moisture is inclosed in the interior of the slice and the resulting toast
is very soft. This kind of toast is almost as difficult to digest as fresh
bread. Instead of toast breaking into bits during digestion, it remains in
a solid mass and is digested with difficulty.
Give at least two practical methods of toasting bread to produce the
desired kind of toast.
CREAM TOAST
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1/2 teaspoonful salt
2 tablespoonfuls flour
2 cupfuls milk or cream
6 to 8 slices of toast
Heat the fat; when it bubbles, add the flour and salt, mixing thoroughly.
Add a small portion of the milk. Heat and stir continually until it
thickens. Add another portion of the milk and proceed as before. Continue
until all the milk has been added. The sauce is sufficiently cooked when
it reaches the boiling point after the last quantity of milk has been
added. Pour this sauce over dry or moist toast.
_Moist toast_ is prepared by dipping dry toast quickly into hot,
salted water or hot milk. If the crust has not been cut from bread for
toasting, only the outer edges of the toast may be moistened.
The flavor of butter in Cream Toast is pleasing. To secure some butter
flavor and at the same time economize, a combination of butter and a mild
flavored fat or oil may be used.
QUESTIONS
Give the reason for mixing flour and fat as directed in White Sauce (see
Experiment 25).
What is the proportion of fat and flour? What is the proportion of flour
and liquid? Using this proportion, how much flour should be used for one
cupful of liquid?
What is the use of flour in White Sauce?
Note the consistency of the sauce, and keep it in mind as a standard of
comparison for the thickness of other sauces.
What should be the condition of the crumb of toast to be most quickly
digested? Give reasons for your answer.
LESSON XXVI
ROOT VEGETABLES (A)
Plant Roots.--Plants used for food have their stored-up food largely in
the form of starch and to some extent in the form of sugar. The parts of
the plant underneath the ground as well as the seeds serve as a storehouse
for the plant. All roots and tubers contain carbohydrates, although not in
so large a proportion as cereals. Those most commonly used as foods are
potatoes, tapioca, parsnips, carrots, beets, and turnips. Potatoes and
tapioca contain the most starch in this group. Parsnips, carrots, and
beets contain a little starch and much sugar. Turnips contain much
cellulose. Carrots, parsnips, and beets are also rich in cellulose.
All root vegetables as well as leaf and stem vegetables contain ash.
Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with or without the Skins, and in Water or
in Steam [Footnote 29: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--This lesson can be conducted
most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of six and having
each group clean, prepare, and cook in water and in steam, potatoes and
carrots as directed above.]--Clean, prepare, and cook in water pared and
unpared potatoes, scraped and unscraped carrots, and cook in steam pared
potatoes and scraped carrots.
Clean the vegetables by scrubbing with a brush; cook them in _gently
boiling_ water. Use the same quantity of water in each case (when
cooked in water) and add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water.
When the vegetables are tender (test with a fork or knitting needle),
drain each thoroughly, catching the water in a bowl. Dry each vegetable by
shaking the saucepan containing it over a flame.
Pour into a test tube a little of the water from each water-cooked
vegetable; cool, and then test with iodine for starch.
Also pour some of the water from each water-cooked vegetable in an
evaporating dish. Boil the water until the moisture is entirely
evaporated. Then continue to heat the contents of the dish until charred
material appears and then disappears. Is any solid material left? If so,
it is mineral matter.
Which vegetables,--those cooked (in water) with or without the skins,--
lose the more starch and ash?
Which vegetables without the skins,--those cooked in water or those cooked
in steam,--lose the more starch and ash?
As far as saving nutriment is concerned, which method of preparation is
better for vegetables cooked in water? Which method of cooking is better
for vegetables without the skins?
Peel the vegetables that were cooked with the skins. Cut all into dice.
Prepare about half as much _White Sauce_ as you have of the
vegetable, using the ingredients for the sauce in the following
proportion:
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
1 cupful liquid
For the _liquid_ of the sauce for those vegetables cooked in water
without the skins, use half milk and half vegetable stock. Use only milk
for the sauce for the vegetables cooked in water with the skins and for
steamed vegetables. (For method of making White Sauce, see _Cream
Toast_) Add the vegetables to the sauce, reheat, and serve. Divide the
vegetables among the pupils of each group so that each tastes the six
vegetables.
Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more
pleasing color?
Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more
pleasing flavor?
As far as appearance and flavor are concerned, which method of preparation
is better for potatoes? Which method for carrots?
