first few months of its life is usually not sufficient to yield as many
Calories as given in the table above. But while the baby is adjusting
itself to artificial feeding, it is especially necessary that the stomach
be not overtaxed. As the infant develops, the quantity of food can be
increased and the deficiency made up later.
QUESTIONS
Define certified, pasteurized, sterilized, modified, and top milk.
Give reasons for sterilizing utensils used for measuring and holding milk.
In preparing modified milk why is milk diluted? Why is sugar added?
What is the price per quart of certified milk?
LESSON CLVII
MODIFYING MILK
Modify cow's milk according to a formula secured from a physician or
baby's dispensary. Pasteurize milk.
LESSON CLVIII
REVIEW--MEAL COOKING
MENU
Baked Sweet Potatoes or Scalloped Potatoes
Apple Dumpling (made with pastry or biscuit dough)
See Lesson XIV, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CLIX
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 119: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--If pies are served in your home, bake at least
one pie a week. In case pies are not used, bake cake in which different
quantities of fat are used.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To compare One- and Two-crust Pies. Prepare each kind.
Determine the difference in cost, time of preparation, and quality of the
crust of each. Which kinds of pies do you consider more successful in
regard to quality? Which is cheaper? Which kind meets the approval of
other members of your home?
(2) To compare Cake Containing Little and Much Fat. Follow the recipe for
One-egg or Plain Cake. Vary the quantity of fat from 1/8 to 1/2 cupful.
Make comparisons regarding cost, texture, grain, and flavor. Which amount
do you consider most successful from the standpoint of texture, grain, and
flavor?
DIVISION SIXTEEN
FROZEN DESSERTS
LESSON CLX
METHOD OF FREEZING--WATER ICE
EXPERIMENT 79: MIXTURES FOR FREEZING.--Prepare 2 cupfuls of cracked ice.
Place 1 cupful of the cracked ice in each of two bowls. To one bowl of ice
add 1/3 cupful of rock salt, and mix thoroughly. Insert thermometers into
both bowls and note temperature. What effect does the salt have upon the
temperature of the ice?
Allow the ice mixture to stand a few minutes, then observe the difference
in the condition of the ice in the two bowls. Besides lowering the
temperature, what does the salt do to the ice?
FREEZING WITH ICE AND SALT.--When a solid substance is changed to a
liquid, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. When solid ice
liquefies, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. Salt makes ice
liquefy at a lower temperature, thus absorbing more heat from its
surroundings. Since foods must be cooled, i.e. heat drawn from them, in
order to freeze them, a mixture of ice and salt rather than ice is used in
freezing.
If ice and salt surround a tin can containing substances to be frozen,
from what is the heat absorbed when the ice is changed to liquid form?
Explain why it is that a mixture of ice and salt, rather than ice alone,
is used to freeze a dessert.
CONDUCTORS OF HEAT.--In Experiment 2 and in, _The Principle of Fireless
Cookery_, it is shown that some materials are better conductors of heat
than others. Which is a better conductor of heat, wood or metal? Explain
why it is that most freezers consist of an inner can of metal and an outer
bucket of wood. A few freezers have an outside metal bucket. Such freezing
devices have been found more satisfactory when heavy paper is tied around
the outer metal bucket.
COOLING BY EVAPORATION.--If a few drops of alcohol, ether, or gasoline are
poured in the palm of the hand and allowed to evaporate, the hand feels
cold. During evaporation, the liquid takes heat from the hand. When any
liquid evaporates, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. Water may
be cooled by placing it in a porous jar and hanging it in a breeze.
When there is no ice, this principle of cooling by the rapid evaporation
of a liquid may be applied to the cooling of butter and other foods. Wrap
butter in an oiled paper and place it in a flower crock or any porous jar.
Place the crock in a draft; put a bowl of water beside it. Wrap a wet
cloth about the crock and place one end of it in the bowl of water. The
continuous evaporation of the moisture keeps the food cool.
