THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR.--The Turko-Russian war began in April,

1877. Russia, according to her previous declaration, took up arms

alone. The Russian troops crossed the Danube and the Balkan Mountains,

and seized on the important _Shipka Pass_. At first they seemed

destined to a speedy triumph. But the Turks under _Osman Pasha_

fought with unexpected valor and success. At length, however, their

leader was obliged to surrender his army of forty-four thousand men at

_Plevna_ (Dec. 10). _Adrianople_ was occupied by the Russians

(Jan. 28). They were thus in the neighborhood of

Constantinople. Meantime, after reverses in the East, the Russians had

taken _Kars_, and pushed on to _Erzeroum_.

TREATY OF SAN STEFANO: THE BERLIN CONFERENCE.--Turkey now appealed to

England to mediate; but Russia declined any such intervention, and

insisted on treating separately with Turkey. England was now ready to

interfere in behalf of the Sultan, and for the safety of

Constantinople. Russia hastened to conclude with Turkey the _Peace of

San Stefano_ (March 3), the stipulations of which greatly reduced

the Turkish power in Europe. _Bulgaria_ was to be governed by a

Christian prince, and fifty thousand Russian troops were to occupy it

for two years. England concluded (June 4) a secret treaty engaging to

protect Turkey in Asia: _Cyprus_ was given up to be occupied by

the British. Austria, as well as Great Britain, was anxious to deprive

Russia of the advantages which she had naturally expected to reap by

the war,--a war in which the other powers had declined to take

part. Thus another great war was threatened, about the provisions of

the _San Stefano_ treaty. The conflict was averted by the

_Congress at Berlin_ (June 13-July 13, 1878), where

_D'lsraeli_--who was then prime minister, and a friend of the

anti-Russian policy--represented England. Austria and England were

aided by Germany, and the diplomacy of _Gortchakoff_ was thus

overborne. _Servia_ and _Roumania_, as well as

_Montenegro_, were declared independent. _Bulgaria_ was

divided into two portions; the southern of which, called _East

Roumelia_, was to be governed by the Sultan directly, but with a

separate administration under a Christian governor. To Austria, the

military occupation of _Bosnia_ and _Herzegovina_, which

meant the possession of these provinces, was yielded. _Thessaly_

had engaged in an insurrection, and _Greece_ had hoped for an

extension of her boundaries; but nothing effectual was done by England

to forward this claim. Here Russia, always opposed to the building-up

of a strong Greek kingdom, was at one with England. Russia obtained

_Kars_, but her gains were far less than she deemed herself

entitled to receive. The other powers, on the contrary, permitted

Austria to advance far in the direction of Constantinople. During the

war, the hostility of the _Magyars_ (or Hungarians proper) to the

_Slaves_ had been ready to break out in the form of direct armed

assistance to Turkey. On the other hand, the Slaves in Hungary, and in

all the Austrian territories, were with difficulty restrained from

enlisting actively in aid of the Russians. The arbitrary dealing of the

Berlin Conference with _Bosnia_ and _Herzegovina_ occasioned

an armed but ineffectual resistance, in these provinces, to the

extension of the Austrian sway over them.

SITUATION OF RUSSIA.--Russia, embittered by Austria's refusal to aid in

the Crimean War, had remained neutral in the struggle with Prussia,

which ended in the exclusion of Austria from Germany. Russia was now

offended with Germany for repaying her neutrality in the

Franco-Prussian struggle by helping in the Berlin Conference the

schemes of England and Austria. The attempt of Russia to form an

alliance with France prompted _Bismarck_ (Sept., 1879) to

negotiate a defensive alliance with Austria. The activity of the

_Nihilists_, and the refusal of France (March, 1880) to deliver up

_Hartmann_, charged with an attempt on the life of the Czar, made

the French alliance impossible. The sympathy of the Emperor

_William_, after the endeavor made to assassinate _Alexander_

(Feb. 17, 1880), tended to restore cordiality. Russia was embarrassed

by these internal troubles. _Alexander_ was murdered by Nihilists

(March 13, 1881), and was succeeded by his son, _Alexander III._,

who died after a lingering illness, Nov. 1, 1894. He was succeeded by

his son Nicholas II. In 1891 and 1892 Russia was afflicted by famine

and cholera.

NIHILISM.--The accession of _Alexander II._, following on the

rigid autocracy of _Nicholas_, had introduced a more lenient

rule. _Alexander_ decreed (March 3, 1861) the emancipation of the

serfs, who were also endowed with small possessions in land. The boon

thus conferred, along with its advantages, brought with it hardship;

for there were ways of oppression still open to the nobles, by which

the emancipated class were made grievously to suffer. The great measure

served to increase the national agitation which was connected with

other causes. There had long been an enthusiastic party of

"Slavophils," actuated by a strong race-feeling, and eager for

"Panslavism," or a union of Slavonic peoples. It was the people in

Russia which moved the court, against its will, to go to war,

single-handed, with Turkey, in 1877. In the prosecution of the war, the

abuses which were brought to light among officials, civil and military,

heightened the indignation which the corrupt "bureaucracy"--the

administration by departments, each under its chief--provoked. The

failure to gather the harvest of the war, of which Russia was deprived

by diplomacy, increased the popular unrest. A party of socialistic

democracy, a revolutionary party, had developed itself as early as

1874. The way had been preparing for it for a decade of years. Out of

this party came later (1878) the "Terrorists,"--the secret body which

sought for a remedy for social and governmental evils by annihilating

all existing authority in Church and State. They had begun with the

demand of a constitution. The despotic, repressive measures of the

government--in 1879 and 1880, sixty thousand persons were sent to

_Siberia_ without a trial--were followed by more desperate

attempts of Nihilist conspirators upon the lives of the rulers of the

land, and of their agents. These culminated in the murder of the Czar.

