THE MOUNTAINS OF NORWAY
BY W. CECIL SLINGSBY
Concerning the mountains of Norway, their geography and the history of
their exploration, a considerable amount of published information is
already available for mountaineers: it is, therefore, unnecessary to do
more than give a general idea of the mountaineering potentialities of
the country, and of the facilities of travel and provisioning.
[Sidenote: Guide-books and Literature.]
_Baedeker_ is excellent as a general guide, and a copy should be in
the hands, and to some extent also in the head, of at least one member
of every mountaineering party. In addition, maps should be obtained
of each district which the climbers intend to visit. The Amts Karter,
price 1 _krone_ each, will answer this purpose.
There are no ‘Climbers’ Guides’ for Norway, though many books deal
more or less with its mountains. The great mountain classic is _Norway
and its Glaciers_, by Professor J. D. Forbes. Mrs. Aubrey le Blond
has dealt solely with one group, the mountains of Lyngen Fjord, in
_Mountaineering in the Land of the Midnight Sun_. This is of use to
those who wish to climb between lat. 69° and 70°, but is not of service
in Central Norway. _New Climbs in Norway_, by Mr. E. C. Oppenheim,
deals also with certain individual peaks. There is an excellent book
in Norsk on the Söndmöre Alps, near Aalesund. _Norway, the Northern
Playground_, is the result of many years’ experience on my own part,
but barely touches the romantic regions of Arctic Norway. The _Alpine
Journal_ has many papers by many authors on all parts of the country.
[Illustration: NORWEGIAN PEAKS [NORMAN COLLIE]
Of late years Norsk mountaineers have been very active, not only in
Norway and in the Alps, but also in far-off Himalaya and the Southern
Andes. The _Aarbog_ of “Den Norske Turist Forening” virtually resembles
an alpine journal, and its illustrations of glaciers and aiguilles
are valuable. It has had for many years mountaineering papers both in
English and Norsk. Every one who intends to climb in Norway should
become a member of this most useful club. He will have considerable
privileges, connected with mountain huts, etc. No mountaineering
qualification is required; merely a small subscription. T. Bennett &
Sons, or F. Beyer (Tourist Agents at Bergen), as well as the keepers of
the tourist huts, will enrol members. There is also an inner circle,
the “Norske Tinder Klub,” whose mountaineering qualification is at
least as high as that of the Alpine Club.
A slight knowledge of the language is essential. Norsk is easier for
north-country folk to acquire than for southerners, as much of our
northern dialect is almost identical with Norsk. As an outcome of
perhaps laudable ultra-patriotism, great changes, which in the main
lead to a simplification of the language, are being made. The natives
themselves during this period of transition apparently have no fixed
rules of spelling, and a foreigner need not feel uneasy on the subject.
The greatest difficulty in connection with this phase is that--so far
as I am aware--there is no Norsk-English dictionary which has adopted,
or at present _can_ adopt, the spelling mostly in use.
[Sidenote: Season.]
As in Switzerland, July and August are the best months for
mountaineering in Norway, though, speaking generally, there is more
often settled weather in June and September. In some years, the two
last weeks in June are perfect for climbing, but as in the Alps again,
there is often too much snow for pleasant mountaineering before July.
Similarly, there is often ideal weather in September, and though the
days are getting short, grand climbing may be done during the whole
of the month. Once the weather breaks, and heavy snows fall, no good
climbing can be done. The presence of the Gulf Stream causes a rather
larger rainfall in Norway than in the Alps. Often bad weather in the
Alps means excellent weather in Norway, and vice versa.
[Sidenote: Routes of Access, Travel, etc.]
Travelling facilities have much improved during the last few years. The
steamboat service from England is better, but more remains yet to be
done in this respect. The North Sea has not improved, and never will.
A quickened train service from Christiania to Throndhjem shortens the
journey up to the romantic north by a good day. The completion of the
picturesque Bergen to Christiania railway has revolutionized travel in
many ways, both good and bad. The usual routes to Norway are by Hull
or Newcastle to Bergen, Christiania or Throndhjem. Dozens of public
steam-yachts, some starting from London, run every summer. Some are
ocean liners of a large tonnage, and they may occasionally be used. To
‘consult Cook’ is good advice.
Bergen is the best starting-place. From thence mountaineers may proceed
direct by steamer to Skjolden at the head of the Sogne Fjord, and from
thence may now drive up to Turtegrö, the favourite centre for the
Horungtinder--one of the finest ranges in Norway; or, and better still,
they may go by rail to Vossevangen, drive to Gudvangen and then take
steamer. Or further, by rail to Myrdal, and drive to Aurland and take
steamer there.
