Doilies with pads underneath them, lunch or breakfast cloths, or table
runners (see Figure 33) may be used instead of the table-cloth. The two
latter coverings are especially practical, since they are more quickly
laundered than table-cloths. Their initial cost is also usually less than
that of a table-cloth.
Doilies may be placed on the serving tray. They are also often used on
plates containing crackers, bread, and cakes. Baked potatoes, corn, and
hot breads may be served in a folded napkin.
CHINA AND GLASSWARE.--The term "cover" means the space, with its china,
silver, and glassware, allowed for each guest. At least twenty-two inches
of space should be allowed for a cover (see Figure 33).
The quantity of china on the table depends upon the occasion and the style
of serving. In any form of service, the first course, if cold, may be
placed on the table before the guests are seated. If the first course is a
hot food, it is always placed on the table after the guests are seated.
For informal occasions, and sometimes for formal occasions, the bread-and-
butter plate is used. It is placed beyond the tines of the fork. Glasses
are placed beyond the tip of the knife. A sugar bowl and cream pitcher,
salts, peppers, etc., may also be placed on the table. A salt and a pepper
shaker should be placed so as to be accessible to each two covers. Dishes
containing olives or nuts are sometimes placed on the table before the
guests are seated.
For breakfast, the coffeepot, hot-water pitcher, milk and cream pitchers,
spoon tray, and cups and saucers may be placed so as to form a semicircle
about the hostess's place. The coffeepot should be placed at the right,
and the cups and saucers at the left. If tiles or stands for the coffeepot
and hot-water pitcher are used, they should also be a part of the table
service. A large tray may be used to hold all of the coffee service.
If the serving is to be done without a maid, it is advisable to place all
the china, glass, and silver to be used for the meal either on the table
or on the serving table.
SILVER.--Convenience and order have determined the customary way of
placing the silver at each cover. At the right of the plates place the
knives, the spoons, and the forks that are to be used without knives (as
for oysters, fish, or salad). At the left, place all the forks that are to
be used with knives. Many prefer, however, to place all the forks, except
the oyster fork, at the left of the plate. Enough silver for all courses,
except the dessert course, is usually placed on the table; it is
permissible, however, to place the silver for all courses. If the silver
for any course is not placed on the table before the meal is announced, it
may be brought in on a tray and placed at each cover just before serving
the course; or it may be laid on each serving dish of the course.
While a general rule for laying silver is to place each piece at each
cover in the order of its use, _the knives are usually all grouped
together at the right of the plate and the spoons laid together at the
right of the knives._ It is advisable, however, to place the spoons and
knives in the order of their use, _i.e._ place the spoon that is to
be used first farthest to the right and the knife that is to be used
first, farthest to the right of the group of knives. Since only forks are
placed at the left of the plate, they should be laid in the order of their
use, that first to be used being placed farthest to the left (see Figure
33).
All silver should be placed from one half to one inch from the edge of the
table; the sharp edges of the blades of the knives should be turned
towards the plates; the spoons and forks should be placed with their bowls
and tines turned up. The butter spreaders may be laid across the bread-
and-butter plates. Generally when soup and raw oysters are served, the
oyster fork is laid across the soup spoon. If the silver that is to be
used in serving a dish of food is placed on the table, it should be laid
_beside_ not _in_ the dish of food.
TABLE ACCESSORIES.--A low bowl of flowers or fruit, tastefully arranged,
makes a pleasing centerpiece. A centerpiece, however, should be a real
source of pleasure; it should not obstruct the view of guests opposite
(see Figure 33).
Place cards afford a graceful means of seating guests. When used, they
should be placed on the napkin. Menu cards, sometimes used for occasional
dinners, are also placed on the napkin.
STYLES OF SERVING
There are several styles of serving:
ENGLISH (ordinary family service).--The foods are served at the table, the
host serving fish, meat, and vegetables; the hostess serving soup, salad,
and dessert; and other members of the family serving fruit and the
vegetables that are served in individual dishes. The served dishes may be
passed to each guest by the maid, or when no maid serves, they may be
passed from one person to another. This method is used for family and
informal service, and also when serving is done without a maid.