COMMUNISM AND SOCIALISM.--A brief sketch of the various movements thus

designated may be here in place. _Communism_ is the name given to

the theory that it is desirable to have a community of goods, and a

total or partial abolition of private property. _Socialism_ is

often used to designate the same system, but is more commonly applied

to the doctrine that government should own the land and all the

implements of industry. Not a few religious sects of communists, like

the _Shakers_ (established in 1780, in the United States), have

long existed. The hope of social amelioration by societies of a

communistic character has led to a variety of movements for the

formation of them on both sides of the Atlantic. Equality, education,

deliverance from poverty and from burdensome toil, have been the

blessings sought. Prominent leaders in such movements were

_Saint-Simon_ (1760-1825), whose ideas produced a strong effect in

France; _Charles Fourier_ (1772-1837), by whose influence

"phalanxes," as the communities adopting his views were named, were

formed in Europe and America; and _Robert Owen_ (1771-1858), whose

societies were built up at _New Lanark_ in Scotland, _New

Harmony_ in Indiana, and in other places. Since the French

Revolution of 1848, these particular attempts of philanthropic

socialism have passed out of notice. Shortly after the Reign of Terror,

_Babeuf_ attempted (1796) to overthrow the authorities in Paris,

and to bring to pass an equal division of property. The course of

political struggles in France, in connection with the revolutions in

industry and trade, which have occurred since the fall of the first

Napoleon, have given rise to a disaffected working-class, or

_proletariat_. The complaint has arisen, that the benefits

resulting from political freedom in Europe have come to the _middle

class_,--to tradesmen and manufacturers possessed of capital,--and

that the laboring class are deprived of their due share of the profits

of industry. One noted expounder of communism in France was

_Proudhon_ (1809-1865), who sought to give emphasis to his

doctrine by affirming that "property is theft." _Louis Blanc_, who

was a member of the provisional government in France in 1848, both

before and after that time was an active promoter of the scheme under

which government is to furnish labor on a large scale, and to become

the grand employer of the working-class. In Germany, socialism in its

later distinctive form, as defined above, has been advocated by a

number of well-known writers. Perhaps the ablest of these was

_Ferdinand Lasalle_ (1825-1864). Like the other principal

socialists, he would clothe the State with a vastly augmented power and

responsibility. In this particular, socialism is directly antagonistic

to the ideas of democracy which had previously

prevailed. _Lasalle's_ doctrine was that the State should lend

capital at interest to associations of laborers. This, he thought,

would be the first step in their emancipation. _Karl Marx_ would

go much farther. He would transfer to the State all capital and all

means of production. He would, as he professes, "overthrow all the

existing arrangements of society." With property, inheritance is to be

abolished; labor is to be made compulsory; all means of transport are

to be in the hands of the State, and so forth. _The International

Working Men's Association_--popularly called "the

International"--was organized in London in 1864. It has held congresses

in _Geneva_, and in other cities. It entered upon the most

destructive schemes of social agitation and revolution. But the society

was divided in 1872, on the expulsion of _Bakunin_, a Russian

Nihilist. A faction of the most violent class continued its activity

for a while, and stirred up risings in several towns in Spain in 1873,

in imitation of the insurrections in Paris in 1871. Different shades of

socialistic theory have been advocated; from the "Christian Socialism"

which aims at such objects as the creation of cooperative associations

in the working-class, to the fanatics who would sweep away existing

institutions by violence, and who resort to the use of dynamite as a

means of inspiring terror.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION SINCE 1871.--_Thiers_ had wonderful success

