MOUNTAINEERING IN THE ARCTIC (SPITSBERGEN)
BY SIR W. MARTIN CONWAY
Since the expedition which I took to Spitsbergen in the years 1896 and
1897, I have not heard of any parties of mountaineers going to that
country. Mountains were incidentally climbed by the Russian-Swedish
surveyors, who went up there in several successive years to measure an
arc of the Meridian. Indeed, they discovered and climbed the highest
point in the main island, which Garwood and I had beheld afar off in
1897 but were unable to reach. Mountaineering, however, was merely
an incident in the work of those parties. It has always seemed to
me strange that English climbers have never followed our example in
the Far North, and it is therefore with little hope of being very
serviceable that I now accede to the request of the editor of this work
to contribute a chapter on “Arctic Mountaineering,” and how to set
to work about it. Truth to tell, my own memory of details has become
feeble; but such as it is, it shall be placed at the reader’s service.
[Sidenote: Modes of Access.]
The first question, of course, is how to get to Spitsbergen, and having
got there, how to get away from it; for though tourist steamers not
infrequently visit the western coast of the main island, they stop so
short a time as to be useless for even the briefest mountaineering
expeditions. The climber who wishes to have the best of the season
should arrive not earlier than the end of June, and start away at
latest towards the end of August, when the sun has already begun to set.
Nowadays a good many industrial enterprises, such as mines and, I
believe, quarries, are being prosecuted in Spitsbergen, so that
there must really be plenty of opportunities of being carried thither
from Tromsö and brought back again; but it is impossible to predict
beforehand what they will be. Probably the easiest way would be to make
arrangements with the owner of one of the Tromsö or Hammerfest fishing
sloops to convey the party up to its selected base and call for it
again on a day fixed in advance. The price that should be charged for
such accommodation ought to be moderate; but my experience of the North
Norwegians was that they are liable to open their mouths pretty wide
when they think they have a traveller in their power. In any case, such
arrangements are best made by an agent long in advance and with all
legal exactitude.
[Sidenote: Equipment and Outfit.]
The equipment necessary for Spitsbergen mountaineering need not be very
elaborate. The temperatures to be faced will not exceed those of an
ordinary English winter, and clothes will therefore not require to be
of the Arctic character we associate with Polar expeditions. But a man
does need to be really warmly clad with plenty of thick underclothing
and thoroughly strong garments. For when the wind blows and the snow
drives on the higher levels it is cold enough even at Midsummer, though
on rare occasions in still air the warmth of the sun may be felt to
a quite surprising degree. Near the sea-level and on the moraines
and rocks the strongest mountaineering boots are none too strong. I
doubt whether the ski-ing boots commonly worn for winter sport would
adapt themselves for use in such places. Once the upper levels of the
glaciers have been gained, which generally involves two or three days’
work with sledges from sea-level, travelling becomes easier and more
agreeable, and is done almost entirely on ski. Sledges, ski, warm
sleeping-bags, goat-hair stockings and warm clothing generally can be
bought very well at Bergen or Trondhjem on the way out; but it would be
well, as far as the sledges are concerned, to write beforehand and make
sure that they would be available. British consuls at those places or
the Norwegian Consul-General in London would doubtless inform inquirers
as to the names of the best shops to deal with. Reindeer sleeping-bags
are delightfully comfortable and warm, but they are distinctly heavy
and bulky. Good eiderdown sleeping-bags with a rug or two would, I
think, be quite warm enough till the 20th of August at any rate. The
best tents to take are relatively large tents of the ‘Mummery’ type,
made of strong Willesden canvas with rubber sheeting floor sewn in. It
is absolutely essential that the floor should be sewn in, otherwise the
tent could be easily blown away in a gale. I do not remember the exact
arrangements of the tents of this kind made for me by Edgington’s. The
floor space was probably about 6 feet or 6 feet 6 inches by 4 feet. The
height may be judged by the fact that for poles we used ice-axes, with
extra pieces about 18 inches long to fit over the points with a socket
to lengthen them. Three or even four people might be crowded into such
a tent, but no one would wish to share such a tent with more than one
companion on a pleasure journey of a few weeks’ duration. The remainder
of the kit would consist of cooking apparatus and supplies, to wit,
a primus stove, some aluminium plates and pans, aluminium spoons
and forks; and for provisions the usual tinned goods, concentrated
soups and pots of jam, and a sufficient quantity of highly nutritious
biscuits to take the place of bread. Far the best biscuits for this
purpose we found were named ‘Triticumina,’ which contained plasmon;
but the biscuits which have currants sandwiched into them form a very
welcome change.
