THE HIMALAYA
BY T. G. LONGSTAFF
Although the natural and physical conditions in those ranges loosely
called the Himalaya are probably more diverse than in any other
mountain region in the world, still a certain amount of generalization
is possible.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
[Sidenote: Configuration.]
Essentially, we find two more or less parallel ranges. The southern
and highest is visible from the plains. On this stand the great peaks
whose names are familiar to us. This outer range is pierced by numerous
rivers which burst through a series of deep, narrow gorges. The low
elevation of these river valleys brings an almost tropical fauna and
flora up to the foot of the Snows. The snowline on this range, owing
to greater precipitation, reaches down lower than on the second range,
that to the north. This second, or northern, range constitutes the
local water-parting between India and the countries to the north. It is
reached by broad, open, treeless valleys almost Tibetan in character as
in fauna. Its snowline is high owing to the drier climate. The peaks
seldom attain 25,000 feet, and, in general, are not so precipitous as
the great line of peaks to the south.
Even in Kashmir this arrangement of two parallel ranges may be traced;
but though there is plenty of fine climbing on the ranges which enclose
between them the Vale of Kashmir, most of which have already fallen
to the attacks of residents and British officers, yet the eyes of
the mountaineer from England will be fixed on the vast range of the
Karakoram beyond the Indus.
[Illustration: THE HIMALAYA
[C. F. MEADE
] This grand chain has a character of its own, though there are
points of resemblance to both ranges of the Himalaya. The glaciers are
the largest outside the Polar regions. The peaks are very high and
very precipitous. It is the country _par excellence_ for the mountain
explorer; but for the mountain climber the greatest drawback is the
journey of four to six weeks from England to the scene of operations.
[Sidenote: Climbing Conditions.]
Rock climbing is the same all the world over in that the conditions
vary on every mountain in any range. Also, a rock peak cannot be
really reconnoitred from a distance; we must come to grips with the
rocks before we can know the practicability of a route. As to snow
and ice, I think conditions are worse in the Himalaya than in the
Alps or Caucasus, chiefly owing to greater variations of temperature.
Avalanches of all kinds are bigger, and great caution must be exercised
in the choice of camps and bivouacs. Snow and ice slopes in the Alps
appear to me to look steeper than they eventually turn out to be. In
the Caucasus they are about as steep as they look. In the Himalaya I
have usually found them markedly steeper than their distant appearance
led me to expect.
[Sidenote: Management.]
Diverse as are the physical conditions of the Himalayan regions,
the inhabitants thereof show an even greater variety of character.
Some general rules of conduct may, however, be indicated, though
most of them may be considered by mountaineers as truisms not worth
the stating. The first object to keep in view is to create such an
impression amongst the natives as will make the path of subsequent
visitors easier and not harder. Almost all hill men are superstitious.
You must expect timidity at first. Remember particularly that native
servants are very prone to abuse the authority which in the eyes of the
villagers is acquired by the mere fact of their being in your service.
The hill man is usually inarticulate; he knows you cannot speak his
dialect, and probably your servants are the only interpreters. Your
watchfulness is his only chance of a square deal. Pay for _everything_
with your own hand, if it be only an anna for a few eggs. Of course
always pay your day-to-day coolies yourself, and, if they desire it,
give each his four or eight annas separately, only paying over a whole
rupee to a group from the same hamlet.
Religious beliefs are very mixed in the hills, and it is a good rule
to keep well away when your coolies, whatever their race, are cooking
or eating. Of course you must never offer them cooked food. Away from
the villages, and if only two or three men are with you, such things
as biscuits and jam--being assumed not to be made by hand--may be
offered if necessary. This applies more especially to Hindus; but
though Moslems should eat with Christians, the same rules had better
be applied. With Gurkhas (though nominal Hindus) or others with the
strain of Mongolian blood in them--who are or have till lately been
Buddhists--the code need not be quite so strict.
These remarks might seem unnecessary to anyone having experience only
of sport or travel in High Asia; but for the mountaineer who essays
to take coolies or shikaris to high bivouacs it is obviously of great
advantage to get them to adopt European foods and methods of cooking.
This was successfully done by the Italian expedition to the Karakoram
in 1909. Tea (native green is best) and the vilest cigarettes may be
offered to any coolie without fear of offence as a reward after an
extra hard day. The gift of a sheep or goat on suitable occasions
produces a glow of contentment all through the camp.