PREPARING AND PACKING THE FREEZER.--Scald the can, the cover, and the
dasher of the freezer; cool it before the mixture that is to be frozen is
placed in it. Adjust the can carefully in the bucket; put in the dasher;
pour in the mixture, cover; adjust the crank. Crush the ice for freezing
by placing it in a strong bag and pounding it with a wooden mallet. Mix
the ice with rock salt in the proportion given below. Then pour the ice
and salt mixture around the can of the freezer. The ice and salt mixture
should be higher around the can than the level of the mixture inside.
For _freezing_ ice creams and most ices use _three_ parts of
cracked ice to _one_ of rock salt. If ice of coarse grain is desired,
use a greater quantity of salt. The less salt in
proportion to ice used, the finer the grain; the process of freezing,
however, takes place very slowly when little salt is used.
For mixtures which are frozen by merely packing in ice and salt but are
not stirred, such as mousse or parfait, use _two_ parts of cracked
ice to _one_ of rock salt.
For packing frozen mixtures after freezing, use _four_ parts of
cracked ice to _one_ of rock salt.
FREEZING.--If a dessert of fine texture is desired, turn the crank slowly
and steadily until the mixture is rather stiff, then turn more rapidly. In
making water ices, it is considered advisable by some to turn the crank
steadily for 5 minutes, then allow to stand 5 minutes, turn again 5
minutes, and continue until freezing is completed. Do not draw off the
salt water while freezing the mixture, unless the salt water stands so
high that there is danger of its getting into the can.
When the mixture is frozen, remove the ice and salt around the top of the
can; wipe the cover and top; uncover; and remove the dasher. Then stir the
frozen mixture thoroughly; place thin paper or paraffin paper over the
can; cover; place a cork in the hole of the cover. Drain off all the water
which has collected in freezing; repack the freezer with ice and salt
mixture in the proportion given above; cover with carpet, blanket, or
newspapers; and allow to stand in a cold place several hours.
FRUIT ICE
4 cupfuls water
2 3/4 cupfuls sugar
3 oranges
3 lemons
3 bananas
1/4 teaspoonful salt
Make a sirup of the sugar and water, and then cool it. Extract the juice
from the lemons and oranges; crush the peeled and scraped bananas with a
wooden potato masher. Mix the fruits and salt immediately with the sirup.
Freeze _at once_. When frozen, remove the dasher and repack as
directed above.
A less expensive but more mildly flavored ice may be prepared by using 3
pints of water (instead of 4 cupfuls). When the greater quantity of water
is used, 3 1/4 cupfuls (instead of 2 3/4 cupfuls) of sugar should be used.
These recipes for Fruit Ice are modifications of the popular recipe termed
"Five Threes."
QUESTIONS
Explain why it is necessary to scald the can, cover, and dasher of an ice
cream freezer (see _Care of Milk_).
What harm sometimes results when an ice cream freezer has been carelessly
prepared?
Why should not the salt water be drawn from the freezer during freezing
(see Experiment 79)?
What is the purpose of placing paper over the can when packing the frozen
mixture?
What is the purpose of covering the packed freezer with carpet, blanket,
or newspapers (see _The Principle of Fireless Cookery_)?
Why is it well to tie heavy paper around an _outside metal_ bucket of
a freezer?
Why should "Fruit Ice" mixture be frozen _at once_ after preparing the
fruit?
Heat aids chemical action. Can you explain why acid mixtures are not acted
upon by the metal and consequently discolored when _frozen_ in a tin
or iron can?
LESSON CLXI
FROZEN CREAMS
Frozen desserts consist of:
1. CREAM MIXTURES:
(_a_) _Plain Ice Cream_.--Cream, sugar, and flavoring. This is
sometimes called Philadelphia Ice Cream.