A liberal supply of brown sugar in tins should on no account be
forgotten, though jam is almost as good. If the party contemplate
spending their time in one district of the island, they will probably
make for themselves a heavy and comfortable base camp, which may be as
well stored as they please, as it will, of course, be situated close
to the shore of some bay or harbour, and everything belonging to it
will be landed direct from the boat, so that the question of porterage
will not arise. This base camp ought to be equipped with a rowing boat
of the type called a whale boat, such as can be readily hired from any
North Norwegian port. It would be well to have one or two able-bodied
Norwegian sailors to man the boat and help drag the sledges, and no
difficulty would be experienced in finding in or about the Lofoten
Islands suitable men, skilful also in going on ski. Our experience
was that young unmarried men were to be preferred. The others got
home-sick.
[Sidenote: Plans of Campaign.]
A mountaineering expedition to Spitsbergen might lay out its plans on
many different lines, but, broadly speaking, there are two main choices
between which to select. In one, the mountains of the coast region
accessible directly in one day, or at most in two days, from the sea
would be the principal object of attention. In the other, the high
interior regions of inland ice remote from the shore, and the mountains
rising out of them, would be the goal. There is much to be said for
either plan. The former would be the less laborious and the more
comfortable; the latter harder work, more adventurous, and opening up a
stranger and more wonderful world. There is also a third region, that
of the unglaciated, boggy valleys around Advent Bay and Bell Sound;
but this, after a season’s experience, I cannot honestly recommend as
pleasant travelling country.
[Sidenote: From the Coast.]
Let us then take the other two alternatives one by one. Climbers who
would hug the coast may go up with a fairly large party prepared to
subdivide on arrival, and pitch base camps in different bays if so they
please. But a large party is, of course, not essential, and a couple
of good friends, with one or two Norwegian sailors at their disposal,
would have a very good time on shore or afloat in their whale boat.
Having chosen a well-protected landing-place with a shelving beach up
which to haul their boat, and having pitched their tents well out of
reach of the highest tides and storms, they could either climb the
mountains close at hand, or they could row off or sail away in their
boat to any others accessible from their fjord, taking with them a
light camp and provisions only for two or three days. Or, again, they
can make short trips of one or two days’ duration merely into the
interior, not cumbering themselves with a sledge, but carrying on
their backs a very light camping equipment of a kind brought to much
perfection by the Amateur Camping Club. On this system the same base
camp need not be adhered to for the whole season, but in suitable
weather it could be moved, by help of the whale boat, even from one of
the western fiords to another.
The great question which naturally arises is what sites by the seashore
are best suited for climbing centres. Broadly speaking, the north half
and the south toe of the main island alone come into consideration,
for the east islands are not practically accessible, nor would it
often be wise to make a sea-base at all far to the eastward on the
north coast. Practically, therefore, we may take the coast-line round
from Wijde Bay westward and then southward down the coast to King’s
Bay, then all along either coast to Foreland Sound to the mouth of Ice
Sound, whilst at the south end of the island only Horn Sound need be
considered.