in providing for the payment of the German indemnity. His term of

office was prolonged (Aug. 31, 1871) for three years, with the title of

President. _Thiers_ had cooperated with _MacMahon_ in

crushing the commune, and in wholesome measures for the preservation of

order. An adverse vote in the Assembly (May 24, 1873) caused his

resignation. This was effected by a combination of the monarchical

parties. _MacMahon_, his successor, took a very conservative

position. The monarchists united to restore the _Count of

Chambord_ to the throne as _Henry V._, but the scheme

failed. In February, 1875, a new constitution, of a conservative

republican cast, was established, which provided for a president and a

cabinet, a senate, and a chamber of deputies. The legitimists,

Orleanists, and imperialists united with the president in his

reactionary, anti-republican policy. The whole clerical party were on

that side. The republicans were divided among themselves, the most

radical group being under the leadership of _Gambetta_. The danger

to the republic compelled a common policy. One of the great subjects of

controversy related to public education, in the management of which the

Church and the clergy desired to retain and extend their influence and

control. To secularize education, was a main aim of the body of the

republicans. The success of the republicans, against extraordinary

efforts made to defeat them, in the elections of 1877, at last

prevailed on the marshal-president to accept the verdict of the

country; and late in the year a republican cabinet was formed. The

measures of _Jules Ferry_ and his supporters, for taking the

business of instruction out of the hands of ecclesiastics and of the

clerical orders, although most earnestly resisted by Bishop

_Dupanloup_ and the whole clerical party, and opposed by a section

of the republicans led by _Jules Simon_, were, after heated

contention, adopted, and were completely carried out (1880). The death

of _Thiers_ (Sept., 1877) did not weaken the party of which he was

the most honored leader. The death of the young Prince _Louis

Napoleon_ (1879) in South Africa, where he was serving, under the

British, against the _Zulus_, was an almost fatal blow to the

hopes of the Bonapartist faction. The more recent death of _Count

Chambord_ (1883) was followed by the recognition, on the part of the

legitimists, of the _Count of Paris_, of the Orleans house, as the

next heir to the throne. A manifesto of Prince _Jerome Napoleon_

(1883), after the death of the young Prince _Napoleon_, aroused an

agitation against all pretenders to the throne,--in particular, against

the Orleanists; which led, after protracted debates, to the forced

retirement of all the princes of this family from active service in the

French army. In November, 1881, _Gambetta_ became the head of the

cabinet; but the opposition to his policy within the republican ranks

was stronger than had been anticipated. After a short time he laid down

his office. He died Dec. 31, 1882. _Jules Grévy_ (first elected

Jan. 30, 1879) was re-elected president Dec. 28, 1885. He was forced to

resign in 1887 because his son-in-law was implicated in corrupt

transactions. His successor was _Sadi Carnot_.

FRENCH CONQUESTS ABROAD.--The failure of France, in the Oriental

difficulties, to gain the power which she desired, impelled her to

build up colonial interests and settlements. Partly to punish marauding

tribes, in 1881, an expedition was sent against _Tunis_; and the

Bey was forced to accept a protectorate of the French over his

dominion. Thus the French enlarged their power in Africa. This

proceeding gave great offense to England, Italy, and the Turkish

Sultan. On the ground of a treaty of 1841, a French admiral demanded

the submission of the north-west coast of _Madagascar_ to a French

protectorate; and when this demand was refused, he bombarded and

captured the second city in the island, _Tamatave_ (1883). The

efforts of France to gain control over _Tonquin_ and the adjacent

territory in _China_ attracted still more

attention. _Tonquin_ is the most populous province of the kingdom

of _Anam_, of which it formed a part after 1802. Over this

kingdom, China claimed the rights of a suzerain; which the French

refused to acknowledge. In 1862, after a war lasting for almost four

years, _Napoleon III._ obtained from _Anam_, by the treaty of

_Saigun_, the provinces called _Cochin-China_. In 1874 the

French Republic extorted from King _Tuduc_ of Anam a treaty by

which his foreign policy was placed under the direction of

France. Against this treaty, China protested. In 1882 the French

commander _Rivière_ seized the city of _Hanoi_. The "Black

Flags," a body of free-lances or pirates, whose leader had been one of

the Chinese rebels, fought against the French; but it soon appeared

that both the king of _Anam_ and the government of China were in

league with his hostile force. Two years later a treaty was signed

bringing _Tonkin_ almost directly under French rule and

reëstablishing the protectorate in _Anam_.

THE CONFLICT OF PRUSSIA AND THE VATICAN.--The Roman Catholic Church in

Germany is recognized as a legal institution. Its revenues are received

from the state, which, in turn, exercises a supervision over the

education of its clergy. In Prussia, especially under _Frederick

William IV._, large privileges were granted by law to the Catholic

body. The proceedings of the Vatican Council awakened in Germany, as

elsewhere in Europe, the apprehension that the decree of papal

infallibility might give rise to conflict between the authorities of

the Church and of the State. _Bismarck_ considered that the

"ultramontane" party in the Church involved danger to the newly created

German Empire. The Prussian government resisted the attempt of the

Church, in 1871, to remove from office Catholic teachers who refused to

subscribe to the Vatican dogma of papal infallibility. In other words,

the government recognized and undertook to protect the "Old Catholics."

The contest with the clerical or ultramontane party went on; and before

the end of the year, the Catholic branch of the Prussian Ministry of

Worship and Instruction was abolished. In a debate in 1872,

_Bismarck_ said, "Of this be sure, that neither in Church nor in

State are we on the way to Canossa." His policy met with a determined

resistance from _Pius IX._ The Jesuits were expelled from the

German Empire. This law was afterwards construed to include other

orders.

THE FALK LAWS: CONTINUED CONFLICT.--The laws proposed by the Prussian

minister of worship, _Falk_, required that candidates for the

clerical office in the Catholic Church should have a training in the

gymnasium and university, and that every ecclesiastical appointment

should be sanctioned by the civil authorities. They provided for a

royal court for the settlement of ecclesiastical questions. These laws

were passed in 1873. In 1875 civil marriage was made obligatory in the

empire. These measures were stoutly resisted by "the Center," or the

clerical party, in the Prussian Parliament, and in the

_Reichstag_. They were declared by the Pope to be invalid, and

Roman Catholics were forbidden to obey them. Other enactments, one of

which forbade all payments to the bishops and clergy unless they should

sign a promise to obey the laws of the state, were adopted by Prussia.