Bergen is reached in about thirty-six hours from Hull or Newcastle.
Numerous steamers leave there for every mountaineering district. Three
days must be allowed by steamer from Bergen to Svolvaer, the centre
of the Lofotens. Another day to Tromsö and Lyngen Fjord. It is always
advisable to book berths on the north-going boats a fortnight before
leaving. Thos. Cook & Son can do this.
Christiania is a good starting-point, and the railway to Throndhjem
much shortens the time to get to Arctic Norway. The mineral railway,
terminating at Narvik, near the mouth of the Ofoten Fjord, close to
lat. 69°, is in direct communication with Stockholm, from which a
‘Lapland Express’ runs two or three times a week. By means of this,
Arctic Norway can readily be reached by those who prefer railway
travelling to steamboats--mostly within the Skjaergaard (or Skerries).
[Sidenote: Expense]
The return fare, Newcastle to Bergen, food included, is £6 first class.
Rather more by Wilsons. The cost of two men for a three weeks’ tour in
Central Norway, including going and returning, should be from £20 to
£25 each. I have done it for considerably less. It may also easily be
increased to £30 or £35 if the travellers are ultra-luxurious in their
ways and habits. It should never be forgotten that a _krone_ (1 kr.) is
worth 1s. 1½d. Many novices, used to francs and lire, forget this fact.
One pound only produces about 18 _krone_, and not 25. A large number of
persons who take yachting cruises in huge steamboats, and who only land
here and there, throw about their money in a wicked manner, and have
much spoiled the very few natives with whom they have come in contact.
Away from the haunts of the tourist horde, on the west coast, prices
are still very reasonable. Tips must not be given on quite so generous
a scale as in the Alps. (These prices are pre-war.)
[Sidenote: Equipment.]
For camp life excellent provisions are obtainable in Christiania,
Throndhjem and Bergen, and by getting them in the country the worry of
passing the Customs, which is not very serious, is avoided.
Experience shows that bacon and porridge form a great stand-by for a
camp breakfast. First-rate sides of Yorkshire bacon and good oatmeal
can be bought in the three above-named cities. As tinned meats, useful
as they are, have their limitations, it is well to purchase a leg or
two of mutton whenever possible. There is no doubt at all that one
can climb infinitely better when fortified by fresh, rather than by
tinned, meats. A trout-rod, and the ability to use it efficiently, is
often most serviceable anywhere in Norway, and in the Lofotens a few
sea-fishing appliances frequently add a welcome change to camp meals.
One result of the great cod fishery in the Far North is that excellent
French and Spanish wines are procurable at the posting stations at
reasonable prices in Arctic Norway. Speaking generally, the farther
north one goes the more comfortable are the steamers, and certainly the
more interesting is the company met with. Ashore, the hospitality which
many of us have met with leaves behind most happy memories.
With regard to the equipment requisite, generally speaking what is
suitable for Switzerland is fit for Norway. It must, however, be taken
for granted that, except in Christiania, and possibly to some extent
now in Bergen, no alpine nails, ice-axes, goggles, alpine rope, etc.,
are procurable. If extra boots are not taken, it is also very desirable
to take an ample supply of spare nails or screws. With these much can
be added to the security of a party, by fitting up a casual porter or
two with nails of a kind which he has probably never seen before. He
may at first object, but in the course of the first day on the snows
he will heartily approve, unless he may happen to come upon the--not
uncommon--highly polished _roches moutonnées_ of gneiss.
No longer is it necessary to take tents into Jotunheim or elsewhere
in Central Norway, as comfortable inns and mountain huts are to be
found here, there and everywhere. In Arctic Norway it is otherwise. In
many places not only are tents a luxury but also a necessity, unless
mountaineers have the use of a yacht where they can sleep, or unless
they charter a small steamboat. Even then it is advisable to have
tents, as now and then the question of safe anchorage is a difficult
one. Nowadays the well-to-do merchants in Lofoten, and also on the
mainland, very often possess motor-boats, which can be hired to take
mountaineers to remote fjords together with their tents.
In Scandinavia it is a safe maxim to hold that the farther north one
goes the more numerous are the mosquitoes. Hence mosquito nets should
always be taken north of Throndhjem. Mosquitoes, fortunately, are not
always in evidence even in hot summers.
[Sidenote: Guides.]
