the force of the action. Let not the same effort
be used to take up a stick as would easily raise a piece of timber.
Therefore shew great variety in the expression of strength, according
to the quality of the load to be managed.
/Chap. CVI./--_Appropriate Motions._
/There/ are some emotions of the mind which are not expressed by any
particular motion of the body, while in others, the expression cannot
be shewn without it. In the first, the arms fall down, the hands and
all the other parts, which in general are the most active, remain at
rest. But such emotions of the soul as produce bodily action, must put
the members into such motions as are appropriated to the intention of
the mind. This, however, is an ample subject, and we have a great deal
to say upon it. There is a third kind of motion, which participates
of the two already described; and a fourth, which depends neither on
the one nor the other. This last belongs to insensibility, or fury,
and should be ranked with madness or stupidity; and so adapted only to
grotesque or Moresco work.
/Chap. CVII./--_Of the Postures of Women and young People._
/It/ is not becoming in women and young people to have their legs
too much asunder, because it denotes boldness; while the legs close
together shew modesty.
/Chap. CVIII./--_Of the Postures of Children._
/Children/ and old people are not to express quick motions, in what
concerns their legs.
/Chap. CIX./--_Of the Motion of the Members._
/Let/ every member be employed in performing its proper functions. For
instance, in a dead body, or one asleep, no member should appear alive
or awake. A foot bearing the weight of the whole body, should not be
playing its toes up and down, but flat upon the ground; except when it
rests entirely upon the heel.
/Chap. CX./--_Of mental Motions._
/A mere/ thought, or operation of the mind, excites only simple and
easy motions of the body; not this way, and that way, because its
object is in the mind, which does not affect the senses when it is
collected within itself.
/Chap. CXI./--_Effect of the Mind upon the Motions of the Body,
occasioned by some outward Object._
/When/ the motion is produced by the presence of some object, either
the cause is immediate or not. If it be immediate, the figure will
first turn towards it the organs most necessary, the eyes; leaving its
feet in the same place; and will only move the thighs, hips, and knees
a little towards the same side, to which the eyes are directed.
LINEAR PERSPECTIVE.
/Chap. CXII./--_Of those who apply themselves to the Practice, without
having learnt the Theory of the Art._
/Those/ who become enamoured of the practice of the art, without having
previously applied to the diligent study of the scientific part of it,
may be compared to mariners, who put to sea in a ship without rudder or
compass, and therefore cannot be certain of arriving at the wished-for
port.
Practice must always be founded on good theory; to this, Perspective is
the guide and entrance, without which nothing can be well done.
/Chap. CXIII./--_Precepts in Painting._
/Perspective/ is to Painting what the bridle is to a horse, and the
rudder to a ship.
The size of a figure should denote the distance at which it is situated.
If a figure be seen of the natural size, remember that it denotes its
being near to the eye.
/Chap. CXIV./--_Of the Boundaries of Objects called Outlines or
Contours._
/The/ outlines or contours of bodies are so little perceivable, that
at any small distance between that and the object, the eye will not be
able to recognise the features of a friend or relation, if it were not
for their clothes and general appearance. So that by the knowledge of
the whole it comes to know the parts.
/Chap. CXV./--_Of linear Perspective._
/Linear/ Perspective consists in giving, by established rules, the true
dimensions of objects, according to their respective distances; so that
the second object be less than the first, the third than the second,
and by degrees at last they become invisible. I find by experience,
that, if the second object be at the same distance from the first, as
the first is from the eye, though they be of the same size, the second
will appear half the size of the first; and, if the third be at the
same distance behind the second, it will diminish two thirds; and so
on, by degrees, they will, at equal distances, diminish in proportion;
provided that the interval be not more than twenty cubits[26]; at
which distance it will lose two fourths of its size: at forty it will
diminish three fourths; and at sixty it will lose five sixths, and so
on progressively. But you must be distant from your picture twice the
size of it; for, if you be only once the size, it will make a great
difference in the measure from the first to the second.