Coming now to detail, in the high summer of a very open season, when
the ice-pack has withdrawn to somewhere in the neighbourhood of 80°
30“, it might be safe to make a base camp for a week or two in Wijde
Bay itself, preferably on its eastern shore, from which the high peaks
of 7000 feet and thereabouts, which range down the west side of New
Friesland, can be climbed in a two-day expedition. These peaks are
very indifferently explored; only the highest of them has ever been
climbed; they stand in the midst of a region of extraordinary interest,
and must command wonderful views to the eastward over the little-known
north-east land and away off to the romantic Wyches Islands. Probably
there is no district in the whole Archipelago which would so well
reward the season’s work; whilst if the ice-pack were to come down and
seal the mouth of Wijde Bay, retreat is always open overland to Cape
Thordsen in Ice Sound by one or other of two obvious routes.
A less heroic base could be found at a dozen points near the north-east
angle of the island, and this is probably the best and most practical
region to choose; for here it would be possible to shift the base camp
every few days, whilst there are any number of mountains rising from
the coast built of the hard primary rocks and apparently offering
delectable scrambles. The main bay, called Mauritius Bay by the Dutch
in the old days, and in particular the south-east corner, would
probably be the best place to begin. The labyrinth of glaciers that
empty into Redcliff Sound must be well worth a visit, and the same is
true of the peaks and glaciers of Magdalena Bay. The fact that the
whole of this region has been admirably mapped by the Prince of Monaco
is a further advantage for the prospective climber. Between Magdalena
Bay and Close Cove (now wrongly called Cross Bay) there is no place
for a base camp; but Close Cove, King’s Bay, Cove Comfortless and
the north part of Prince Charles’s Foreland form together an enclosed
area containing innumerable excellent coast-line bases. Probably
one of the narrow bays at the head of Close Cove would provide an
attractive situation, besides giving access to an intimately glaciated
and beridged interior. But the south-east extremity of King’s Bay,
as we found, is a delightful situation, and from it the Three Crowns
and countless other peaks can be reached. Prince Charles’s Foreland
has been excellently mapped by Dr. Bruce, and seems to have some good
climbing peaks, most of which, and all of those along the opposite side
of Foreland Sound, await their first experience of a human foot. It
must be admitted that the region nearest the west coast suffers from
the worst weather, for it continually happens that the clouds lie low,
whilst above the level of 1000 or 1200 feet there is brilliant sunshine
for days and perhaps weeks together, and of course no night at all.
From Horn Sound in the south some splendid peaks are accessible, only
one of which has ever been climbed. This is perhaps the best place for
a week or two at the close of the season, though it might be rather
difficult to get there in an open boat from the northern parts. The
hospitality of some passing steamer, however, might be available for
such transfer.
[Sidenote: Into the Interior.]
Far more interesting and delightful, however, than merely climbing
peaks from a sea-base is a bold venture into the far interior. Indeed,
a climber standing on the summit of any peak and looking inland over
the vast glaciers and at the countless ranges and beautiful mountains
spread abroad before him on a clear day will, I think, be irresistibly
drawn into that white labyrinth. Of course the most delightful
experience is a traverse of some part of the island from sea to sea.
This requires a good deal of organization, because it is necessary to
have a boat to meet the party arriving from the other side at some
point arranged in advance. From Magdalena Bay to Cross Bay the traverse
has been made, and leads through splendid scenery. More interesting,
because new, would be the traverse from Wood Bay to King’s Bay, or from
King’s Bay along the King’s Highway and down to North Fjord; or again,
from the head of Sassen Bay over to the east coast and back. It would
scarcely be possible to have a boat prepared to meet a party on the
east coast, so that either from Ice Sound or Bell Sound journeys to the
east coast must be made to and fro by the same route. In the nature
of things little general advice can be given for such expeditions;
each must be organized according to its own special circumstances. It
is obvious, in any case, a large margin would have to be provided for
the unexpected. A sledge may break down, or delays may be caused in
a thousand ways, so that a considerable reserve stock of provisions
must be taken. The first day from the coast, sometimes the first two
days, will be very laborious. A sledge and its load will have to be
carried by repeated journeys over rough ground and generally over broad
moraines before the camp can be pitched at the edge of the clear ice.