The question of guides is a difficult one. At least 90 per cent of the
best climbing in Norway has been done without them, solely because they
were non-existent when most needed. There are a few excellent men,
experienced alike on difficult glaciers, on steep snow slopes and on
rocks of the Chamonix Aiguille type, but their number is very limited.
Several are to be met with in various places in the Jotun Fjelde, which
include the Horungtinder.
In the neighbourhood of the Justedals-brae, which is by far the largest
snow field in Continental Europe, and over 400 square miles in extent,
there are naturally a few good icemen able and willing to tackle the
very complex glacier problems. They can be found at Fjaerland, in the
valley of Justedal, at Stryn, Olden and Loen, and probably also by now
in Stardal and Jölster.
At or near Öie on the Hjörund Fjord, two or three very fair guides
may be found for the Söndmöre Alps. These men have been trained more
or less by British mountaineers. The same may be said for Romsdal,
Eikisdal, as well as for Sundal in Nordmöre, where in the adjacent
Troldheim are a few fine glaciers and interesting peaks of gneiss. At
the same time, it is true that in every mountain valley in Central
Norway there is at least one excellent cragsman to be found, who is
invariably called to rescue crag-fast sheep or goats. These men, shod
in _snaukopper_, or soft-soled shoes, climb fearlessly on the smooth
glaciated crags of gneiss, and make excellent guides so far as rock
climbing is concerned.
In Norway, which is at the same time the most democratic and the most
conservative country in Europe, the guides and porters are often much
better educated than their fellows in Switzerland, and know how to
read a map intelligently. They are frequently landowners on a moderate
scale, and consider that they confer a favour by acting as guides.
They will not use the prefix ‘Mr.’ or ‘Herr’; and why should they?
Frequently they can trace their ancestry back to the Viking Age, and
even occasionally to the “Early Kings of Norway.” Though generally very
nice fellows, they are fully conscious of the monetary value of their
services, i.e. when they are really capable men. They have not yet
learned to carry as much as the Swiss. As the summer is short, there
is more than enough work to occupy the whole manhood of any particular
district on the land without question of mountains. This condition has
become of late years much aggravated by the enormous emigration to
Canada and the United States.
Within the Arctic circle, amongst the hundred and twenty miles of
aiguilles of gabbro and granite in the Lofoten Islands, there are no
real mountain guides. This is the case, too, on the whole mainland of
Norway within the magic circle, whether it be amongst the aiguilles of
Lyngen Fjord or the weird truncated pyramids of gneiss along the coast,
though even here a few good cragsmen are to be found.
We must to some extent make an exception in the case of the nomad Lapps
who wander with their reindeer across the glaciers. The gallant French
explorer of the snow fields and glaciers along the Swedish border,
Monsieur Charles Rabot, made use of some of these men, and in his
interesting book, _Au Cap Nord_, has recorded his experiences.
[Sidenote: General Topography and Structure.]
Though Norway is 1100 miles in length, the mountains which afford scope
for indulging in the sport of mountaineering are confined between lat.
60° and 70°, i.e. from the glaciers of the Folgefond to the north point
of the peninsula of Lyngen Fjord. More or less they are groups where
gabbro has been upheaved through the surrounding silurian strata,
granite or gneiss. These groups are unconnected save by relatively
uninteresting rolling fjelde, the haunt of the wild reindeer and
its enemy the lynx. Though there is as good climbing to be found in
Norway as in the Alps, no mountain attains the height of 9000 feet,
and consequently there is no continuous ice stream falling so far as
that from the summit of Mont Blanc to the snout of the Glacier des
Bossons. But there are many continuous icefalls of over 5000 feet,
and some glaciers which descend over 6000 feet nearly to the fjords
below. In many cases, as these ice streams are exceptionally steep
and are hemmed in by straight-cut mountain walls of gneiss, the ice
is more compressed, harder and of a deeper blue colour than what one
sees in Switzerland. Notably is this the case in the glaciers of the
Justedals-brae. There are also similar conditions in Lyngen Fjord in
Arctic Norway, e.g. in the case of the noble Fornæsbrae, descending
from Gjækkevarre--the Mont Blanc of the North.
The finest range in Central Norway is that of the Horungtinder and
portion of the Jotun Fjelde. Its dominating point is Skagastölstind.
This range has the advantages, and likewise possibly the disadvantages,
of possessing a well-recognized centre at Turtegrö, which, from a
picturesque point of view, is at the wrong side of the range. The many
fine peaks are nowadays being worked out with a persistency worthy of
Wasdale Head or Pen-y-Pass. Those of us who know the Coolin in Skye
well, know what grand climbing is suggested by the word ‘gabbro,’ the
formation of the Horungtinder.