As to more general conduct: Refrain from whistling. Do not bathe naked
before natives. Never lose your temper except on purpose and with a
definite object. Never allow your servants to be familiar or to enter
your tent with their shoes on. Do not laugh or joke with your men
unless you are master of the language. If you do, you may be as broad
as possible, especially with Gurkhas. Exact proper respect from all
village officials with whom you come in contact. Conversely, treat a
native gentleman with the same courtesy that you expect yourself. Hindu
religious mendicants and devotees are easily irritated, and are best
left severely alone.
[Sidenote: The Campaign.]
It is absolutely essential that the climber planning a visit to
the Himalaya should make up his mind exactly what he wants to do.
Leaving aside exploration, the most dangerous lure on the path of
the mountaineer, we may for convenience confine ourselves to two
courses--the attack on some particular and probably very high peak; or
a less ambitious and more general campaign in some selected district in
which climbing for its own sake, apart from any design of raising ‘the
record,’ is the object aimed at.
Having settled the strategic idea, we must next consider tactics. In
the case of a single big mountain, the method of attack will be in the
nature of siege operations; and in this case a siege train, in the form
of Piedmontese guides, makes for success. Still, a siege is dull, and
to get the full pleasure out of a trip in the Himalaya, amateurs and
not guides are the best companions. The difficulty is to get them for
an absence of several months from England.
As a matter of tactics, the writer prefers, with or without guides,
to try and ‘rush’ peaks; for by this means far the most climbing is
secured. On the other hand, more frequent failure is risked by such
direct attacks. Unless the weather is favourable, a successful high
ascent is quite impossible; and if a climber is moving about and
continually attacking different peaks, he loses chances on particular
peaks which the besieger, waiting upon their favourable moments, can
take instant advantage of.
There is, further, the vexed question of the actual final assault.
Should it be a gradual pushing of bivouacs higher and higher, in the
hope of acclimatizing ourselves to the want of oxygen; or should we
make the last bivouac as low down as possible, in the hope that better
conditions for digestion and sleep will enable us to put forth one
tremendous effort on the final day of the adventure? Subjection to
low pressures, or want of oxygen, for days or weeks will find out our
weakest spots. With some the belly, with others the mind. For myself, I
know that after several nights at very high altitudes my mind is dull
and my courage reduced to vanishing-point. In all cases, so far as I
know, there is considerable loss of weight. To actual mountain sickness
we can acclimatize ourselves by going as frequently as possible above
20,000 feet. But we cannot stay for long at very high altitudes and
preserve all our strength. We must come down again soon to 15,000
feet, or lower if we can. It is easier to deny than to prove the
existence of mountain sickness; but although we do not bleed from the
ears, or even the nose, nowadays, most of us suffer some diminution of
our powers. This being so, it appears that the best chance of success
on a very high mountain is to send _some one else_ to examine the final
route and to lay the last bivouac for the storming party; just high
enough for them, supposing they are in good condition, to reach the
summit well on in the following afternoon. This may seem a soulless
way to wear a mountain down; but it is merely the application of Polar
methods to slightly changed conditions.
As in the Polar regions, also, the weather decides between success
and failure, between return and no return. Because of the cold, it is
unwise to start before sunrise.[28] The risk is less in descending easy
ground at night--perhaps because movement is then quicker.
A concrete example puts the case shortly. Trisul is only some 23,400
feet high, but it appears to be the highest peak of which the complete
ascent is universally admitted. After two nights, at about 20,000 feet,
in bad weather, the party retreated to 14,000 feet. Three days later,
after one bivouac at about 18,000 feet, the summit was reached at 4
p.m. (10 hours), and the night was spent on the return at about 16,500
feet.
[Sidenote: Season.]
Generally speaking, the regular rainy season (‘monsoon’) commences in
July and ends in September; but all the world over more rain falls, and
falls more frequently, on mountains than on the country immediately
surrounding them. Hence, though probably June is the best month for the
high peaks, we cannot even then count on continuous fine weather.
It is always easy to avoid the monsoon by pushing north into the second
range; but here again it must not be expected that the highest peaks
will completely conform to the rainless character of the rest of this
region.
When the rains are over, in September and October spells of gloriously
fine and clear weather are the rule; but the nights are then bitterly
cold above the tree-line.
THE CHIEF DISTRICTS
Though the Himalaya, in the widest sense of the term, extend beyond
the Brahmapootra on the east and beyond the Indus on the west, we may
impose these limits upon them for present purposes. Furthermore, only
sections of these ranges are at present politically accessible to the
mountaineer.
