THE CAUCASUS
BY HAROLD RAEBURN
The Caucasus of the mountaineer is that more or less continuous chain
of great glaciated peaks which extends for nearly 600 miles between the
Caspian and Black Seas.
[Sidenote: General Topography and Structure.]
Geographically, the water-parting of the ridge forms the boundary
between Europe and Asia.
Politically speaking the mountains run, with a general south-east to
north-west direction, through almost the centre of the Russian province
of the Caucasus, dividing it into the two districts of Cis-Caucasia,
with the chief city of Vladikavkaz, and Trans-Caucasia, with Tiflis as
the centre of government. Situated in about the same latitude as the
Pyrenees, with a more continental climate, the ranges of temperature
are much greater than in the Alps.
In such an extensive tract of elevated country great variation of
conditions must naturally occur. Speaking generally, and with more
special reference to the central group of summits, the glaciation is
somewhat less than in the Alps in proportion to the elevation, about
2000 feet greater than that of the central Pennines. The average level
to which the glaciers descend is rather higher. As the average slope of
the mountains is more abrupt, the glaciers are steeper. In consequence,
the Caucasian glaciers are as a rule more difficult and broken, and the
ice-falls more continuous.
The prevailing wind is warm and moisture-laden, blowing from the
south-west, off the almost sub-tropical shores of the Black Sea;
condensed by the cold peaks, the moisture is thereon deposited in the
form of snow. Thus, in spite of its northern aspect, the glaciation of
the European slope is little greater than that of the southern.
[Illustration: MAP OF PART OF CIS AND TRANS CAUCASIA
Showing approaches to the Mountains]
The height at which trees cease is very much the same on both sides
(7000-8000 feet). A feature of the country is the great forests which
cover the upper basins of many valleys, particularly on the south side.
In many of the southern valleys these forests are composed of deciduous
trees of various species, such as birch, beech, oak, maple and
chestnut, giving a variety and charm which the more sombre pine forests
of the north do not provide. Some of the northern valleys are destitute
of timber, and the fuel difficulty is one which confronts the climbing
explorer.
The whole mountain system may for present purposes be divided into
three principal groups.
1. All the peaks south and east of the line of the Dariel, more
correctly the Krestovaya Gora, Pass; in which though many peaks exist
as high as the Oberland Mountains, yet the glaciation is not continuous
for long distances.
2. The great central group. This is the most important and best known.
It extends from Kasbek, immediately west of the above pass, to the
Klukhor Pass, west of Elbrus, a distance of about 130 miles.
In the whole of this distance there is only one driving road, that of
the Mamison Pass (9280 feet), the highest road in Europe. All other
routes across the range, except one or two grass passes, must be made
over glacier passes, the lowest about 10,500 feet above sea-level.
3. West and north of the Klukhor Pass lies a tangled group of somewhat
lower glaciated summits, some of which are still unascended.
[Sidenote: Records and Literature.]
If we pass over the ancient traditions and tales of the Arabians,
Greeks and Jews, mountaineering in the Caucasus is of very modern
growth.
The Arabian Kaf, the Jewish Ararat and the great mountain celebrated by
Æschylus as the prison of Prometheus, are all situated in or near the
Caucasus range; whether it be true or not that the Tower of Babel was
built not far from the borders, this mountain land remains a Tower of
Babel to this day.
In the city of Baku there are even now said to be one hundred different
languages and dialects spoken. The Caucasus Mountains themselves give
homes to as many tribes and dialects as there are rivers.
These tribes were almost always more or less at enmity amongst
themselves. This lack of nationality rendered the task of absorption
by Russia an easy one. It should not be forgotten that a good part
of the Caucasus proper was not conquered by Russia. The nominal
sovereignty possessed by the kings of Georgia over many of the mountain
tribes only began to be made real when the last king placed himself
under Russian protection.
This great diversity of peoples, languages, religions and customs
renders travel in the Caucasus, if more interesting, much more
difficult. Most of the people know nothing of Russian, and it is
therefore necessary for a climbing party to have an interpreter
with them who has knowledge of as many of the different languages
as possible. Apart from the fabulous, the earliest effort of
mountaineering in the Caucasus appears to have been an attempt
to ascend Elbrus by a party of four savants, attached to the
politico-geographical expedition of General Emanuel, in 1829.
The first writer to draw attention to the Caucasus as a field for
mountain exploration was the Rev. H. B. George, in a paper read before
the Alpine Club on 2 May 1865. The pioneer expedition was that of
Messrs. Freshfield, Moore and Tucker, with François Devouassoud, in
1868. Mr. Grove’s party followed, in 1874, and his book, _The Frosty
Caucasus_, is now a valuable alpine classic. During the ’80’s British
mountaineers, with Swiss guides, conquered the majority of the highest
peaks. Mr. Cockin was the most successful: three of the greatest peaks
fell to him and his guides in one season. Messrs. Dent, Woolley and
Holder were also very successful.