RUSSIAN (serving from the side).--This may be observed in one of two ways:
(_a_) Foods are separated into portions on individual plates and
placed before the guests.
(_b_) Foods are separated into portions on the serving dishes and
passed to the left of each guest so that he may help himself, or the
portions may be served by the maid. The necessary serving spoon or fork
should be provided with the serving dishes. The Russian style of serving
is the most formal and requires the service of at least one maid.
COMPROMISE.--Sometimes it is desirable to use one style of serving for one
course and another style for another course, as the Russian style for the
soup course, and the English style for the meat course. Or the foods of
one course may be in such form that it is convenient to follow both styles
of serving, as meat served in English style and "side dishes" served in
Russian style. Such style of serving is termed the compromise.
METHODS OF SERVING WITH A MAID
ESTABLISHED RULES FOR SERVING.--While each hostess follows her own
inclination in the details of serving, there are certain rules that are
always observed:
Cold foods are served on cold dishes; hot foods on hot dishes.
Dishes offered to a guest are _passed_ to the left of the guest;
other dishes are _placed_ to the right of a guest, except when a
plate is placed at the same time a soiled or served plate is removed,--it
is then placed at the left. Plates are removed from the right when
possible.
When the Russian style of serving is observed, the following plan of
removing and placing plates at the close of a course is followed:
The maid carries the clean or served plate of the following course in her
right hand and goes to the left of the guest. She removes the soiled plate
of the course just concluded with her left hand and then places the empty
or served plate before the guest with her right hand. She then goes to the
kitchen or pantry with the soiled plate, returns with a clean or served
plate, and proceeds as before.
In following the English style in serving plates, the maid first places
the dish to be served (the platter of meat, for example) in front of the
host. Then an empty plate is placed before the host. The maid then gets
another clean plate, returns to the left of the host, takes up the served
plate in her left hand, and places the empty plate before him. She then
places the served plate before one of the guests from the right side.
Again she goes to the left of the host, places a plate before him, and
proceeds as before.
At the end of a course, remove the dishes of each cover, then such dishes
as the platters and tureens, and finally the crumbs. All dishes belonging
to a particular course should be removed at the end of that course. Soiled
dishes are always unsightly; hence care should be taken to remove them in
the neatest way. Plates should not be piled on top of one another. When
the dinner plate, the bread-and-butter plate, and the side dishes are to
be removed, the smaller dishes (bread-and-butter plates and side dishes)
should be removed on the serving tray. The larger plates may be removed
one at a time, and an empty or service plate may be put in the place of
each. If no empty or service plate is to be placed for the next course,
two soiled plates may be removed at the same time, one in each hand.
USE OF THE BUFFET AND SERVING TABLE.--Many dining rooms have both a buffet
and serving table. When such is the case the serving table is used for
holding the dishes and foods that are used in serving the meal, such as
dessert plates, creamer and sugar, plate of bread, etc.; the buffet is
used for holding dishes that are used occasionally, such as the coffee
service, chafing dish, etc.
Accidents at the table may be quickly remedied, if extra silver and a soft
(_i.e._ unfolded) napkin are placed on the serving table before the
meal is announced.
USE OF THE SERVING TRAY.--The serving tray should be used for carrying all
silver. It should also be used for small dishes, such as preserves,
olives, sauces, and for the creamer and sugar, and the cups and saucers.
In passing large dishes, such as plates, platters, and tureens, use a
folded napkin underneath the dishes instead of a tray.
REMOVING THE CRUMBS FROM THE TABLE.--For a table with a cloth, the crumb
tray and scraper, or better, a plate and folded napkin are used to remove
the crumbs. A brush is not desirable for "crumbing" the table. For a table
without a cloth, the folded napkin and plate are used. The table may be
crumbed before and after the salad course or before the dessert course.
USE OF FINGER BOWLS.--Finger bowls are used after the fruit course of
breakfast, and at the end of a luncheon or dinner. They should be placed
on plates, with a doily between the plate and finger bowl.
For breakfast, the finger bowls and plates may be brought in first. The
finger bowl and doily should be removed to the left so that the same
plates may be used for the fruit course.