Practically the whole of the Himalayan region is covered by the Great
Trigonometrical Survey of India on a scale of one inch to four miles.
The sheets are obtainable in London.
It would be easy to criticize this map in detail. For reasons of
finance and policy, the surveyors were ordered to cover a very large
area each season and not to attempt detailed surveys of uninhabited
areas. It would be, therefore, manifestly unfair to set up claims which
were never made by the authors and then to demolish them.[29]
[Sidenote: The Eastern Himalaya.]
For Bhutan, it is best to consult Claude White’s _Sikkim and Bhutan_
(Arnold, 1909). It would be necessary to obtain special leave from
the Government of India to travel here; and the country is not very
promising from our point of view.
[Sidenote: Sikkim.]
For Sikkim, consult Mr. Freshfield’s Round _Kangchenjunga_, and several
papers by Dr. Kellas in the _Alpine_ and _Geographical Journals_.
Sikkim is a region of tropical contrasts, merging on the north into
Tibetan conditions. The vegetation is magnificent. The great peaks in
the south are difficult; in the north much easier, where the isolated
peak of Chumolhari (23,930 feet) has long challenged attention.
The starting-point is Darjeeling, reached by rail in a day and night
from Calcutta, or in three days from Bombay. A call should be made on
the Deputy Commissioner, especially if the climber intends to enter
native Sikkim. At present permission would not be given to enter Nepal
or Tibet, and probably not for Bhutan. Stores can be bought beforehand
at Darjeeling, and a Buddhist cook should be, if possible, secured.
The semi-Tibetan natives of Upper Sikkim, and similar immigrants from
north-eastern Nepal, are splendid material for glacier work. Dr.
Kellas with these people found himself quite able to dispense with
alpine guides. They are cheerful, smiling and easy for Europeans to get
on with, fond of a joke, and, if handled well, honest and reliable. For
the first part of the journey in the lower country temporary coolies
can well be used.
[Sidenote: Nepal.]
In Nepal, though in certain circumstances the frontier is not
inviolable, yet for a variety of reasons, not all political, an
Englishman is not likely to be able to penetrate to any of the great
peaks. At the same time, for the mountaineer as well as for the
explorer, few journeys are better worth making than that up the valley
of the Gandak, or the Kosi, into the heart of the grandest of all
mountain ranges.
[Sidenote: Kumaon and Garhwal.]
To my mind this is the finest part of the Himalaya at present
accessible. It is the most ‘alpine’ portion of the Himalaya, possessing
peaks over 25,000 feet. The scenery, flora and fauna are exceedingly
beautiful and varied. It contains much difficult ground, even below the
tree-line. Most of the highest peaks are very severe. Towards Tibet the
country opens out and the mountains are easier.[30]
The approach is by rail to Kathgodam. There follows a short drive
to Naini Tal, where all ordinary supplies may be obtained. Thence a
driving road to Ranikhet and a pony road to Almora, where fair supplies
are also obtainable.
A formal permit must be obtained from the Deputy Commissioner of
Almora, and two chuprassis will be told off to engage coolies from
village to village. For Garhwal it will probably be necessary to get a
separate permit and chuprassis from the Deputy Commissioner at Pawri.
When the base of operations is reached in Garhwal or Kumaon, it is
advisable to engage a few local men as permanent coolies. The ordinary
stages are worked by relays of coolies from village to village. In
these, native flour (_ata_), rice, fowls, goats and, higher up, sheep
can usually be obtained. A Mussulman cook can be obtained in Naini Tal.
An army reservist--Garhwali or Gurkha--would be found of assistance. He
should be provided with an extra broad pair of good nailed boots.
Gurla Mandhata (25,350 feet) is just over the frontier in Tibet.
Access to it is at present barred by our own Government. It can be
reached through Kumaon in a fortnight from Almora, and is probably
easily climbable from the Gurla Glacier.[31]
In Garhwal the Rishi Nali with Nanda Devi (25,660 feet) is the centre
of attraction.[32] Under present conditions it is not likely to be
climbed.
Dunagiri (23,184 feet), an outlier of this group, is pretty certainly
climbable by Graham’s route--the south-west ridge--from a bivouac at
the head of the Tolma valley. Farther north, Kamet (25,443 feet),
allied with bad weather, has so far defied repeated attacks.