_My Climbs in the Alps and Caucasus_, by Mr. A. F. Mummery, describes
his expedition in 1888, when the great peak of Dykh-Tau was ascended.
In the ’90’s a number of British guideless parties went out, but from
various causes had little success.
Since then, in spite of three splendidly illustrated volumes, _The
Exploration of the Caucasus_, by Freshfield and Sella, in 1896, _Aus
den Hochregionen des Kaukasus_, by Merzbacher, in 1901, and _Kaukasus
Reisen und Forschungen_, by de Déchy, in 1904, British interest in the
district has been slight. Messrs. Longstaff and Rolleston had, however,
a very successful guideless campaign in Suanetia, in 1903.
A Russian author, Afanasief, published in German, in 1913, a very
useful little compendium of the ascents made up to date, _100 Kaukasus
Gipfel_.
As a proof that the Caucasus as a new mountaineering centre is still
very far from being exhausted, British expeditions in 1913 and 1914
succeeded in effecting the ascents of ten new summits, none of which
was below 13,500 feet in height.
[Sidenote: Routes of Access.]
The easiest, cheapest and quickest way to the central group from
London is that to the north side, overland. The route is via Berlin,
Warsaw and Rostoff on the Don. Thence either by the Baku train to
Beslan, for Vladikavkaz, or by the Russian Spas express to Mineralnia
Vodé, for Piatigorsk. An even better starting-point for the mountains
is Naltshik, to which a branch railway, opened in July 1912, should
run in two hours from the junction on the main Rostoff-Baku line of
Kotliarefskaia.
The south side may be reached by driving from Vladikavkaz or from
Darkop on the main line over the Mamison Pass.
Another excellent way of reaching the south side of the range from the
north side would be by taking the motor service (office in the annex
of the Grand Hotel) from Vladikavkaz over the Dariel--correctly the
Krestovaya Gora--Pass to Tiflis, and round by the Tiflis-Batum railway.
The motor line passes close under the huge mass of Kasbek (16,546
feet), and its glaciers can be reached in a few hours from Vladikavkaz.
The old route to the south side of the range followed by most of
the earlier English parties is that by Vienna and Odessa, thence by
steamer, in from two to four days, across the Black Sea--calling at
Sevastopol--to Batum. From Batum a short branch-line connects with
Kutais. From here the Mamison road leads up to Oni on the Upper Rion,
and can be utilized for driving for part or the whole of the distance,
according to which valley or group of peaks it is desired to visit.
For the most westerly group, that lying west of Elbrus, the port
of Sukhum Kalé on the Black Sea will probably be found most
convenient. For the extreme eastern groups Tiflis will prove the best
starting-point.
[Sidenote: Modes of Travel.]
The usual, and the best mode of travel in the mountains is on foot. All
the railhead towns mentioned are more than a day’s march distant from
the hills. Kasbek alone is closely approached by a motorable road.
At the towns elected for approach--Tiflis, Kutais, Vladikavkaz,
Piatigorsk or Naltshik--it is necessary to engage vehicles or horses,
and a cook-interpreter. Whether it is advisable to buy horses for the
whole journey depends upon whether much travelling, and in consequence
little climbing, is to be done. The purchase of horses sets the
party free from the endless haggling, delay and annoyance which seem
inseparable from hiring. On the other hand, the purchase necessitates
engaging at least one man for every two horses, and this adds greatly
to the expense and to the commissariat difficulties.
Though considerably improved of late years, the various roads up
Caucasian valleys, where they exist at all, are not of the best. A
Russian road on the steppe is not a road in the usual sense of the
word; it is merely a part of the ground over which one drives, and is
not made in any way except by the wheels of passing traffic. The road
of the Mamison Pass is a built road; but it is exceedingly rough in
places, and is frequently interrupted by landslides, tree-falls and
avalanches.
The most comfortable vehicle to obtain is the troika or phaeton, a
light, low carriage something like the alpine char. A rougher and more
usual carriage is the lineika, seated like a low-set Irish jaunting-car
on four wheels. It is wonderfully elastic, its light, loose method of
construction allowing it to adapt itself to the potholes, boulders and
tree-trunks of the rougher parts of the road. Most of these vehicles
will be found to suffer from the general debility consequent upon
extreme old age. It is advisable to have each one carefully inspected
before the start.
In the more out-of-the-way parts, where such luxurious modes of travel
cannot be indulged in, an arba can often be obtained. This is a light,
springless two-wheeled cart. It is often drawn by a pair of small but
strong oxen, and though the pace is very slow, a large quantity of
baggage can be conveyed in one.