Refractory bishops and priests were punished in various ways. The

result was that the Roman Catholic party, led by _Windhorst_,

ex-minister of Hanover, in opposition to _Bismarck's_ measures,

was consolidated. The struggle extended beyond the bounds of Prussia:

it was _Bavaria_, a Catholic state, which proposed the law

requiring civil marriage. After the accession of _Leo XIII._,

there was on both sides an increased disposition to find terms of peace

by which the numerous vacancies in Catholic clerical offices could be

filled. The need which _Bismarck_ felt of the support of "the

Center" for his financial measures favored this result. _Falk_

resigned (July 13, 1879), he being personally odious to the Roman

party. After long debates, a bill was passed (Jan. 1, 1882) giving to

the king and his ministers discretionary powers, which opened the way

for filling the vacant places. Still, in the great festival at the

completion of the Cologne Cathedral (Oct. 15), the clerical party stood

aloof. But the mutual friendly approaches of the chancelor and his

ultramontane opponents continued. Diplomatic correspondence was opened

with the Vatican. Some of the harsher features of the anti-papal

legislation were revoked.

BISMARCK AND SOCIALISM.--One motive in this modification of the

chancelor's policy was the rapid progress of socialism. At first, while

_Bismarck_ was engaged in a struggle with the liberals, who

impeded his plans in the Prussian Parliament, he had willingly availed

himself of the support of _Lasalle_ and his socialistic

followers. But after the war with France, the party of the "Social

Democrats" became more and more numerous and formidable. It was not,

however, until a second attempt was made on the emperor's life, that

Bismarck was able to carry, against the combination of parties, his

measures giving to the government extraordinary powers for the stifling

of socialistic agitation (1879). The law for the suppression of

socialistic meetings, newspapers, etc., was rigorously enforced.

THE "PARTICULARISTS."--Bismarck was, moreover, obliged to contend with

the "Particularists," who were hostile to the Empire, and with a large

number besides them, who were opposed to a greater degree of imperial

centralization at the expense of the power of the separate

states. Unable to obtain for the imperial government the control over

the German railroad system, he devised a plan (1879) by which Prussia

would eventually control three-quarters of the railroads of Germany. An

imperial code of laws was adopted (1877); but, from jealousy of

Prussia, the seat of the supreme court of appeal was fixed at

_Leipsic_. In his economical and financial measures, the chancelor

was often charged with the exercise of arbitrary power. Free,

representative government, according to the English system, did not

accord with his idea of the Prussian monarchy, and with the character

of the new empire, the unity of which he was naturally anxious to

fortify. By his alliance with Austria in 1879, he placed Germany in a

situation to resist Russia and France, in case Russia, aggrieved by the

action of Germany at the Berlin Conference (1878), should join hands

with France in acts of hostility against the German empire. In 1888

_William I._ died and was succeeded by his son, _Frederick

III._, who held the sovereignty but a few months, dying June 15,

1888. His son, _William II._, succeeded him.

THE BRITISH SWAY IN INDIA.--British sway by degrees extended itself

over India. The fall of the Mogul empire left the country in a state of

anarchy. Strife arose with one tribe after another, until the authority

of England came to be acknowledged as far north as the Himalayas. The

English advance was made with the help of native auxiliaries, and could

not have been made without it. It was quite as much an internal

revolution as a foreign conquest. As the British enlarged their

dominion, and came into conflict with the French, the appetite for

supremacy grew. Under the rule of the _Marquis of Wellesley_

(1798-1805), partly through the victories of _Sir Arthur

Wellesley_ (afterwards the Duke of Wellington), "the policy of

intervention and annexation" was pursued with brilliant success. The

_Burmese_ were conquered, and parts of their territory annexed, in

1826, 1852, and 1885. The effort always was to secure a quiet

frontier. In 1843 a war with _Scinde_ resulted in its absorption

in British territory. In 1849 the annexation of _Punjab_ followed,

a British protectorate having been found insufficient. The

misgovernment of the native princes in _Oude_ led to the

assumption of the government of that province by the English in 1856.

THE INDIAN MUTINY.--There was hostility to British rule among the

Mohammedans in India, and distrust among the Hindoos. The latter

acquired a fanatical belief that the English, who had abolished the

burning of widows, and even legalized their marriage, meant to force

the people to lose caste by driving them to sacrilegious practices. The

report that cartridges had been served out which had been lubricated

with the fat of the swine, abhorred by Moslems, and of the cow,

venerated by the Hindoos, stirred up a revolt among the native Sepoy

troops (1857). The insurrection spread, and was attended with savage

cruelties. There was a frightful massacre of women and children at

_Cawnpore_, before General _Havelock_ could arrive for its

relief. The English, who were besieged in _Lucknow_, after

terrible suffering, were relieved by the opportune coming of this

gallant soldier. All the English residents in _Delhi_, who could

not escape into the jungle, were murdered. The weak old king placed

himself at the head of the rebellion. _Delhi_ was recaptured by

the British, and the conquest completed by _Sir Colin Campbell_

(March 22, 1858). _Oude_ was subdued. Gradually the rebellion was

crushed, and merciless severity was exercised by the conquerors upon

those most actively concerned in it. One consequence of the revolt was

the entire transference of the government of India from the East India

Company to the Crown. The measure was introduced into Parliament by

_Lord Palmerston_ (1858). Under the ministry of _Disraeli_,

and on his motion, the Queen added to her titles that of "Empress of

India" (1877).