Then, generally speaking, there will be a crevassed region to traverse,
where progress must be slow; but after two or three days at the outside
easier conditions will be met with. Soon, however, the snow-covered
belt of the glacier will be reached, and as at this time of year a
slight but continuous thaw is proceeding, it necessarily follows that,
where there are no crevasses to drain off the water, there will be
a wild belt covered with water-logged snow and intersected by wide
and rushing streams which it is often very difficult to cross. The
water-logged snow is merely unpleasant and laborious, as the ski and
the sledge will sink into it, and every hollow thus made is instantly
filled with ice-cold water. The only way to deal with the big streams
is to follow up alongside of them till they divide into smaller brooks
which can be crossed in detail. Yet higher up, however, the thaw is
left behind and a splendid hard surface is found, over which ski-ing
and sledging are a pleasant pastime, and longer distances can be
covered in a day’s march. Out of this higher region peaks, of no great
absolute height indeed, but of fine form, arise in all directions, and
from a suitably chosen high camp it will be possible in a few days to
make many ascents, either of summits in the ranges bordering one’s own
glacier on either hand, or in other ranges behind them which can be
readily reached over undulating passes.
[Sidenote: Exceptional and Beautiful Phenomena.]
A traveller who has made one such expedition into the interior of
Spitsbergen will have become acquainted with glacier phenomena such
as no ordinary alpine region can display. The pools and ice caverns
of Arctic glaciers, the strange blue river-tunnels through the ice,
the burst lakes scattering huge ice-blocks afar, the curious sheaves
of crystalline ice-rods, the rivers of water stained crimson by
disintegrating dolomite rock and flowing over the white ice-like veins
of jasper in marble, the frozen heaps of ice, in shape like volcanoes,
which rise where springs force themselves out of the ground--these and
many other strange and beautiful sights await the student of glaciers
in the Arctic regions. Moreover, the glaciers themselves have quite
a different look from alpine glaciers. They appear to be far more
viscous, as in fact they are, so that if they end on a piece of flat
ground and do not reach the sea, the end spreads out into a great round
mass, as a stream of honey might if it emerged from some narrow gap on
to a flat area. But where a glacier reaches the sea, and especially
a great glacier perhaps seven miles in width, it has to terminate,
of course, in a splendid cliff, and this cliff is, as it were, made
of towering _séracs_, blue in the hollows and white on the crown, in
height perhaps 100 feet above the water-level, and these _séracs_ are
continually falling into the sea and breaking up into little icebergs,
causing a great commotion in the waters as they plunge in their fall
and jostle against one another till they come to rest.
Nor must I forget to mention another of the great glories of this
mountain region, to wit, the long sunset. Towards the middle of August
the sun, in the hours corresponding to midnight, approaches close to
the horizon, and presently actually dips beneath it. It follows that
a sunset colouring, paler and more delicate but not less beautiful
than that we know in the Alps, illumines the sky, the clouds, the
mountains and the glaciers at this time, and that not merely for a few
minutes but for four or five hours on end, according to the atmospheric
conditions. I know of nothing more wonderful than to climb a mountain
which commands a wide view over the flat, fog-covered ocean and the
clear, snow-covered interior when the whole of this enormous expanse
shines pink in the lights and blue in the shadows, and the effect lasts
on for four or five hours spent amid such surroundings.
[Sidenote: Summary, Cost, etc.]
But it is not my business to describe the beauties of Arctic scenery
in this place, but only to indicate as best I may how the intending
mountain traveller in those regions may set to work. Conditions,
of course, of accessibility and the like change from year to year,
especially nowadays when Spitsbergen has become the scene of industrial
undertakings; it will be necessary for any intending traveller to make
inquiries well ahead as to the circumstances attending his own case. I
feel convinced, however, that an enterprising party of three or four
climbers could spend a season in Spitsbergen and have an excellent
time at not more than twice the cost of a corresponding season in the
Alps, and possibly for a good deal less. Ingenuity, adaptability and
enterprise will be essential. After all, for what kind of travel that
is worth while are they not?
_Note._--The foregoing was written before the war. Recent commercial
developments have made Spitsbergen much more easy of access.