The horses--almost invariably mares--are small, light animals showing
evident trace of Arab blood. They are docile, free from vice, and
marvellously sure-footed. Indeed, in this last respect they far surpass
an average mule. Some of the ‘horse passes’ on the south side of the
range would be considered by most people impossible for horses and more
fitted for goats.
The saddles are Turkish, i.e. with a high pommel in front and behind.
Some travellers have recommended taking out an English saddle. Few
riders, however, would be able to retain their seat on an English
saddle while their mounts were scrambling down or up the precipitous
broken bank of some ravine or bed of a glacier stream.
[Sidenote: Centres.]
As in the Alps, so in the Caucasus, more climbing will be got by
settling at a centre than by travelling about from one place to
another. On this method the necessity of carrying heavy tents, large
supplies of stores, etc., is avoided. A couple of light tents, to
accommodate two or three men each, are all that is necessary.
Good centres for the various districts are, on the north side,
Urusbieh, Chegem, Balkar, Bezingi, Stirdigor and Dsinago; in the Tsaya
valley, the sanatorium kept by M. Sanghiev in the pine forest near
Rekom; the inn at Saramag on the Upper Ardon; the Russian road-houses
of Kalaki on the north and Tshantshakhi on the south side of the
Mamison Pass; Gebi on the West Rion River; Ushkul on the headwaters
of the Ingur; Mestia or Mulakh on the Mulkhora; and Betsho just below
the giant precipices of Ushba. To Gebi and Tshantshakhi Kasarma on the
south, and to most places on the European side of the range, driving
should be _possible_ nowadays.
[Sidenote: Equipment and Commissariat.]
Mountaineering in the Caucasus is still very much on exploring lines.
Save in the case of Kasbek or, in a minor degree, of Elbrus, no
huts, guides or organization for climbing exists. The success of an
expedition must therefore largely depend upon the care and forethought
bestowed upon the equipment and organization of the party before it
leaves railhead.
The climbing equipment should be exactly similar to that of the
Alps; but as anything lost cannot be replaced, everything must be
at least in duplicate. Indeed, it is advisable to take out three
pairs of climbing boots--the odd pair for the purpose of lending to
porters if it is found necessary to take them over a glacier, since
it is not fair or safe to take heavily loaded men with ‘gloved’ feet
up steep and slippery ice and snow. Two ice-axes are essential: one
may easily get broken, lost or stolen. Tents, of any of the lighter
English makes, are best taken out. Eastern bags, with padlock and
key, are the most convenient method of carrying spare clothes. Among
these, two or three complete changes of underclothing--of course all
wool--are necessary. Plenty of spare flannel collars and abundance of
stockings, and, of course, undersocks, are well worth their slight
extra weight. _Crampons_ are almost a necessity, though cumbrous and
annoying to carry. It is advisable to have a tin case for these. They
are of immense service in levelling up the good and the inferior icemen
of a party, and in conserving the energies of the step-cutter, or
step-cutters, for really difficult work on rocks or ice slopes higher
up.
With two pairs of new--but broken-in--modern mountaineering boots it
ought to be quite unnecessary to take out nails, iron boot anvil or
hammer for a two months’ campaign.
The general stores--cooking utensils, plates or bowls, cups (mugs are
preferable), table cutlery, travelling stoves (primus and alpine),
candles, etc.--are best obtained in the country. The most convenient
packages are strong baskets. These should be made at home, and covered
with strong waterproof material. Size 25 inches by 15 inches by 11
inches is convenient for horse carriage, and should be furnished with a
strong lock. They can also serve as seats in or outside the tents.
The personal equipment should include a roll-up mattress--hair is the
best--6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 4 inches, a down quilt or sleeping-bag
and a small pillow. If the tent has a ground sheet, a waterproof cover
for the mattress is not required. To save trouble and expense on the
journey and at the Customs, it is much the best plan to bring as
little as possible into the country in the way of consumable stores.
Jam is perhaps the one exception. For high work jam is of great
importance, and the little ¼-lb. tins to be obtained in London are
extremely convenient. A few soups--powder or tabloid--are also useful
for emergencies. Excellent shops are to be found at all the chief
railhead towns, such as Tiflis, Vladikavkaz, Piatigorsk and Naltshik;
also at Kutais and Oni on the Mamison road. In them almost everything
obtainable in western Europe may be got.
Many different kinds of tinned meats, fruits and fish are to be had,
but the party would do well to have as little to do with these as
possible, except perhaps a few boxes of sardines. In the country,
mutton, fowls and eggs are always to be obtained, and these are safer
and more palatable than the tinned foods, which should be kept for
emergencies and given away at the end of the trip. The great weakness
of the Caucasian commissariat is in the all-important item of bread.