/Chap. CXVI./--_What Parts of Objects disappear first by Distance._
/Those/ parts which are of less magnitude will first vanish from the
sight[27]. This happens, because the shape of small objects, at an
equal distance, comes to the eye under a more acute angle than the
large ones, and the perception of them is less, in proportion as they
are less in magnitude. It follows then, that if the large objects, by
being removed to a great distance, and consequently coming to the eye
by a small angle, are almost lost to the sight, the small objects will
entirely disappear.
/Chap. CXVII./--_Of remote Objects._
/The/ outlines of objects will be less seen, in proportion as they are
more distant from the eye.
/Chap. CXVIII./--_Of the Point of Sight._
/The/ point of sight must be on a level with the eyes of a common-sized
man, and placed upon the horizon, which is the line formed by a flat
country terminating with the sky. An exception must be made as to
mountains, which are above that line.
/Chap. CXIX./--_A Picture is to be viewed from one Point only._
/This/ will be proved by one single example. If you mean to represent
a round ball very high up, on a flat and perpendicular wall, it will
be necessary to make it oblong, like the shape of an egg, and to place
yourself (that is, the eye, or point of view) so far back, as that its
outline or circumference may appear round.
/Chap. CXX./--_Of the Dimensions of the first Figure in an historical
Painting._
/The/ first figure in your picture will be less than Nature, in
proportion as it recedes from the front of the picture, or the bottom
line; and by the same rule the others behind it will go on lessening in
an equal degree[28].
/Chap. CXXI./--_Of Objects that are lost to the Sight in Proportion to
their Distance._
/The/ first things that disappear, by being removed to some distance,
are the outlines or boundaries of objects. The second, as they remove
farther, are the shadows which divide contiguous bodies. The third
are the thickness of legs and feet; and so in succession the small
parts are lost to the sight, till nothing remains but a confused mass,
without any distinct parts.
/Chap. CXXII./--_Errors not so easily seen in small Objects as in large
ones._
/Supposing/ this small object to represent a man, or any other animal,
although the parts, by being so much diminished or reduced, cannot be
executed with the same exactness of proportion, nor finished with the
same accuracy, as if on a larger scale, yet on that very account the
faults will be less conspicuous. For example, if you look at a man at
the distance of two hundred yards, and with all due attention mean to
form a judgment, whether he be handsome or ugly, deformed or well made,
you will find that, with all your endeavours, you can hardly venture
to decide. The reason is, that the man diminishes so much by the
distance, that it is impossible to distinguish the parts minutely. If
you wish to know by demonstration the diminution of the above figure,
hold your finger up before your eye at about nine inches distance, so
that the top of your finger corresponds with the top of the head of
the distant figure: you will perceive that your finger covers, not
only its head, but part of its body; which is an evident proof of the
apparent diminution of that object. Hence it often happens, that we are
doubtful, and can scarcely, at some distance, distinguish the form of
even a friend.
/Chap. CXXIII./--_Historical Subjects one above another on the same
Wall to be avoided._
/This/ custom, which has been generally adopted by painters, on the
front and sides of chapels, is much to be condemned. They begin with an
historical picture, its landscape and buildings, in one compartment.
After which, they raise another compartment, and execute another
history with other buildings upon another level; and from thence they
proceed to a third and fourth, varying the point of sight, as if the
beholder was going up steps, while, in fact, he must look at them all
from below, which is very ill judged in those matters.
We know that the point of sight is the eye of the spectator; and if
you ask, how is a series of subjects, such as the life of a saint, to
be represented, in different compartments on the same wall? I answer,
that you are to place the principal event in the largest compartment,
and make the point of sight as high as the eye of the spectator. Begin
that subject with large figures; and as you go up, lessen the objects,
as well the figures, as buildings, varying the plans according to the
effect of perspective; but never varying the point of sight: and so
complete the series of subjects, till you come to a certain height,
where terrestrial objects can be seen no more, except the tops of
trees, or clouds and birds; or if you introduce figures, they must be
aerial, such as angels, or saints in glory, or the like, if they suit
the purpose of your history. If not, do not undertake this kind of
painting, for your work will be faulty, and justly reprehensible[29].