(_b_) _French Ice Cream_.--Custard, cream, and flavoring. On the
continent, this frozen mixture is called Neapolitan Ice Cream. In this
country, three kinds of frozen mixtures served together make up what is
termed Neapolitan Ice Cream.
(_c_) _Mousse_.--Whipped cream, folded into various sweetened
and flavored mixtures, placed in a mold, and packed in ice and salt, but
not beaten.
2. WATER MIXTURES:
(_a_) _Water Ice._--Fruit juice, water, and sugar.
(_b_) _Sherbet._--Water ice with the addition of dissolved
gelatine or beaten whites of eggs.
(_c_) _Frappe._--Water ice of coarse texture.
(_d_) _Granite._--Water ice to which fruit is added after
freezing.
3. FROZEN PUDDINGS:
Various sweet mixtures.
METHOD OF MIXING FROZEN FOODS.--The sugar of a frozen dessert should
always be dissolved. To accomplish this a sirup should be made of the
sugar and water (see Experiment 11). For mixtures that contain no eggs,
but in which cream or milk is used, the cream or milk may be scalded, and
the sugar dissolved in the hot liquid. If eggs are used to thicken ice
cream, they should be combined with the sugar and cream and cooked as for
a soft custard.
In sherbets, whites of eggs are often used. They are usually beaten stiff,
and added uncooked to the mixture. If fruit juice is to be used with milk
or cream, the latter should be chilled before adding the fruit. Fruits
that are to be frozen with the other ingredients should be crushed
thoroughly. Small fruits, or large fruits cut in pieces, are
sometimes added to a dessert after it is frozen, thereby preventing the
fruit from freezing and becoming hard. All frozen mixtures should stand
several hours before serving, in order to ripen.
PLAIN ICE CREAM
1 quart cream
3/4 cupful sugar
1 tablespoonful vanilla
Prepare as directed in _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods._
CHOCOLATE ICE CREAM
1 quart cream
1 cupful sugar
2 ounces chocolate
1/3 cupful boiling water
Salt
1 teaspoonful vanilla
Scald the cream; add the sugar to it. Prepare the chocolate in the usual
way, by cooking it in the boiling water until a smooth paste is formed
(see _Chocolate_). Add the chocolate mixture to the hot cream. Cool,
add salt and vanilla, and freeze.
FRENCH ICE CREAM
1 quart cream
1 pint milk
3 egg yolks
Salt
1 cupful sugar
1 tablespoonful vanilla
Prepare as directed in _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods_.
FRUIT ICE CREAM
2 cupfuls fruit juice, _or_ 3 cupfuls crushed fruit
1 quart cream
2 cupfuls sugar
Prepare and freeze according to the _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods_.
For Frozen Fruit or Water Ice, use water instead of cream.
The flavor of most fruits is improved by adding 2 tablespoonfuls of lemon
juice to the water mixture.
QUESTIONS
For Fruit Ice Cream, why is it necessary to chill the cream before adding
the fruit juice or crushed fruit (see Experiment 61)?
Why is it necessary to crush the fruit for frozen fruit mixture?
How much sugar would be required to sweeten one and one half quarts of
custard, according to the recipe for Soft Custard? Compare this with the
quantity of sugar used for French Ice Cream. How do extremely cold
beverages affect the sense of taste? From this, account for the difference
in the quantity of sugar used in frozen and in cold desserts. Also compare
the quantity of sugar and vanilla used in Chocolate Ice Cream and
Chocolate Beverage. Account for the difference.
Approximately how much ice is required to freeze and pack one quart of Ice
Cream? What is the cost of ice per hundred pounds?
How many persons does one quart of ice cream serve?
RELATED WORK
LESSON CLXII
DIET FOR YOUNG CHILDREN
SELECTION OF FOOD FOR CHILDREN (2 to 12 years).--Although solid food is
included in the diet of a child after the first year, the baby is by no
means ready for the food of adults. Childhood differs essentially from
maturity in that it is a period of growth. In proportion to weight a child
is much more active than an adult. A child has not the reserve power of a
grown-up person. His organs of digestion and assimilation are delicate.