Away from the towns this is invariably very bad. It is made of maize or
wheat flour mixed with rye, or of rye alone; no yeast or baking powder
is used, and it is never properly cooked. Naturally it is exceedingly
trying to a western stomach. When forced to use it, one should have
it well toasted. Very good bread can be bought in the towns, and as
large a supply of this as possible should be taken. There is also an
excellent form of bread to be got in some of the small _dukhans_ or
shops up country. It is in hard glazed small rings, and is threaded
on strings and hung up like onions to the roof. It keeps well, and
is quite palatable and digestible. One way of overcoming the bread
difficulty would be to engage a cook-interpreter, who could bake, and
to carry flour and a small portable oven with the party.
[Sidenote: Organization.]
Interpreter-couriers are to be found at Tiflis and Vladikavkaz. These,
however, would not care to attach themselves to a climbing party, or,
in fact, to leave the roads at all; walking for even a few miles is not
in their line. There are guides and tariffs--fairly reasonable--for
both Kasbek and Elbrus. Good material undoubtedly exists for the
development of a school of real mountain guides, but their time is not
yet. A climbing party must bring its own guides, or, better still,
have some one in the party who, by previous experience or knowledge of
guideless climbing in the Alps, is qualified to act as guide and leader
on high ascents.
After bread and horses, porters are the principal worry for the leader
of a party in the Caucasus. The mountain tribes are independent and
‘huffy,’ and great tact and patience are needed in dealing with these
semi-civilized children of nature. The men are not, like the Swiss,
accustomed to carry heavy burdens, and are quite ready to throw up
their job and throw down their loads at or without a moment’s notice.
The cook is a very important member of the party. He stands for
creature comforts, and the party is fortunate which succeeds in
engaging a capable man at the town from which the expedition starts.
It is very necessary for all purposes that one at least of the party
should know some Russian. The cook-interpreter, if only one man is
engaged, must speak, besides Russian, at least one western European
language, and he must have a good knowledge of as many of the Caucasian
languages as possible.
[Sidenote: Maps.]
The general map of the country is that known as the 5-verst map, which
is to be obtained in Tiflis or from the principal London map-sellers.
It is on the scale of 5 versts = 3½ miles = 1 in 210,000, to the inch.
This, though quite accurate as far as the low country is concerned,
is of little use in the mountains. The best known map is that issued
with Messrs. Freshfield & Sellas’s _The Exploration of the Caucasus_
(Edward Arnold, London, 1896). It is on the 5-verst scale, and is a
useful general map, though the scale is too small to show the mountains
properly.
Herr Merzbacher issued with his weighty work, _Aus den Hochregionen des
Kaukasus_ (Leipzig, 1901), a very convenient map on the scale of 3⅓
versts = 1 in 140,000. This map is to be obtained from the publishers.
It endeavours to give more names, heights and details of mountains than
Mr. Freshfield’s; but this, in some cases, has led to a multiplication
of errors. Mountains have been inserted which explorers of the locality
have failed to find, and in the south-eastern portion of the central
group the nomenclature and heights given are often very misleading. By
far the most useful map, and the map which is practically indispensable
for the mountain explorer who is not prepared to make his own, is the
Russian 1-verst map. This is on a large scale (1/42000). It gives with
very considerable accuracy the forms of such glaciers and mountains
as are visible from positions reasonably accessible to the surveyors.
It seldom commits itself by giving any names at all to the peaks,
except to the principal ones--although the more important glaciers
are generally named. The printing of the names and figures--of course
in Russian characters--is often exceedingly bad. The maps are on the
hâchure system. With the exception of the sheet covering Kasbek, which
is on sale at Vladikavkaz, they can only be obtained through the
military authorities in Tiflis.
[Sidenote: Expense.]
This will, of course, greatly depend upon the style in which the
expedition is conducted. If a courier-interpreter is engaged, and Swiss
guides are brought, the expense must be expected to be considerable.
In spite of the general rise in the cost of living and in the price of
labour, which of late years has increased in the Caucasus--between 50
and a 100 per cent--an eight or nine weeks’ journey out from London
and back can be done comfortably at a cost not exceeding £100 for each
member of a party of four, five or six. Below are given a few prices,
based on the experience of the expeditions made in the years 1904, 1911
and 1913. They are, of course, only approximate. Foodstuffs will be
found not to vary so much in cost as the hire of horses and porters.
1904. 1911. 1913.
Horse, per day 1-3 R. 1½-2 R. 3-4 R.
Porter, per day -- 1 R. 1½-4 R.
Sheep (small) 4-6 R. -- 3-5 R.
Hens (small) 20-40 K. -- 35-50 K.
Eggs (small) 1-2 K. -- 1½-2 K.
Bread (about 2 lb.) 8 K. -- 10 K.
Cheese 15 K. -- 10-20 K.
Wine (Kakhetinskoe), litre -- -- 1 R.
Beer -- -- 15-20 K
Sucking-pig (very small) 2-3 R. -- 2 R.
Rouble = 2s. 1½d.
Kopeck = ¼d.
_Note._--All prices given are pre-war.