For formal luncheon or dinner, finger bowls on doilies and plates are
brought in, one at a time, when removing the main dish of the dessert. The
finger bowls and doilies are then set aside and the plate used for bonbons
and nuts, which are passed on a tray. Or, if desired, the finger bowls may
be brought after the bonbons. In this case the finger bowl and plate are
exchanged for the plate of the dessert course. An informal way is to pass
finger bowls on plates and doilies before the dessert course. Then the
finger bowl and doily are set aside as at breakfast and the dessert served
on the same plate.
ORDER OF SEATING AND SERVING GUESTS.--The host and hostess usually sit
opposite each other, _i.e._ at the head and foot of the table. If
there is a waitress to do the serving, the head of the table should be
farthest from the entrance of the dining room. If there is no maid, the
hostess's chair should be nearest the kitchen door or pantry. A woman
guest of honor sits at the right of the host; a gentleman guest, at the
right of the hostess.
The order of serving guests varies in different homes and for different
occasions. Sometimes the women at the table are served before the men.
This is usually done, however, for home service or when only a few persons
are at the table. At a large dinner table or a banquet, guests are usually
served in the order in which they sit. In many homes, the guests are
served first, while in others the hostess is always the first to be
served. At a family meal, when no guests are present, the hostess should
always be served first.
METHOD OF SERVING WITHOUT A MAID
When there is no maid, a woman has a threefold duty to perform when
serving a meal. She must act as cook, as waitress, and as hostess. Much
skill, ingenuity, and practice are required to do this successfully. The
underlying principle of its accomplishment is forethought. A hostess must
plan, even to the minutest detail, the performance of each duty.
PREPARATION BEFORE ANNOUNCING THE MEAL.--In planning the menu, a wise
selection should be made. Simple foods should be selected and but few
courses should be served. A young hostess should remember that a simple
meal easily served is more enjoyable and more fitting than an elaborate
dinner where the hostess must frequently leave the table. Foods should be
selected that can be prepared before the meal is served, and that will not
be harmed by standing. A souffle which must be served immediately when
taken from the oven is not a wise choice for such a meal.
For almost all meals some of the dishes and foods must be left in the
warming oven or in the refrigerator, but as many dishes and foods as
possible should be taken to the dining room before the meal is announced.
The suggestion has been made that dishes be kept warm by placing them in a
pan of hot water on the serving table. This would mean, however, that a
tea towel be at hand to dry the dishes before using. Special hot-water
dishes for the purpose can now be obtained in city shops.
A serving table or a wheel tray (see Figure 34) is of great service to a
woman acting as hostess and waitress. It should be placed near the hostess
so that she can reach it without rising from her chair. In the absence of
a wheel tray, a large serving tray is a great convenience in setting and
clearing the table; it saves many steps.
[Illustration: FIGURE 34--WHEEL TRAY.]
SERVING AT THE TABLE.--The English style of serving should be followed.
The hostess may thus have the aid of the host and the other members of the
family in serving. Moreover, serving in this manner gives an air of
hospitality.
As hostess, a woman must not leave her place at the table many times or
for many minutes. If the details of the meal have not been well planned,
she will have to make many trips to the kitchen. This is one of the
indications that the presence of guests is a burden to the hostess. She
should never leave or enter the dining room empty-handed, for a saving of
energy is more sensible than faithful adherence to form. The soiled
dishes, as they are removed from the table, may be placed upon the serving
table. By the use of the latter, the dining table can be kept free from an
overcrowded appearance and the hostess saved many steps. The lower shelf
of the serving table is the most desirable place for the soiled dishes.
For a family meal, the table may be crumbed as follows: Let the hostess
use the crumb tray while seated at her place, and then let her pass it on
so that each member of the family may in turn remove the crumbs from his
own cover. It is perfectly proper to omit crumbing when guests are present
and where there is no maid.
The host and the other members of the family can do much to add to the
pleasure of a meal by introducing an interesting topic of conversation
that will occupy the attention of the guests during the absence of the
hostess. If the hostess is sole entertainer, she would do well to start an
absorbing subject of conversation just before leaving the dining room.