BRITISH WARS WITH THE AFGHANS.--In the last century _Ahmed Khan_,

the ruler of Afghanistan, extended his dominion as far as

_Delhi_. But he died in 1773, and his son _Timour_ changed

the seat of government from _Candahar_ to _Cabul_. In 1838

the English declared war against _Dost Mohammed_, one of the three

rulers of the country, whose seat of power was in this city. The

British attack was successful; but insurrections broke out (1841), and

they agreed to evacuate the country. The whole British army, which had

to pass through the _Kurd-Cabul Pass_, was destroyed by cold and

hunger, and by the harassing attacks of the mountaineers (1842). It

numbered forty-five hundred fighting men and twelve thousand five

hundred camp-followers. Another British army, under

_Gen. Pollock_, forced the _Khyber Pass_, and took vengeance

on _Cabul_. In 1855 _Dost Mohammed_, now an ally of the

English, drove the Persians out of _Herat_, which, as "the key of

India," the British were anxious to protect against ambitious schemes

of Russia. In 1863 he took _Herat_ from _Ahmed_, the sultan

there, who was considered a tool of Persia and of Russia. _Dost

Mohammed_ died soon after, and was succeeded by his son _Sher Ali

Khan_. After the acquisition of _Quetta_ by the English, he

began to side with the Russians. His intrigues with them, and his

refusal to receive a British embassy, brought on the second Afghan war

of the British (1878-81). The ameer died (Feb. 21, 1879); the Afghans

were defeated by _Gen. Roberts_, who took _Cabul_, and

installed as ameer _Abdurrahman Khan_ (1880). The English then

decided to evacuate the territory. On their march they were attacked by

_Ayub Khan_ of Herat. Later he was defeated by _Roberts_, and

driven back to that place. The _Gladstone_ ministry had succeeded

the ministry of _Disraeli_, who had been anxious to establish a

"scientific frontier" between Afghanistan and the Czar's

territories,--such a frontier as would secure a "neutral zone" between

them and India, to serve as a barrier against Russian invasion.

RUSSIA AND AFGHANISTAN.--The gradual approaches of Russia in the

direction of _Herat_ have been on two lines. The one is the line

south-easterly from the Caspian. She gained a lodgment in 1869 at

_Krasnovodsk_ on the eastern shore of that sea. In 1880

_Geopteke_ and _Askabat_ were taken. The other line of

aggressive approach is south-westerly from the neighborhood of the

Oxus. On this line, partly from displeasure at the English occupation

of Egypt, and in pursuance of the policy, adopted especially since the

Berlin Conference (1878), to advance towards _Herat_, the Russians

suddenly seized _Merv_, an oasis extremely important from a

military point of view, over which _Persia_ claimed a certain

suzerainty. The Russians occupied it in force, under

Gen. _Komaroff_ (March 16, 1884). Subsequently England and Russia

agreed to ascertain and fix the northern boundary of Afghanistan. The

occupation of _Penjdeh_ by the Afghans, followed by the advance of

_Komaroff_,--of which the British complained as an

aggression,--brought the two countries to the verge of war (1885).