As far as both nutriment and flavor are concerned, which method of cooking
is better for both vegetables?
Suggestions for Cooking Root Vegetables.--All vegetables growing beneath
the ground should be cleaned by scrubbing with a small brush. Unless a
vegetable is dried or wilted, it should not be soaked in water for any
length of time before cooking.
The comparison just made shows that the outside skins of vegetables should
not be removed before cooking in water if we wish to retain all the
nutriment. There are some who contend, however, that a more delicate and
pleasing flavor results when old and strong-flavored vegetables have their
skins removed before cooking, and that the flavor is more to be desired
than a saving of all nutrients. Often vegetables are more pleasing in
color when cooked without their skins.
The nutrients lost by paring root vegetables and cooking them in water
consist not only of carbohydrates, but of ash and other valuable
materials. [Footnote 30: _Vitamines_, see Division Seven]
Satisfactory results may be obtained by _baking_ or _steaming_
vegetables. By using the latter method, vegetables can be pared and cut
into pieces and then cooked with little loss of nutrients. It has been
pointed out, [Footnote 31: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI (May,
1919), "Changes in the Food Value of Vegetables," by Minna C. Denton.]
however, that there may be considerable loss of nutrients in steamed
vegetables. The extent of the loss depends in part upon the type of
steamer and the method of using it. If the bottom of the upper pan of a
steamer is perforated and the vegetables are placed in contact with the
perforated portion, the condensed steam "washes" the mineral matter from
the vegetable. This "vegetable broth" then drops into the lower pan of the
steamer.
An evidence of this can be secured by steaming spinach or squash in the
manner described above and observing the coloring which appears in the
water beneath the steaming vegetable. Loss of nutrients in such a steamer
can be avoided by placing the vegetable in a pan or plate and inserting
the latter in the upper portion of the steamer. The pan or plate should,
of course, be of smaller diameter than the top of the steamer. By using
the type of steamer which has perforations at the top of the upper pan
(see Figure 31), no loss of nutrients occurs, provided the accumulated
vegetable broth is used.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Geo H Bowman Co_ FIGURE 31.--UTENSIL FOR
STEAMING--A "STEAMER"]
Care should also be taken not to steam vegetables for long periods at a
very high temperature as is sometimes done in using the pressure cooker.
This results in both loss of nutrients and flavor.
If starchy vegetables are cooked in water, when tender immediately drain
away the water and dry them. Serve at once or let them remain uncovered in
a warm place. The steam is thus allowed to escape. Condensed steam makes
starchy vegetables soggy.
BOILED POTATOES
If potatoes are to be cooked without their skins, pare them as thin as
possible, or in the case of new potatoes, scrape them. Cut away any green
portion [Footnote 32: Green spots on potatoes are caused by the tubers
growing too near the surface of the ground. This colored portion contains
an injurious substance called solanin.] which appears on the potato. If
the potatoes are sprouted, [Footnote 33: Sprouted potatoes also contain
some solanin. Potatoes should not be allowed to sprout since nutritious
material is used up by the growing sprouts and, as mentioned above, an
injurious material is formed. Potatoes can be prevented from sprouting by
storing them in a dry, dark, cool place.] also cut away the portion around
the sprouts.
In cooking potatoes in water, follow the directions given on page 59,
Cooking Vegetables in Water. When they are tender, drain off the water
immediately; shake gently and dry on the back of the range with the
saucepan uncovered or with a cloth folded over the top to absorb the
moisture. Sprinkle generously with salt. Boiled potatoes may be put
through a ricer before serving.
CREAMED AND SCALLOPED VEGETABLES.--Cooked vegetables may be creamed by
cutting them into cubes, adding White Sauce, and then reheating. If the
cut vegetables are cold, they can be heated by adding them to the sauce
with the last portion of liquid. By the time the sauce reaches the boiling
point, the vegetables will be heated. Care should be taken not to break
the vegetables while heating them in the sauce. Care should also be taken
to prevent the sauce from scorching. An asbestos mat over a gas burner is
desirable for this purpose. Use one part of White Sauce with 2 or 3 parts
of diced vegetables.
Vegetables may be scalloped by placing Creamed Vegetables in an oiled
baking-dish, covering with buttered crumbs, and browning in the oven.
WHITE SAUCE FOR VEGETABLES
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
_or_
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1/2 teaspoonful salt
White pepper
1/2 cupful milk
1/2 cupful vegetable stock
Cook as directed for Cream Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). The thickness
of White Sauce for vegetables depends upon the kind of vegetable. The
thinner sauce is generally more satisfactory with starchy vegetables.