Every variety of climbing is to be found on these mountains, and it is
a region that seems to exert an extraordinary fascination on every one
who has visited it.
In the matter of securing coolies for climbing purposes, it is well to
remember that the Kumaonis are a poor lot; the Danpurias and Garhwalis
are better; the partially Hinduized Bhotias of Badrinath Niti and
Milam are good; the still more Mongolian people of Gharbyang, and of
the north-west corner of Nepal, are splendid, and can be taken on into
Tibet.
[Sidenote: Tehri Garhwal.]
This small native hill state, west of British Garhwal, contains some
very fine peaks around Gangotri. It is reached from Lansdowne or
Mussoori. To facilitate travel, an introduction should be obtained
to the Rajah. The mountains present a most promising and practically
untouched field for the mountaineer. As coolies, the local men in the
north are probably pretty good.
[Sidenote: The Simla Hill States.]
Kangra, Kulu, Spiti, Lahaol and Bushahr embrace a very large mountain
area, and offer unlimited scope to the less ambitious mountaineer. It
is an ‘alpine’ region, but still on the Himalayan scale. The peaks
rarely attain 23,000 feet. But probably more actual climbing can be
obtained in one season here than in any other section of the Himalaya.
General Bruce’s book, _Kulu and Lahoul_, should be consulted.
The entry is from Dharmsala or Simla. The latter, probably, will be
easiest for new-comers to India, since there is a railway to Simla;
and at Simla supplies and servants can be obtained.
Hindus, Buddhists, and nominal Moslems are met with, and for coolies,
it would seem that the quality of the natives improves as we move north.
Chamba is a semi-independent hill state. The arrangements for
travelling must be made with the Rajah. It is a difficult country,
and not very promising. Manimais (or Mani Mahais), however, looks
magnificent.
[Sidenote: Kashmir and Karakoram.]
The mountaineering literature on the Karakoram is voluminous, and it
would be out of place to enter into details. A drawback to this region
is the time it takes to reach the mountains. The railway runs to Rawal
Pindi; thence by carriage or motor to Srinagar, two to ten days,
according to the state of the road. From there it is a matter of coolie
or pony transport, according to the time of year and the route chosen.
The time taken from Srinagar to Astor (for the Nanga Parbat group) will
be again about ten days; or from Srinagar to Skardu (for the western
Karakoram) about a fortnight. From Srinagar to Leh takes about three
weeks. The routes themselves vary considerably according to the time of
year.
It may be remarked that there is a very promising 25,000-foot group,
which can be easily reached from Panamik in the Upper Nubra Valley.[33]
Unfortunately, our party was prevented by bad weather from making
anything like a thorough reconnaissance. It would probably take two
months to reach the foot of the peak from England.
The Kashmiris (mainly Moslems) on the whole are a poor lot, and as
servants and followers they are apt to ill-treat and rob the up-country
villagers. But both Baltis (Moslems) and Ladakhis (Buddhists) are
splendid as coolies if they are handled properly.
[Sidenote: The Hindu Khush, etc.]
With regard to the Gilgit Agency, of which the native states of Hunza
and Nagar form part, it must be borne in mind that permission to travel
is difficult to obtain. The country is poor, and transport and supplies
are hardly sufficient for the use of the garrison and the frontier
officers, who have to be constantly on tour.
The seven distinct tribes inhabiting the Agency vary in quality from
the point of view of the mountaineer. Most of the shikaris are splendid
cragsmen, and some of the Hunza men are acquainted with axe and rope.
The Hindu Khush, extending from Hunza through Ishkoman, Punyal,
Yasin, Ghizr and Chitral to the Afghan border, contains many, almost
untouched, fine mountains and glaciers, culminating in the wonderful
group of Tirich Mir (25,426 feet). But the conditions of transport and
frontier policy will render access difficult for some years to come.
Yet the region is a most interesting one and the scenery very varied,
for it includes the water-parting between the Indus and the Oxus. Many
aspects of the country, both physical and human, vividly recalled to me
memories of the Caucasus.
PERSONAL MATTERS
[Sidenote: Expense.]
The cost of a climbing expedition in the Himalaya entirely depends on
the scale of preparation. If guides are taken, their fares, outfit and
pay will be a heavy item--not less than £250 each. It is obvious that
the further English stores have to be transported the more they will
cost by the time the mountains are reached. It is cheaper in the end to
get most of the stores at the last hill station, and to pay a little
more for them. The equipment for the high bivouacs, however, must be
brought out from home. This will cost, say £50. A first-class return by
P. & O., plus fare to the end of the railway transport, may be put at
£100.