In several other districts gabbro spires give the tone to the picture
and afford magnificent climbing to the mountaineer. Notably is this the
case in Söndmöre, on each side of the Hjörund Fjord, where some lovely
mountains, such as Slogen, bathe their feet in the sea. Unfortunately,
they frequently have their heads bound up with fleecy clouds, owing to
their proximity to the Gulf Stream and to nature’s condensers in the
form of huge snow fields. The 120 miles’ length of the Lofoten Islands
are also built up of granite and gabbro. The first view of these
islands gives a sensation of exaltation and joy. And their colour! It
is the same formation as the Coolin, and the same influences are at
work. The Gulf Stream, that rare and subtle painter, simply touches
the mountains with its moisture-laden breezes, and, helped by the sun,
a richness and delicacy of tint appears which is unknown elsewhere in
Europe. It lacks only the contrast which the Coolin possess of the
changing colour of heather.
The mountains of the Lyngen Peninsula, a grand region of rugged
aiguilles and huge glaciers, which stream down seawards from, in some
cases, a height of over 6000 feet, all consist of gabbro. But it must
not be concluded that the only good climbing is confined to mountains
of this order. As in the Alps, granite and gneiss hold their own,
and very many beautiful mountains afford arête and face climbing of
exceptional interest.
In Romsdal, Eikisdal and Troldheim, the latter until recently a much
neglected district, there is grand sport to be had, not only on rocks
but on steep and difficult glaciers as well.
North of Throndhjem are the Oxtinder. Though high and girt about their
loins with glaciers, they are, it is said, disappointing. The glacier
region of Svartisen and a few rock peaks south of Bodö, but yet within
the Arctic circle, deserve more detailed attention from our countrymen
than they have yet met with.
On the mainland, north of Bodö and the Salten Fjord but south of
the Ofoten Fjord, are some of the most beautiful and some of the
most fiendish-looking rock mountains conceivable in a mountaineer’s
nightmare. In the first category is the Strandaatind, which has a
most lovely outline, and is also a difficult mountain to ascend. Not
far away are two hideous and truncated obelisks. These are in South
Folden Fjord. At the head of this fjord, and on and within the Swedish
frontier, there is a grand glacier region.
Sixty-five miles farther north the Stedtind, or Anvil peak, a monolith
with one diagonal crack across the face, rises 5200 feet out of the
sea. Probably it is the most hideous mountain monster on our planet.
Yet there are only 15 feet of especial difficulty to be crossed when
the ascent is made from the back. True, but these 15 feet are highly
sensational!
There are still left unclimbed in this region other gruesome peaks
which await mountaineers capable of taking the initiative. The glaciers
of Frostisen and a few of the high peaks rising out of this snow field
have been fairly well explored, but as yet little information has been
given us on the subject.
Up to comparatively recent years there was a strange ignorance about
the higher mountains in Norway, and great uncertainty as to which was
the highest. Once upon a time Sulitelma held the honour. Snehaettan
also had a short reign. In an old atlas of mine, Skagastölstind is
termed “the culminating point of Scandinavia.” Then came the plea
for Galdhöpiggen; and not many years ago a claim was put in for
Knutshultind, which was never looked upon seriously. For a good many
years, however, Galdhöpiggen has been recognized as the king, though
its neighbour, Glittertind, was only twenty odd feet lower. The summit
of the former consists of a narrow rock ridge terminating abruptly in a
precipice at one end, which therefore cannot hold much snow. The latter
is a snow dome. I pointed out many years ago the probability that after
two or three years of unusually heavy snows the snow dome would rise,
that Glittertind would be raised to the throne, and Galdhöpiggen be
deposed. This has come to pass, and now Glittertind--a much duller
mountain than its rival--is “the culminating point of Scandinavia.” It
may and ought to be deposed ere long.
[Sidenote: Local Conditions.]
In both Central and Arctic Norway there are some conditions which
do not prevail in the Alps. The long nightless days have both their
advantages and their disadvantages. In Arctic Norway there is a
topsy-turvyness to which we are unaccustomed. One never knows when to
go to bed, and, as the snow does not get so soft as in Central Norway,
there is a great temptation to delay departure and waste much time on
the way. There is naturally a feeling of romance in arriving on the
summit of a difficult mountain a few minutes before midnight, and of
watching the sun roll along several degrees above the mountain horizon.
Still, for the sake of the sub-conscious machinery of the body, it is
best to observe the usual hours for work and for sleep.