Because the activities and needs of the child differ greatly from those of
the adult, diet suitable for the adult is not adapted to the child. A
consideration of foods for young children follows:
(1) _Milk_.--Since milk is the food provided for young animals, it
should be used generously all through childhood. The nutritive value of
milk is high in proportion to the effort required to digest and assimilate
it. The average child with good digestion should take from one and one
half pints to one quart daily until the tenth year. In this amount is
included not only the milk that is used as a beverage, but the milk served
with cereals and vegetables and that used in soups, custards, blanc mange,
rice and bread puddings, and other easily digested desserts.
(2) _Cereals and Breads_.--Well-cooked cereals are among the
essential foods of childhood. "Ready-to-serve" breakfast cereals are
undesirable as staples for young children. Cereals should be _cooked_
from _one_ to _three hours_. For very young children (under
eighteen months) all cereals must be strained. For older children,
unstrained cereals may be used, provided they are thoroughly cooked.
Frequent use of the whole grains, as rolled oats and wheat, is
recommended. These cereals contain more protein and ash than the finer
cereals and hence may be better body-builders, but they also contain much
bran. Usually the latter does not prove irritating if thoroughly cooked.
But if these coarse cereals do cause irritation they should either be
strained or the cereals containing less bran, as cream of wheat, farina,
and arrowroot, should be used. Cereals should be served with milk or
cream, but with no sugar or sirup or not more than one teaspoonful to a
serving.
Carefully made toast, "zwieback," and stale bread may be given to young
children. On account of the difficulty in digesting fresh breads, they are
excluded from children's diet.
(3) _Eggs_ are especially good foods for children, provided they are
fresh and properly cooked. They should be cooked in some way which leaves
them soft such as soft-cooking or poaching. Only soft-cooked egg yolks
should be given to children under three years. One whole egg per day may
be included in the diet of older children.
(4) _Broth and Meat_.--There is some difference of opinion regarding
the use of meat in children's diet. Some authorities advise beef broth and
the more easily digested meats for young children. Others say that if a
generous amount of eggs and milk is included in children's diet, it is
well not to give them meat before eight years. In the diets for children
from two to eight years, neither broth nor meat is included. It is
possible to obtain sufficient protein from milk and eggs. Doubtless, as
with adults, most young children would be benefited by much less meat than
is generally given them or by none at all. If meat is given to young
children, it should be scraped (see Experiment 50) and pan-broiled (see
_Pan-Broiling_), as it is somewhat difficult to masticate.
(5) _Fresh Vegetables_ should be included in children's diet. For
very young children select mild vegetables such as spinach, asparagus
tips, string beans, and peas. Cook until very soft and press through a
sieve or mash. Later, such cooked vegetables as potatoes (baked or
mashed), beets, carrots, cauliflower, and squash may be added. No uncooked
vegetables should be given to young children.
(6) _Fruits and Sugar_.--Fruits are especially valuable for children.
Care should be taken, however, in selecting fruits. It is said that until
a child is five years old only cooked fruits and the juice of fresh fruits
should be given. For very young children the juice of orange or the pulp
of cooked prunes should be given daily, because they contain valuable
nutrients and possess laxative properties. For older children the cooked
food fruits (see _Kinds of Fruits_) such as dates, figs, and raisins
(without seeds), and bananas (baked) are desirable. Apples, peaches, and
apricots, baked or made into sauces, are also suggested.
Fruits should be cooked with little or no sugar. Sweets in the form of
sweet fruits rather than sugar and candy should be given to children under
six years. After six years, very little candy or sweet chocolate may be
given at the end of a meal, not between meals. It is a mistake to give
children candy just because they want it (see _The Use of Candy in
Diet_.)