CRUMBS FOR SCALLOPED DISHES
1 cupful soft bread crumbs
1/8 teaspoonful salt
White pepper or cayenne
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
Mix seasonings and crumbs together, then add to the melted fat, or place
the fat in bits over the seasoned crumbs.
QUESTIONS
How should the water boil in cooking vegetables? Why?
Why should not potatoes be covered with a tin lid or plate after cooking?
Are potatoes sold by the pound or bushel? What is the price per pound or
bushel?
Mention at least three ways of cooking root vegetables so as to retain
their nutriment.
LESSON XXVII
ROOT VEGETABLES (B)
EXPERIMENT 30: THE EFFECT OF SOAKING STARCHY VEGETABLES IN WATER,--Over
several pieces of potato pour enough water to cover. Allow the vegetable
to stand at least 15 minutes. Pour the water from the vegetable into a
test tube and heat it. Cool, then test the water with iodine. What does
the water contain? What conclusion can you draw concerning the soaking of
vegetables in water before cooking?
SWEET POTATOES
Cook sweet potatoes with or without the skins (see _Cooking Vegetables
in Water_). Peel (if cooked with the skins), mash, add a little hot
milk, salt, and butter, beat thoroughly and serve.
Cooked sweet potatoes may also be cut into halves lengthwise, spread with
butter or substitute, sprinkled with a very little sugar, and browned in
the oven.
SWEET POTATOES (Southern style)
3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
2 tablespoonfuls sugar
6 sweet potatoes
Salt and pepper
Boiling water
Scrub and pare the sweet potatoes, cut them into halves lengthwise. Put
the butter and sugar in a frying pan and when hot, add the sweet potatoes.
Brown the potatoes, add the salt and pepper and enough boiling water to
cover the bottom of the frying pan. Cover and cook slowly until the
potatoes are tender. Nearly all the water should be evaporated when the
potatoes are cooked. That which remains should be poured over the potatoes
as a sauce for serving.
Sweet potatoes may also be cooked in a casserole in the oven. Uncover the
casserole when the potatoes are almost tender, in order to brown them.
MOCK OYSTERS (parsnips with nuts and rice)
4 parsnips
2 eggs
1 cupful nuts, chopped
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
1 cupful cooked rice [Footnote 34: If the rice is cooked by boiling, use
the rice water instead of plain water in making Tomato Sauce.]
4 tablespoonfuls flour
1 teaspoonful salt
Boil or steam the parsnips until tender. Press them through a coarse sieve
or colander. Add the beaten eggs. Then add the remainder of the
ingredients. If the mixture is too thick to drop from the spoon, add a
little milk. Drop by tablespoonfuls on to an oiled baking-sheet. Bake
until slightly brown. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. Tomato Catsup or Celery
Sauce may also be used in serving Mock Oysters. (Adapted from _Ninety
Tested Recipes_, Teachers College.)
TOMATO SAUCE
1/2 can tomatoes
1 cupful water
2 cloves
3 allspice berries
3 peppercorns
2 sprays of parsley
3 tablespoonfuls fat
2 slices onion
1/4 cupful flour
1 teaspoonful salt
Allow tomatoes, water, spices, and herbs to simmer 15 to 20 minutes. Brown
the onion in the fat, add flour and salt, then the tomato mixture. Follow
the method of making White Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). Strain and
serve.
QUESTIONS
From the results of Experiment 30 explain why vegetables should be placed
in boiling rather than in cold water for cooking.
Why should the water be drained from boiled vegetables immediately after
cooking?
From your grocer, find out in what quantities sweet potatoes are usually
purchased. What is the price of them? How do they compare in price with
white potatoes?
What is the price per pound of parsnips?
In preparing Tomato Sauce, what is the purpose of cooking the tomatoes and
spices together for 15 or 20 minutes?
Why are the tomatoes strained after thickening rather than before?
LESSON XXVIII
ROOT VEGETABLES (C)
Tapioca is a food material prepared from the roots of the cassava plant
grown in South America. Like many other foods prepared from the roots of
plants, it consists of a large percent of starch. In its preparation,
tapioca is heated so that the starch is partially cooked. Tapioca is
prepared for the market in two forms,--pearl tapioca, and minute or
granulated tapioca. The latter requires a much shorter time to cook. If
granulated tapioca is substituted for pearl tapioca, but one half the
quantity is required.