In Central Norway I have seen the sun both set and rise again a couple
of hours later while I was traversing a difficult mountain ridge. But
there is an enormous difference between the length of days in the
end of June or July and that in the middle of August. Occasionally
mountaineers who do not recognize this fact get benighted.
In Central Norway the snows become soft by 9 a.m., though not to the
same extent as in the Alps. Still, an early start is desirable when
a fine expedition is contemplated. Especially is this the case when
crossing the Justedals-brae or other huge snow fields.
Avalanches fall as they do in the Alps, but rarely between the end of
June and the beginning of September, and stones, icebound at night,
are loosened by the sun in the morning, and come toppling down in the
orthodox manner, and may, perchance, be a danger to the unwary. In
fact, the ordinary dangers associated with high mountains exist equally
in Norway.
In some regions magnetic rocks occur, and then the compass is of no
use. Where this is the case, and mists come on, and there is no wind
to indicate the cardinal points, the interest of the expedition may
unexpectedly be increased.
Ice, hard blue ice, is much more often encountered on the Norwegian
glaciers and gullies than in the Alps.
On very steep snow slopes and glaciers in the Far North one frequently
comes upon a deep square-sided groove in the snow; at the top of the
slope it may be 12 feet wide and 4 feet deep. This imperceptibly
widens, during a descent of between 1500 and 2000 feet, to a groove,
still square-sided but now 20 to 25 feet in width and 7 or 8 feet
deep. Such grooves are most difficult to cross, and on one memorable
expedition on Rulten, when victory was almost assured, the party was
driven back by the apparent danger of making such a crossing. These
grooves show no sign of the work of falling stones or rocks, but are
probably, at an earlier period of the year, caused by water. I have
never met similar grooves in Central Norway, nor yet in the Alps.
After a long spell of fine weather during the nightless days of the
summer months, the glaciers may become very dangerous by reason of a
peculiarity in the character of their crevasses. The larger and the
flatter the glacier, the greater the danger. This is especially the
case on the Justedals-brae, though by no means confined to that region.
The condition is caused, in my belief, principally by the comparatively
low altitude of the sun above the horizon. The rays of the sun are
directed more horizontally upon the snow, and for a considerably larger
number of hours during the long days in Norway than is the case in the
Alps. This approximation to horizontality causes an abnormal melting
power to be directed to the under side of the snow eaves and of the
bridges of open crevasses. Especially is this the case when these
eaves are attached and frozen to the north or northerly walls of the
crevasses. Under these conditions crevasses of 25 or 30 feet in width
may only have the appearance of a width of 2 or 3 feet. Not only this,
but they often have clear-cut and well-defined edges and not jagged
lines. On the surface there may be little or no indication of the
hidden dangers which are shielded from view.
The interest in hot seasons may be much increased by the presence of
‘pink snow,’ _Protococcus nivalis_, which has been known to lie in
patches covering several acres.
In Norway there are several great snow fields, Greenlands in miniature.
Hill and dale on these snowy uplands are alike covered with glacier,
and only here and there rocky islets or _nunataks_ appear, and
usually as alpine gardens. In nearly all cases the rock below the
ice sheet is gneiss, and if the glaciers were to disappear, rolling
fjelde, or rounded hog-backed peakless mountains 5000 to nearly 7000
feet in height, would appear. Such snow fields are rare in the Alps;
consequently British mountaineers have little experience, on a large
scale, of glaciers which rest on broad, gently sloping ridges, and
which slowly descend, maintaining connection at the same time with
glaciers on either side moving nearly in the same direction. The
process is natural enough. The results are more or less novel and
appalling. On the ridges gravitation is at work, and the ice moves
onwards in three directions: down the main axis of the ridge and
downwards on each side. In years of little snow, consequently, scores
of quadrangular masses of _névé_ and ice are left, on every side of
which are deep square-walled crevasses. Woe betide the party which
descends such a ridge without using the greatest care. Few men may have
experienced these conditions, but those who have will always retain a
lively memory of them.
It is not necessary to repeat, to mountaineers, that most Englishmen
who have climbed in Norway return again and again, to a country which
has still much of the romance of exploration, and, for them, the
sympathetic interest of an historical connection with their racial
consciousness. I myself like to believe that we, who take our pleasures
on the mountains--and the more grisly these mountains are the better we
like them!--have inherited the passion from our ‘Norsk ancestry,’ who,
as we gather from an old Saga, indulged in the sport of cliff climbing
nearly one thousand years ago.