(7) _Desserts_.--Fruits selected and prepared as given in the
previous section, very plain cakes--sponge cake and those containing
little fat--and easily digested desserts made of eggs, milk, cereals,
etc., are the only desserts suitable for young children.
(8) _Water and Other Beverages_.--"Pure" water in generous quantities
is needed for children. Water and milk are the only beverages (if milk can
be considered a beverage) that should be given to children under six
years. After that age, cocoa made with much milk may be given, but not
tea, coffee, or any carbonated drinks.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PROPER DIET FOR CHILDREN cannot be over-emphasized. It
is a child's right to be "hardy." Good food in proper quantity given at
the right time is essential for the sure and steady growth of the body.
The child's future health, usefulness, and happiness depend much upon the
nourishment he receives. If insufficient food, or food lacking in
foodstuffs for growth, is given to children, a wasting away of brain cells
and muscle may take place and stunted growth will result. The additional
care in preparing special menus for children is an effort well worth
making; its compensation is inestimable. If from babyhood a child is given
his own special diet, it is possible to satisfy him at the table with food
that differs from that of the rest of the family. Habits of eating plain
food should be established in childhood. Mrs. Richards says: "Habit rather
than instinct guides civilized man in the choice of food." Likes or
dislikes for food should not be discussed in the presence of children.
Such discussions may establish distaste for a food of decided nutritive
value.
_Regularity in feeding_ children is most important. There should be
no lunches between meals. It is important also that a child be taught to
_masticate_ food thoroughly.
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF CHILDREN OF DIFFERENT AGES.--It is difficult to
write definitely regarding the quantity of food that should be given to
children. As with adults, some children require more than others. The
personal factor enters largely into this question. In Lesson CXXIV the
energy requirements of children of different ages are given (see
_Relation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement_). As stated there,
these tables indicate the energy requirement of children of normal size,
development, and activity. Note that in the menus given below the Calories
derived from protein are approximately one seventh of the total Calories
(see _Daily Protein Requirement_).
The following menus [Footnote 120: Prepared by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor of Nutrition, School of Household Arts, Teachers
College, Columbia University (see Teachers College Bulletin, "The Feeding
of Young Children," pp. 6-9).] for children from two to twelve years were
prepared for average children of moderate activity in a family of limited
income.
MEALS FOR ONE DAY
_Child 2-4 Years Old_
Breakfast: 7:30 A.M. Oatmeal Mush 0.8 ounce dry cereal
Milk 1 1/2 cupfuls
Stale Bread 1 slice
Orange Juice 4 tablespoonfuls
Lunch: 11 A.M. Milk 1 cupful
Stale Bread 1 slice
Butter 1 teaspoonful
Dinner: 1 P.M. Baked Potato 1
Boiled Onion (Mashed) 1
Bread and Butter 1 slice
Milk to Drink 1 cupful
Baked Apple 1
Supper: 5:30 P.M. Boiled Rice 1 cupful
Milk 3/4 cupful
Bread and Butter 1 slice
Fuel Value, 1313 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 191.2.
Substitutes or Additions:
For Rolled Oats or Rice: Other cereals, such as rolled wheat, wheaten
grits, farina, hominy, and corn-meal.
For Orange Juice and Baked Apple: Prune pulp or apple sauce.
For Onions: Spinach, strained peas, stewed celery, carrots, or cauliflower
tips.
An egg may be added every day, and should be included at least two or
three times a week.
These changes will alter the cost somewhat.
_Child 4-8 Years Old_
Breakfast: Oatmeal 1 1/2 ounces dry cereal
Top Milk 4 ounces
Stewed Prunes 4 or 5
Toast 1 slice
Milk to Drink 6 ounces
Dinner: Pea Soup 1 cupful
Croutons 1 slice bread
Boiled Onions 2 small
Baked Potato 1 large
Molasses Cookies 2
Supper: Cream Toast 2 slices bread
Rice Pudding with
Milk and Sugar 1 cupful
Milk to Drink 5 ounces
Fuel Value, 1892 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 261.6.