/Chap. CXXIV./--_Why Objects in Painting can never detach, as natural
Objects do._
/Painters/ often despair of being able to imitate Nature, from
observing, that their pictures have not the same relief, nor the same
life, as natural objects have in a looking-glass, though they both
appear upon a plain surface. They say, they have colours which surpass
in brightness the quality of the lights, and in darkness the quality of
the shades of the objects seen in the looking-glass; but attribute this
circumstance to their own ignorance, and not to the true cause, because
they do not know it. It is impossible that objects in painting should
appear with the same relief as those in the looking-glass, unless we
look at them with only one eye.
The reason is this. The two eyes A B looking at objects one behind
another, as M and N, see them both; because M cannot entirely occupy
the space of N, by reason that the base of the visual rays is so broad,
that the second object is seen behind the first. But if one eye be
shut, and you look with the other S, the body F will entirely cover
the body R, because the visual rays beginning at one point, form a
triangle, of which the body F is the base, and being prolonged, they
form two diverging tangents at the two extremities of F, which cannot
touch the body R behind it, therefore can never see it[30].
[Illustration]
/Chap. CXXV./--_How to give the proper Dimension to Objects in
Painting._
[Illustration]
/In/ order to give the appearance of the natural size, if the piece
be small (as miniatures), the figures on the fore-ground are to be
finished with as much precision as those of any large painting, because
being small they are to be brought up close to the eye. But large
paintings are seen at some distance; whence it happens, that though
the figures in each are so different in size, in appearance they will
be the same. This proceeds from the eye receiving those objects under
the same angle; and it is proved thus. Let the large painting be B C,
the eye A, and D E a pane of glass, through which are seen the figures
situated at B C. I say that the eye being fixed, the figures in the
copy of the paintings B C are to be smaller, in proportion as the glass
D E is nearer the eye A, and are to be as precise and finished. But if
you will execute the picture B C upon the glass D E, this ought to be
less finished than the picture B C, and more so than the figure M N
transferred upon the glass F G; because, supposing the figure P O to
be as much finished as the natural one in B C, the perspective of O P
would be false, since, though in regard to the diminution of the figure
it would be right, B C being diminished in P O, the finishing would not
agree with the distance, because in giving it the perfection of the
natural B C, B C would appear as near as O P; but, if you search for
the diminution of O P, O P will be found at the distance B C, and the
diminution of the finishing as at F G.
/Chap. CXXVI./--_How to draw accurately any particular Spot._
/Take/ a glass as large as your paper, fasten it well between your eye
and the object you mean to draw, and fixing your head in a frame (in
such a manner as not to be able to move it) at the distance of two
feet from the glass; shut one eye, and draw with a pencil accurately
upon the glass all that you see through it. After that, trace upon
paper what you have drawn on the glass, which tracing you may paint at
pleasure, observing the aerial perspective.
/Chap. CXXVII./--_Disproportion to be avoided, even in the accessory
Parts._
/A great/ fault is committed by many painters, which is highly to be
blamed, that is, to represent the habitations of men, and other parts
of their compositions, so low, that the doors do not reach as high as
the knees of their inhabitants, though, according to their situation,
they are nearer to the eye of the spectator, than the men who seem
willing to enter them. I have seen some pictures with porticos,
supported by columns loaded with figures; one grasping a column against
which it leans, as if it were a walking-stick, and other similar
errors, which are to be avoided with the greatest care.
INVENTION, /or/ COMPOSITION.
/Chap. CXXVIII./--_Precept for avoiding a bad Choice in the Style or
Proportion of Figures._