THE WESTERN POWERS AND EGYPT.--"The Oriental question"--the question

relating to Turkey and its dependencies--constantly took on new phases,

and presented to the powers of Europe fresh difficulties and dangers of

conflict. The Khedive of Egypt, _Ismail Pasha_, was a friend and

admirer of _Napoleon III_. and of the French. He succeeded in

obtaining from the Sultan repeated concessions, which reduced his

dependence on Turkey to little more than an obligation to pay an annual

tribute, together with certain marks of respect and honor. His

conflicts with lands on the south, _Dafour_ and _Abyssinia_,

his extravagant outlays in public works of internal improvement, and

the enormous interest paid to foreign capitalists for their loans,

involved him in the utmost financial embarrassment. This furnished the

occasion to the Western powers, in particular to England and France, to

intermeddle still more in Egyptian affairs. The Khedive sold to the

British Government his shares in the _Suez Canal_, and gave into

the hands of the English and French (1878) the control of the financial

administration of the country. This sort of dependence was repugnant to

both the Khedive and the Egyptian people. The native officers were

pushed into the background. The most lucrative stations were filled by

foreigners, and the weight of taxation was almost intolerable. The

attempt to throw off this yoke only resulted in the deposition of

_Ismail_ by the Sultan, on the demand of the two Western

powers. His weak son, _Tewfik Pasha_, took his place. The control

of the finances remained in foreign hands. The result of the discontent

of the people, and of the disaffection of the Egyptian officers, was a

revolt led by _Arabi Pasha_, a military officer (1881). The

Khedive complied with the demands of the insurgents: their chief was

made minister of war. The Western powers were bent on suppressing this

movement, and, in addition to threats and diplomatic measures, sent

their fleets to Egypt. A revolt broke out in _Alexandria_, in

which the English consul was wounded and many Europeans were slain

(June, 1882). The city was filled with terror, and all trade was

suspended. The English fleet bombarded the city, and set it on

fire. _Arabi_ withdrew his troops to _Cairo_. He was now

deposed by the Khedive, and declared a rebel. His troops showed little

spirit. The fortifications of _Tel-el-Kebir_ were taken by the

English general, Sir _Garnet Wolseley_, almost without

resistance. _Aboukir, Damietta_, and _Cairo_ surrendered, and

the Egyptian leader, _Arabi_, was captured and banished. From that

time Egypt fell into a condition of helpless dependence on

England. France found herself without the influence there which she had

always coveted since the days of the first _Napoleon_. The system

of administration in Egypt was now organized by the English, through

Lord _Dufferin_. Great complaint was made against them by the

other powers, for not taking sufficient precautions to prevent the

introduction of the cholera from India. The principal troubles of the

English grew out of the invasion of the false prophet called _El

Mahdi_, who gathered to himself a host of followers in the

_Soudan_, partly instigated by Moslem fanaticism, but largely

impelled by their hatred of the Egyptian government established over

that region. The people of the _Soudan_ complained bitterly of the

oppressive Egyptian officers. The slave-dealers there were exasperated

at the prohibition of their traffic, on which England had insisted. In

the course of the conflict with _El Mahdi_, _Hicks Pasha_, an

English officer in the service of the Khedive, was defeated and slain,

and his force cut to pieces, near _El Obeid_ (Nov. 3, 4, and 5,

1883). There was great fear now for the province of _Sennaar_ and

especially for the city of _Khartoum_, where there were many

Europeans. Mr. _Gladstone_, and the English ministry of which he

was the head, were not disposed to hold the _Soudan_, but desired

to give it up as soon as the garrisons could be rescued and brought

away. To this policy the Khedive was opposed. The project of a military

interference in the _Soudan_ by the Sultan, the English took care

to prevent by attaching to it impossible conditions. On the Red Sea,

_Osman Digna_, a partisan of the _Mahdi_, made repeated

attacks upon _Suakim_, the base of the operations of _Baker

Pasha_, another former English officer, now become general of the

Egyptian army. On account of the cowardice of the Egyptian troops,

_Baker_ was defeated with heavy loss (Feb. 4, 1884). The British

troops from _Cairo_ under _Graham_ had better success; and

_Osman Digna_ was vanquished, and driven into the mountains. The

English government adopted the extraordinary measure of sending General

_Gordon_ to Khartoum; his errand being to pacify the tribes of the

_Soudan_, to provide for the deliverance of the garrisons, and to

arrange terms of accommodation with _El Mahdi_. This last it was

found impossible to accomplish. _Berber_ was captured by the

enemy, and garrison and male population were slaughtered. _Gordon_

was shut up in _Khartoum_. The peculiar financial situation

obliged the English ministry to hold a conference of the great powers

(June 28, 1885) at London. Lord _Granville_ insisted that only

financial points, and not the general Egyptian question, should be

considered, which did not accord with the views of the other powers,

and the conference adjourned without effecting anything. The perilous

situation of _Gordon_, and the feeling in England on this account,

obliged the government to send out General _Wolseley_ with a large

force to Egypt; but before aid could be given _Gordon_,

_Khartoum_, was betrayed, and he was slain. The course of England

respecting Egypt had left her isolated as regards the other European

powers, and had awakened much disaffection in England. It was the

policy of the Gladstone ministry in relation to Egypt, even more than

complaints growing out of their conduct in the troubles with Russia,

that obliged them to resign, and to give place to the Tory cabinet of

Lord _Salisbury_. Upon the death of _Tewfik_ (Jan. 7, 1892)

his son, _Abbas Pasha_, became khedive.

GREAT BRITAIN AND CANADA.--On the cession of Canada to Great Britain

(1763), the French inhabitants of _Lower Canada_ were secured in

the free exercise of the Catholic religion, and in the possession of

equal rights with English settlers. "The Quebec Act" of 1774 made

Canada one royal government, and brought in the English criminal code

with trial by jury. During the Revolution, many loyalists emigrated to

Upper Canada. A strong desire arose for a repeal of the "Quebec Act."

In 1791, under _Pitt_, the two parts of Canada were made separate

provinces. A constitution was granted, which provided for an elective

legislature for each. The governors, the executive councils, and the

legislative councils were to be appointed by the Crown. The governments

were still subject to the Colonial Office in London. A spirit of

opposition between the two provinces increased. _Upper Canada_,

under English law, grew in numbers and prosperity; but the growth of

population in _Lower Canada_ was much more rapid. Here there was

an antagonism between the Assembly and the English governors. There was

an open rebellion in 1837, which spread into Upper Canada. The two

Canadas were united in 1841; the executive department became

responsible, as in England, to the popular branch of the legislature;

and under the liberal and enlightened administration of Lord

_Elgin_ (1847-54), a better feeling arose. He was obliged,

however, to suppress a mob of the conservatives, or "loyalists" (1849),

who were hostile to the extension of a general amnesty to former

rebels. In 1856 the Upper House was made elective. In 1857

_Ottawa_ was made the seat of government. In 1867 the _Dominion

of Canada_ was constituted. It was at first a federal union of Nova

Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Canadas; _Upper Canada_ receiving

the name of _Ontario,_ and _Lower Canada_ being named

_Quebec._ _Manitoba,_ formed out of a part of Hudson Bay

Territory, was admitted to the Dominion in 1870, and _British

Columbia_ in 1871. _Prince Edward Island_ was admitted in 1873;

and the same year the territories were received by transfer from the

Hudson Bay Company. The Dominion has a Senate and a House of

Commons. The authority of the Crown is represented by the

governor-general and the council. Legislation is subject to a veto from

the sovereign. Each province has its local government, but whatever

powers are not expressly reserved to the several provinces are granted

to the General Government,--a provision the reverse of that found in

the Constitution of the United States, which the Canadian system in

various features resembles.