APPLE TAPIOCA
3/4 cupful pearl tapioca or
3/4 cupful granulated tapioca
2 1/2 cupfuls boiling water
1/2 teaspoonful salt
6 apples
1/2 cupful sugar
If pearl tapioca is used, cover it generously with cold water and allow it
to stand one hour or overnight. While soaking keep the tapioca covered. If
any water is unabsorbed, do not discard it,--use less than the given
quantity of boiling water.
If granulated tapioca is used, no cold water is needed. For either
granulated or pearl tapioca, add the boiling water and salt to the tapioca
and cook over the naked flame and then over hot water as in the case of
breakfast cereal (see _General Rules for Cooking Cereals_). Cook in
the double boiler until transparent. Wash, core, and pare the apples;
place them in a buttered baking-dish; fill the cavities with sugar, pour
tapioca over them, and bake in a moderate oven until the apples are soft.
Serve with sugar and cream, or with Lemon Sauce.
Other fruits may be substituted for apples. If canned fruits are used,
substitute the fruit sirup for part of the water in which the tapioca is
cooked.
RHUBARB TAPIOCA
Use the same ingredients for the rhubarb dessert as for Apple Tapioca,
substituting for the apples 3 cupfuls of rhubarb, cut into pieces, and
using twice the quantity of sugar. Bake until the rhubarb is soft.
LEMON SAUCE
3/4 cupful sugar
2 tablespoonfuls flour
2 cupfuls boiling water
1 lemon,--juice and rind
1 tablespoonful butter
Mix sugar and flour thoroughly; then slowly add the boiling water. Cook 10
minutes. Add the lemon juice and rind, then the butter. Stir until the
butter is melted, when the sauce will be ready to serve.
For economy, the butter may be omitted. It adds to the flavor, however.
SWEET SAUCES.--Sweet Sauces usually contain sugar and butter and are
thickened with a powdered cereal. It is interesting to consider which of
the two materials--sugar or butter--should be used to separate the grains
of the flour or corn-starch.
The quantity of fat used with the flour of White Sauces (see below) is a
little less than that of the flour. It is difficult to separate starch
grains when the quantity of fat equals only one half the quantity of
flour. On the other hand, when starch grains are separated by means of
sugar, the quantity of the sugar should equal at least the quantity of the
starchy material (see _Blanc Mange_). In the recipe for Lemon Sauce
above, it will be noted that the quantity of fat is one half that of the
flour; the quantity of sugar greatly exceeds that of the flour. Hence the
sugar affords a more satisfactory means of separating the starch grains in
Lemon Sauce.
PROPORTIONS OF INGREDIENTS FOR SAUCES
Flour Fat Liquid
Thin White Sauce 1 tablespoonful, 3/4 tablespoonful, 1 cup (Toast,
sweet sauce, certain cream soups, etc.)
Medium White Sauce 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup
(Vegetables (see page 109), gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)
Thick White Sauce 3 tablespoonfuls, 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup
(Gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)
Very Thick White Sauce 4 tablespoonfuls, 3 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup
(Croquettes, etc.)
(If richer sauces are desired, equal quantities of fat and flour should be
used.)
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of soaking pearl tapioca in water before cooking? Give
the reason for covering pearl tapioca while it is soaking. Why is it
necessary to cook it in a double boiler?
What is the use of flour in Lemon Sauce? Why is the flour mixed with the
sugar before adding the boiling water (see Experiment 24)? How long does
it take the flour to thicken? How long a time does the recipe give for
cooking the flour mixture? What is the purpose of cooking it for so long a
time?
What precautions can be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching?
If, after cooking the required length of time, the sauce is not thick
enough, what is the simplest method of thickening it?
For a sauce recipe in which very little fat and no sugar are given, devise
a method of preparing _smooth_ sauce.
LESSON XXIX
STARCHY FOODS COOKED AT HIGH TEMPERATURE
STEAM UNDER PRESSURE.--Which is hotter,--the "steam" (_i.e._ water
vapor) coming from boiling water in an uncovered saucepan or teakettle or
the "steam" which has been held underneath the lid of a covered saucepan
or teakettle (see Figure 32)? Steam confined in a small space or held
under pressure may reach a temperature higher than that of boiling water.
EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE UPON POP CORN AND POTATOES.--Pop corn contains
water. When heated, the water changes to steam. The covering of cellulose
holds the steam in the kernel. When the steam expands and reaches a
temperature far above the boiling point of water, it finally bursts the
covering and the starch swells at once.