If the expedition is on a modest scale, and the climber has some
knowledge of the language and customs of the country, and can limit
himself and his servants to a dozen loads, the actual expense of travel
in the hills is not great. Twenty pounds a month is a liberal estimate
for each European. This includes everything: food, servants and
coolies’ wages. Two amateurs, contributing £500 in all between them,
and with four months to spare, ought to be able to put in ten weeks in
the hills without any difficulty. In Kashmir, with the same allowance
of time and money, they would only get eight or nine weeks in the
mountains, and in the Karakoram not more than a month. (All estimates
are pre-war.)
Obviously a big expedition with guides must cost a great deal more
than this, but the amount can be calculated on the basis of the
figures given above. For a large party it would be advisable to bring
out all the supplies for the mountains packed in numbered Vanesta
cases. A number must be put _on every side_ of each package, and lists
of contents to correspond prepared. These cases also serve as good
substitutes for chairs and tables.
[Sidenote: Outfit.]
The days or weeks of travel to the foot of the Snows require an outfit
distinct from that required for high mountaineering. The extent of
the travelling outfit depends primarily upon the time and money at
the disposal of the individual. A camp-bed and an 80-lb. Kabul tent,
ordered beforehand from the Elgin Mills at Cawnpore or through the A.
& N. Stores at Bombay, is worth serious consideration. Personally, I
prefer a Whymper tent, with an extra fly to keep the sun off and with
the floor-cloth sewn in. A Whymper tent can also be used by the cook
and followers, without the double fly and with a loose floor-cloth; if
this is sewn in, it is apt to get burned when fires are lighted inside
the tent on wet evenings.
On all railway journeys, in most bungalows--public and private--and
even in some hotels, bedding must be carried. A very thin cork or hair
mattress is a luxury; the sleeping-bag does nearly as well. Two Jaeger
sheets, two Jaeger blankets, a pillow and a couple of pillow-cases,
aided by a bath towel, really suffice. The whole is wrapped up and
strapped in a strong ground sheet laced down the middle, or in a more
complicated valise sold in India. This bundle constitutes the _bistra_,
one coolie-load; it should be as rain- and vermin-proof as possible.
A folding X-table and chair are almost necessary concessions to caste.
A spare chair should be available if natives of chair rank are likely
to be met. An india-rubber or canvas bath is also necessary for other
purposes. When bathing in the open, as before said, drawers at least
should always be worn out of respect for native sentiment. Toilet kit
is carried in an enamelled iron basin with a leather cover, called a
_chilamchi_.
Cooking vessels (_degchis_) should be of aluminium, but cups and plates
and teapot may be enamel-ware. Either hurricane lanterns (kerosene),
or candle-lanterns that can stand on a table, are necessary in camp.
All these should be obtained from the A. & N. or other stores in India.
[Sidenote: Food.]
As to food, the necessary tinned butter, biscuits, jam and other
groceries can be bought at the last hill station. In most places in
the hills sheep or goats can be bought as required. Farther on you
must bring your own live stock along with you; this should ensure milk
of sorts. Chickens and eggs, rice and native flour (_ata_), can be
purchased in most villages.
On the glaciers, cocoa, chocolate or tea, with plasmon, are needed for
breakfast, and, for the evening, maggi (vegetable) soups with rice. At
the highest camps by far the best drink is some sort of dried malted
milk preparation, like Horlick’s or Allen & Hanbury’s diet. The above
must be brought out from England, unless it is found to be obtainable
from the A. & N. Stores in Bombay.
[Sidenote: The High Camp Outfit.]
The tent should be the Mummery pattern if carried by yourself, but may
be Whymper pattern if coolies are still available. Ice-axes can be
lengthened to serve as tent poles, if desired, by means of a piece of
hollow bamboo 10 or 12 inches long which is slipped over the point. The
bamboo must be bound round with wire at the end to prevent splitting.
In bad weather a small ventilator to the tent is necessary, as it may
be found impossible to open the door. Sleeping-bags can be made of
any thickness and warmth of goose-down. Balloon-silk should be sewn
underneath the bag, and brought up for at least 18 inches over the
feet. At high altitudes only a primus stove, burning kerosene, will
serve. Absolute alcohol should be carried to start the apparatus, and
a flat strip of perforated brass as a wind-shield is necessary. The
primus stove and reserve of kerosene, in old petrol tins, must not
be carried in the same load with any food. This must be specially
remembered during the _whole_ of the expedition.