In the Peace of Utrecht (1713), France gave up its claim to _Nova

Scotia:_ the Peace of Paris (1763) surrendered to Great Britain

_New Brunswick,_ and _Cape Breton_ and _Prince Edward_

islands. These are known at present as the _maritime provinces._

When the American War of Revolution began, thousands of loyalists

emigrated to _Nova Scotia,_ as well as to _Upper Canada,_

from whom many of the present inhabitants are descended. The island of

_Vancouver,_ on the western coast of _British Columbia,_ was

surrendered to the navigator of this name by _Quadra,_ a Spanish

commander, in 1792. In 1843 a trading-post was established at

_Victoria_ by the Hudson Bay Company. The island forms politically

a part of _British Columbia._ The Government of the Dominion, when

British Columbia was received, engaged to construct a railway to the

Pacific across British North America. England acquired a title to

_Newfoundland_ in 1713. It first received a constitution in

1832. The government was made responsible to the Assembly in 1852.

GREAT BRITAIN AND AUSTRALIA.--Australia, which covers an area of three

million square miles, when it was first visited by Europeans was found

to be inhabited by native tribes of the Papuan, Melanesian, or

Australasian race, of whom about eighty thousand now remain. In the

seventeenth century, various points along its coasts were touched by

European voyagers, especially by the Dutch. The discoveries of Captain

_Cook_ (1769 to 1777) had an important influence in leading to

settlements on this island-continent. _New South Wales,_ a name

given by _Cook,_ is the oldest of the English provinces in

Australia. Not _Botany Bay,_ which he had selected for a

settlement, but _Port Jackson,_ was made a penal station (1788)

for convicts from England. This place, however, continued to be

erroneously called _Botany Bay._ The principal harbor was named

_Sydney Cove._ In 1803 _Van Dieman's Land,_ now called

_Tasmania,_ was first occupied. Thus the beginnings of

colonization in Australia were made by the dregs of English

society. The convicts labored for their own support, and, when their

terms had expired, sometimes received as a gift small farms, and

implements with which to till them. The character of the settlement,

and the management of it, became much more humane after 1810, when

_Macquarie_ became governor. Free colonists, English and Scotch,

came and joined it. The discovery of the upland pastures beyond the

Blue Mountains, which were remarkably adapted to sheep, made an epoch

in the history of the colony. Spanish merino sheep were introduced:

wool became the chief staple; the production of it, especially after

the invention of the combing-machine, became very profitable, and free

emigrants poured in. The Australian Agricultural Company was formed in

England. Western Australia began to be settled in 1829, but did not

thrive. New colonies continued to be formed in Eastern Australia. South

Australia was made prosperous by copper-mines. Victoria, which became a

distinct province in 1851, owes its growth to gold

mines. _Melbourne_, its chief town, was planted in 1837. The first

British governors at _Sydney_ were military officers, ruling with

despotic authority. Representative institutions were gradually formed

in the different provinces. The constitutions were framed on the model

of the home government; but in _Victoria_ and _Tasmania_ the

Upper House was made elective. After long conflicts with the home

government, the Australian colonies escaped from the misfortune of

being places to which convicts were transported. The discovery of gold

in _New South Wales_ and _Victoria_ was made in 1851, and

caused at once an immense influx of immigrants. Next to gold, the most

important article of export has been wool. Wheat and copper have been

exported in large quantities. The breeding of cattle has been a

profitable employment in these communities.

NEW ZEALAND.--In 1838 the first regular and permanent settlement was

made in New Zealand. _Wellington_ was founded in the next

year. New Zealand, with South Island and North Island, became a colony

independent of Australia in 1841.

ENGLAND AND IRELAND.--The disaffection of the Irish, and their

antipathy to English rule, broke out in different forms, as

circumstances changed. For a long time the demand was for "Catholic

emancipation." This was granted (p. 558); but most of the English

concessions were made under such a pressure, and in appearance so

grudgingly, that little was accomplished by them in placating Irish

hostility. The outcry against tithes for the support of the Protestant

Established Church was to a great extent quieted in 1838, when the

odious features of this tax were removed. The Act disestablishing the

Irish Protestant Church, carried by Mr. _Gladstone_ in 1869, and

put in execution in 1871, took away one of the great grievances of

which the Irish nation had to complain. The repeal of the legislative

union of England and Ireland was the watchword of _O'Connell_ and

his followers. In one form or another, the demand for local

self-government or independence, which has been more lately urged under

the name of "home rule," has been kept up with little intermission. It

is about the special question of land reform that the most bitter

conflicts have centered. The ownership of a great part of the land in

Ireland by a few persons: the fact that great obstacles and great

expenses--difficulties of late somewhat lightened--have existed in the

way of the transference of land if any one had the means to purchase

it: the circumstances that the owners have generally been, not

residents, but absent landlords; that, in cases of dispute with

tenants, the laws were for a long period framed in their interest; that

the management of estates was left to agents or middle-men; that

multitudes of tenants, whose holdings were small, could glean a bare

subsistence from the soil, were doomed to famine if the potato-crop

failed, and, when unable to pay the rent, were liable to "eviction,"