[Illustration: FIGURE 32.--"STEAM" WITHOUT PRESSURE AND "STEAM" WHICH HAS
BEEN UNDER PRESSURE.]
In baking potatoes, the water contained in them vaporizes. The vaporized
water or steam is held under pressure by the skin of the vegetable. The
steam thus becomes hotter than boiling water, hence a baked potato is
cooked at a higher temperature than a boiled potato, and no nutrients are
lost.
POP CORN
Moisten pop corn with cold water. Almost cover the bottom of a popper with
the kernels. Hold the popper first at some distance from the heat and then
gradually bring it closer, shaking it well all the time to keep the corn
from burning. The corn should not begin to pop before three and one half
minutes. When popping commences, most of the kernels should open. If there
is some time between the popping of the first and last kernels, the corn
will become tough.
BUTTERED POP CORN NO. I
4 quarts freshly popped corn
1/4 cupful butter
Salt
Melt the butter and pour it over the corn, stirring with a spoon. Sprinkle
at once with salt from a salt shaker, continue stirring.
BUTTERED POP CORN NO. II
1 tablespoonful butter and 1 tablespoonful oil _or_
2 tablespoonfuls oil
1/2 cupful shelled pop corn
Salt
Put the fat in a large frying pan; when melted, add the salted corn. Stir
until the corn is evenly coated with fat. Cover closely and heat
gradually, shaking the pan vigorously all the time.
BAKED POTATOES Scrub potatoes and place them on the grate of a _hot_
oven (500 degrees F.). (Potatoes should be baked in a _hot_ oven, to
prevent them from becoming waxy or soggy.) Bake until soft when tested
with a fork or knitting needle, usually 50 to 60 minutes. Break the skin
at once to allow the steam to escape, or make two gashes in the top of
each potato, one at right angles to the other. Gently press the potato so
that the steam may escape. Serve in an uncovered dish. Place the steaming
potatoes on a folded napkin for serving.
STUFFED POTATOES
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1 teaspoonful salt
3 tablespoonfuls milk
Pepper
6 baked potatoes
Cut the baked potatoes in halves lengthwise. Remove the inside, taking
care not to break the skin; mash the potatoes, add the milk, butter, and
seasoning, and beat them as ordinary mashed potatoes. Return the mixture
to the potato shells, place the stuffed potatoes in a pan, and bake in a
_hot_ oven (500 degrees F.) until brown.
Before browning the stuffed potatoes, grated cheese may be sprinkled over
them.
QUESTIONS
Explain why pop corn can be cooked thoroughly in about 5 minutes while
rolled oats or wheat requires 1 1/2 hours for sufficient cooking.
Analyze the difference in taste of a baked and a boiled potato. To what is
the sweet taste of a baked potato due (see Experiment 26)? Explain fully
why baked potatoes are more easily digested than boiled potatoes (see
Experiment 26 and _Solution and Digestion_).
Which contains more nutriment,--baked potatoes or boiled potatoes? Explain
(see _Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with and without the Skins, and in
Water or in Steam_).
What is the purpose of breaking the skins of potatoes _at once_ after
baking? Why are baked potatoes served in an uncovered dish? What could be
used to cover them?
RELATED WORK
LESSON XXX
DINING ROOM SERVICE [Footnote 35: NOTE.--See Suggestions for Teaching,
Appendix.]
BASIC PRINCIPLES.--Practically all rules for laying the table and all
methods of serving have been formulated to bring about neatness,
convenience, and order. The standard of living, [Footnote 36: NOTE.--See
Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix.] the occasion, the size of the dining
room, the number of guests, and the attendants, all have to be taken into
consideration in dining room service. Therefore the method of serving must
be governed by conditions. It is possible here to give only general
suggestions.
THE TABLE
TABLE LINEN.--Table padding, or a silence cloth, should first be placed on
the table, then the table-cloth should be laid straight and smooth.
[Illustration: FIGURE 33.--TABLE LAID FOR AN INFORMAL LUNCHEON Note the
position of the silver, napkins, bread-and-butter plates, and tumblers.
Also note that a _low_ bowl of flowers is used as a centerpiece.]
Napkins should be folded simply and laid at the left of the plate. A
dinner napkin is folded four times, a luncheon napkin is folded twice to
form a square, or three times to form either a triangle or an oblong.