QUESTIONS
Why is it desirable to use doilies on plates containing crackers, bread,
and cakes?
Why should baked potatoes, corn, and hot breads be served on a folded
napkin?
Why should the coffeepot be placed at the right of the hostess's cover and
the cups and saucers at the left of her cover?
In laying the table, why should the knives, spoons, and the forks that are
to be used without knives be placed at the right of the plates? Why should
the forks that are to be used with knives be placed at the left of the
plates?
In serving, why should dishes which admit of choice be passed to the left
of a guest? Why should dishes which do not admit of choice be placed at
the right?
Why should this order of clearing the table at the end of a course be
followed: first, the soiled dishes, then the food, then the clean dishes,
and finally the crumbs?
Why should all dishes belonging to a particular course be removed at the
end of the course?
Why is a brush not desirable for crumbing the table?
Why are finger bowls used after the fruit course of breakfast and at the
end of luncheon or dinner?
Make a list of the linen, silver, glass, and china needed for the dining
and serving tables, when serving the menu given below. Give method of
serving each course, using the English style.
Cream of Tomato Soup--Soup Sticks
Veal Cutlets
Rice
Rolls--Butter
Cucumber Salad
Wafers
Snow Pudding, Custard Sauce
Cakes--Coffee
LESSON XXXI
COOKING AND SERVING BREAKFAST
Cook and serve a breakfast.
If the lesson period is limited to 90 minutes, it is advisable to plan
only a simple meal. The following menu is suggested:
Seasonable Fruit,--fresh or cooked
French Toast with Sirup
Milk
Determine the number of persons each recipe for the foods above will
serve. It may be necessary to prepare only a portion of a given recipe or
more food than the quantity stated in the recipe. The pupil should become
accustomed to dividing or multiplying the quantities given in recipes.
Commence your work at such a time that the food will be in proper
condition--hot or cold--at the time set for serving the breakfast.
Follow the English or family style of serving.
Serve the breakfast with or without a maid (see previous lesson).
LESSON XXXII
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Seasonable Fruit Sauce
Breakfast Cereal
Coffee
See Review, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON XXXIII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 37: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--If cooked cereals are desired for breakfast at
your home, prepare breakfast cereals in the evening for the following
morning.
Make a dessert for the evening meal at least three times a week.
SUGGESTED AIMS:
(1) To cook the cereal a sufficient length of time to produce a sweet
flavor and make it tender, to evaporate the moisture sufficiently so that
mastication will be necessary, to allow no scum to form on top.
(2) To select a variety of desserts so that a different one may be served
each time.
DIVISION FIVE
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN FATS AND OILS
LESSON XXXIV
FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM
COMPARISON OF FATS AND CARBOHYDRATES.--_Fat is a foodstuff._ Fat and
oil [Footnote 38: Fat and oil are very similar, oil being fat that is
liquid at ordinary temperature.] form another great class of energy-giving
or fuel foods. In the body, these foods, like carbohydrates, give energy;
in fact weight for weight they furnish more than twice as much energy as
carbohydrates. There is, for example, about as much fat by weight in one
pound of butter as there are carbohydrates in one pound of tapioca. By
measurement it has been found that one pound of butter gives to the body
almost two and one fourth times as much energy as does one pound of
tapioca.
Fats and oils are not only used as food (butter for example) and as
constituents of foods (fat in pastry), but as a medium for cooking. The
use of fat as a cooking medium follows:
EXPERIMENT 31: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH FATS AND OILS DECOMPOSE OR "BURN."--
Into each of 6 test tubes put 2 teaspoonfuls of butter, cottonseed oil,
corn oil, beef drippings, lard, and Crisco. Gently heat each one of the
fats or oils until fumes first arise from them. Then insert a thermometer
[Footnote 39: Care should be taken in using a thermometer in hot fat. It
should be allowed to cool before washing.] in each tube and note the
temperatures. These are the temperatures at which the various fats
decompose. Record these temperatures in your notebook.
How do the decomposing temperatures of fat compare with that of boiling
water? Which would be the hotter medium for cooking--hot fat or boiling
water?
Which fat reaches the highest temperature before it begins to decompose?