It is a good plan to camp not later than 3 p.m., and to start melting
snow at once. The first melting will probably be drunk tepid. Then the
evening meal, or rather drink, of soup or cocoa or malted milk must be
taken; following this, while the stove is still alive, more snow should
be melted and the morning’s drink prepared. If this is placed in large
thermos-bottles inside the sleeping-bags it will last, if untouched,
till the following afternoon.
It is worse than useless to invite frost-bite by a very early start.
But in any case the time cannot be spared to melt snow in the morning.
[Sidenote: Clothing.]
So long as you wear a good ‘Cawnpore’ pith helmet (_topi_) nothing
else matters much. Sunburn will prevent you wearing too little. Some
people prefer a turban. This consists of the _pugari_ or _loonghi_ and
the _koolla_ or conical cap affected by Mohammedans and Europeans, and
round which the pugaree is worn. On a cold morning the tail of the
pugaree can be wrapped round the neck. It is easy to tie--in a fashion.
It is in some ways better than a pith helmet, but does not protect
the eyes from glare. Shorts are very cool for marching; but beware of
blisters at the back of the knees. A spine pad is necessary in the
valleys, and pleasant at even the greatest altitudes.
Footgear for high climbing is still a vexed problem. You must have very
heavily nailed boots for the moraines. On snow I have worn a covering
of raw cowhide, _hair outside_ over the front half of the boot. The
half sole is made of stoutest canvas. The whole may be garnished with
a common pair of Swiss ice-claws. Boots should be large enough for
two pairs of socks to be worn. Since putties will be invariably used,
stockings will only be needed for a change in the evening. No doubt
for very high work some Polar footgear would be better than climbing
boots.[34] Possibly ski-boots may meet the difficulty. But a piece of
blanket wrapped over the whole boot and held in place with a large pair
of claws, or by the boot-nails as they wear through, ought to be an
efficient substitute. Swiss snow-shoes are hardly worth carrying, but
on easy slopes at high altitudes they can be very useful, and I have
been glad of them. Ski are probably useless, for our purpose, owing to
transport difficulties.
Smoked glasses are only better than nothing; the proper colour is
something between yellow and green, such as Sinclair’s ‘N.W.V.’
glasses, or their like.
[Sidenote: Instruments.]
You cannot produce a good map without sacrificing much time and energy.
But apart from this, it is useful to know the heights of camps,
etc. For this purpose use at your camps a boiling-point thermometer
(hypsometer), specially constructed for high altitudes: you must
observe the air temperature with a swing thermometer at the same time.
Also take a large (4½ inch) Watkin mountain aneroid (J. Hicks, Hatton
Garden), graduated from 31 to 10 inches. Keep it permanently out of
action as soon as you go above 5000 feet, and only throw it into gear
when taking a reading--allowing not more than a few minutes for it to
settle. Put it out of gear as soon as the reading has been made.
A reading should be taken with the Watkin whenever the hypsometer is
used, as a check on both instruments. When climbing, and at the highest
camp, probably only the Watkin will be used, since, even with absolute
alcohol, an hour may be spent over an hypsometer observation at great
heights. The Watkin must be read both on leaving camp and on returning.
The air temperature ought to be taken at each observation; but this is
a refinement.
All observations must be immediately entered in a special notebook
with hour, date and place. These should be worked out by some one else
on a return to civilization. The Indian Meteorological Department or
the Survey at Dehra Dun or the Royal Geographical Society would be the
natural referees.
FOOTNOTES:
[28] _Alpine Journal_, vol. xxiii. p. 223.
[29] _Alpine Journal_, vol. xxv. p. 389.
[30] Consult A. L. Mumm’s _Five Months in the Himalaya_ (Arnold).
[31] _Alpine Journal_, vol. xxiii. p. 217 _et seq._, and map.
[32] Consult _Alpine Journal_, vol. xxiii. p. 202, and maps, and vol.
xxiv. p. 107, and map.
[33] _Alpine Journal_, vol. xxv. p. 487, with map, and Neve’s
_Picturesque Kashmir_, chap. xii.
[34] Consult _Appalachia_, Oct. 1914, vol. xiii. p. 160.