Substitutes or Additions:
For Rolled Oats: Other cereals, as suggested on previous page.
For Onions and Peas: Strained dried beans; other vegetables carefully
cooked; fresh lettuce.
For Prunes: Fresh ripe apples, baked bananas, other mild fruits well
cooked.
For Rice Pudding: Junkets, custards, blanc manges, bread puddings, and
other very simple desserts.
For Cookies: Gingerbread, sponge cake, or very plain cookies.
_Child 8-12 Years Old_
Breakfast: Oatmeal Mush 1 1/2 ounces dry cereal
Top Milk 6 ounces
Stewed Prunes 6 or 7
Toast 2 slices
Milk to Drink 6 ounces
Luncheon: Pea Soup 1 cupful
Boiled Onions 2 small
Baked Potato 1 large
Bread and Butter 2 slices bread
Molasses Cookies 3 cookies
Dinner: Baked Haddock small serving (2 ounces)
Creamed Hashed Potato 3/4 cupful
Spinach 1/2 cupful
Bread and Butter 2 slices
Rice Pudding--Milk
and Sugar 1 cupful
Fuel Value, 2420 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 345.6.
Substitutes or Additions:
For Rolled Oats: Other cereals thoroughly cooked.
For Haddock: Rare beefsteak, roast beef, or mutton chops; other fish,
especially white varieties.
For Prunes: Any mild ripe fruit uncooked or cooked.
For Onions: String beans, stewed celery, beets, squash. Peas or Spinach:
Turnips or cauliflower.
_Suggestive Dietary for Child who will not Drink Milk, Age 5 Years_
(1 quart milk concealed in the menu.)
Breakfast:
7 A.M. Oatmeal 1/4 cup cereal cooked in 1 cupful
milk
Creamy Egg on Toast 1 egg yolk with 1/2 slice bread
and 1/4 cupful milk
Cocoa 1 teaspoonful cocoa and 1/4 cupful
milk
10 A.M. "Zwieback" and Cream 1 piece "zwieback" and 1
tablespoonful cream
1:30 P.M. Spinach Soup 4 ounces
Baked Potato with 1 potato and 2 tablespoonfuls
Cream cream
Bread and Butter 1 slice
Caramel Junket 1 1/2 cupfuls
5:30 P.M. Rice and Prunes 2 tablespoonfuls rice cooked in
1/2 cupful milk, and 5 prunes
"Zwieback" 1 slice
Total Calories, 1431; Calories from protein, 207.6.
QUESTIONS
Give at least three reasons why young children should have different food
from adults.
Why are not ready-to-serve cereals suitable staple foods for young
children?
What are the advantages of using whole grains for children's food?
Why not serve sugar with breakfast cereals for children?
Why is not meat a desirable food for most young children?
Why are fresh vegetables and fruits such necessary foods for children?
LESSON CLXIII
PLANNING AND PREPARING MENUS FOR CHILDREN
Plan [Footnote 121: See Footnote 72.] a day's feeding for a child of five
years, meeting the total energy and the protein requirements. Prepare
these foods.
LESSON CLXIV
REVIEW--MEAL COOKING
MENU
Creamed Vegetable
Apricot Dainty
Coffee
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CLXV
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 122: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Plan a week's diet for a small sister,
brother, or other child in whom you are interested. (Follow suggestions
given in Lesson CLXII.) Calculate the total Calorific value and Calories
derived from protein. Does your menu consist of foods which furnish the
proper Calorific value and Calories derived from protein?
SUPPOSED AIMS: (1) If your menus do not conform to the requirements, to
change them so as to meet the requirements of the young child.
(2) If possible, to arrange to have your menus prepared and fed to the
child, assisting as much as possible in the preparation of the food and in
the feeding of the child.
DIVISION SEVENTEEN
FOOD PRESERVATION
LESSON CLXVI