If fat is used as a medium of cooking, which of these fats, as far as
temperature is concerned, would be the most desirable? Give a reason for
your answer.
What is the price per pound or pint of each of these fats or oils?
Which of these are vegetable and which are animal fats or oils?
FATS FOR DEEP-FAT FRYING.--As shown by the above experiment, fat reaches a
high temperature when heated. For this reason fat may be used as a cooking
medium. The process of cooking food in deep fat is called _frying_.
From the standpoint of temperature the best fat for frying is that which
can be heated to a very high temperature without burning.
Other factors such as flavor and cost, however, have to be taken into
consideration. Fat not only heats foods, but it imparts flavor since some
of the fat in which a food is cooked, clings to the food. The costs of the
various fats differ greatly. This must be regarded in selecting fats for
cooking. Taking these factors into consideration, many prefer the cheaper
vegetable fats for frying, while others find a mixture of beef drippings
and lard satisfactory.
EXPERIMENT 32: BREAD FRIED IN "COOL" FAT (CLASS EXPERIMENT).--Put some
suitable fat for frying in an iron pan and heat. Note carefully the change
that takes place in fat as it heats. When the fat "foams" or bubbles, or
reaches a temperature of about 300 degrees F., drop into it a piece of
bread. After one minute remove the bread from the fat; examine the bread
by breaking it apart to see if the fat has soaked into the bread. Is it
desirable to have the fat soak into fried foods? What conclusion can you
draw as to frying foods in "cool" fats?
EXPERIMENT 33: THE TEMPERATURE OF FAT FOR FRYING (CLASS EXPERIMENT).--
Continue to heat the fat of Experiment 32. When fumes begin to rise from
the fat, or the fat reaches a temperature of 365 degrees F., again drop a
bit of bread into it. After one minute remove the bread and examine it as
above. Has as much fat soaked into it as in the first bit of bread? What
conclusion can you draw from this in regard to the proper temperature for
frying foods?
Cooked foods and foods needing but little cooking require a higher
temperature than batters or other uncooked foods. If a bit of bread is
browned in 40 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for cooked foods
and for oysters. If bread is browned in 60 seconds, the fat is of proper
temperature for uncooked foods.
GENERAL RULES FOR FRYING.--Since fat, when heated, reaches such a high
temperature, the kettle in which it is heated should be of iron.
If there is any moisture on foods, it must be evaporated before the foods
brown. Excessive moisture also cools the fat considerably, hence, _foods
that are to be fried should be as dry as possible._
Place the foods to be cooked in a bath of fat deep enough to float them.
The kettle should not be too full, however, as fat is apt to bubble over
especially when moist foods are placed in it.
Foods may be placed in a frying basket, or they may be lowered into the
fat and taken from it with a wire spoon. All fried foods should be drained
on paper.
When one quantity of food has been removed, the fat should be reheated and
its temperature tested before adding the second quantity of food.
Fat used for frying should be cooled and clarified with potato as directed
on the following page.
If a coal range is used for heating the fat, sand or ashes and a shovel
should be near at hand in case the fat takes fire.
If hot fat must be carried or lifted, wrap a towel about the hand before
grasping the handle of the kettle.
TO TRY OUT FAT.--The fat of meat consists of fat held by a network of
connective tissue. To make meat fat suitable for frying it is necessary to
separate the fat from the tissue. This is done as follows:
Remove the tough outside skin and lean parts from meat fat and cut it into
small pieces. Put the fat into an iron kettle, and cover it with cold
water. Place it uncovered on the stove and heat. When the water has nearly
all evaporated, set the kettle back, or lessen the heat, or place in a
"cool" oven, and let the fat slowly try out.
As the fat separates from the pieces of tissue, it is well to strain or
drain it into a bowl. If this is done, the fat is less apt to scorch. The
heating of the connective tissue should continue, until it is shriveled in
appearance and no fat can be pressed out from it with a fork. The strained
fat should be set aside to become firm and then stored in a cool place.
TO CLARIFY FAT.--Add a few slices of raw potato to fat and heat slowly
until it ceases to bubble. Cool, strain through a cloth, and let stand
until solid.