that is, to be turned out of doors, with their families, to

perish,--these have been causes sufficient to give rise to endless

disputes and conflicts. Add to these facts the inbred hostility arising

from differences of race and religion; the memory, on the part of the

Irish, of centuries of misgovernment, and the feeling that the lands

held by sufferance were wrested from their ancestors by force,--and the

animosity manifested in revolts and outrages is easily explained. The

English government, in a series of measures,--in connection with which,

acts of coercion for preventing and punishing violence have been

passed,--undertook to lessen the evils that exist, and to produce a

better state of feeling. The _Encumbered Estates Court_ was

established to render more easy the transfer of lands. This Act, and

the _Land Act_ passed the same year (1860), although well meant,

failed to improve the situation of the tenants. Mr. _Gladstone's_

great measure of disestablishment has been referred to. His second

great reform measure was the Land Law of 1870, the effect of which was

to make the landlord pay damages to the evicted tenant, to compensate

him for improvements which he had made, etc. One object of this Act was

to create a body of peasant proprietors in Ireland. Additional Acts, in

1880, were designed to assist tenants to purchase their holdings. The

hopes as to the practical benefit to follow the Act of 1870 were

disappointed. In 1877, 1878, and 1879, there was a partial failure of

the crops. The _Fenian_ movement, designed to secure Irish

independence by force, was organized in the United States, 1857. By

uniting with similar Irish brotherhoods, it extended itself in Great

Britain as well as America, collected large funds, and, 1866, made

ineffectual attempts to invade Canada. An armed rising in Ireland

shortly after, under Fenian leadership, was suppressed. The national

agitation consequent on these proceedings in Ireland, issued in the

organization, 1870, of the Home Rule party, with Mr. _Isaac Butt_

a leading promoter. The object was to secure an Irish Parliament for

Irish affairs, and for the control of Irish resources; the Imperial

Parliament being left to deal with imperial affairs. In this period

(about 1874) Mr. _Parnell_ grew to be conspicuous in politics. He

became the leader of the Home Rule members of the House of Commons, who

sought, by obstructing the progress of business, to compel the English

government to withdraw its measures of coercion, and to legislate in

accordance with the views of himself and his associates. The

"obstructionists," by joining the Tories, effected the retirement of

the Gladstone Cabinet (1885). In Ireland a system of "boycotting" was

adopted for the punishment of landlords guilty of evicting

tenants. This led to deeds of violence and blood. _Parnell_ died

in 1891. and _Justin McCarthy_ became the leader of the Irish

cause in Parliament. A Gladstone Cabinet again came into power in 1892,

with an avowed object of securing Home Rule for Ireland.

CHAPTER VI. THE UNITED STATES (1815-1890): MEXICO: SOUTH AMERICAN

STATES: EASTERN ASIA.

END OF THE FEDERAL PARTY.--The end of the war with Great Britain

(1812-15) was marked by the extinction of the Federal party. But the

Republicans, the opposing party, were now equally zealous for the

perpetuity of the Union, and were quite ready to act on a liberal

construction of the Constitution with respect to the powers conferred

on the General Government. This had been shown in the purchase of

Louisiana: it was further exemplified in 1816 in the establishment of a

national bank, and in the enactment of a protective tariff. Then, and

until 1832, presidential candidates were nominated by Congressional

"caucuses." _James Monroe_ (1817-25) received the votes of all of

the States but three. The absence of party division has caused his time

to be designated as "the era of good feeling."

PURCHASE OF FLORIDA.--Slaves in Georgia and Alabama frequently escaped

from their masters, and fled for shelter to the swamps of Florida. The

_Creek_ and the _Seminole_ Indians were always disposed to

aid them. In 1817 General _Andrew Jackson_ was appointed to

conduct an expedition against the Seminoles. He came into conflict with

the Spanish authorities in Florida, where he seized Spanish forts, and

built a fort of his own. Finally, in 1819, the Floridas were purchased

of Spain for five million dollars, and the United States gave up its

claim to the extensive territory west of the Sabine River, which was

known afterwards as _Texas_. This became a part of Mexico two

years later.

SLAVERY: THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE.--In 1820 a sectional struggle arose

in Congress, on the question of the admission of Missouri as a State

with a constitution permitting slavery. The slave-trade had been

carried on by the States separately, before the National Constitution

was formed. It was abolished by Congress in 1808, the earliest date

allowed by the Constitution for the power to abolish it to be

exercised. The principal founders of the government, both in the North

and South, considered slavery an evil, and looked forward to its

gradual extinction. In the North, where the slaves were less numerous,

laws for gradual emancipation were early passed. But the rapid increase

of slaves in the South, the growing demand for cotton, and the stimulus

given to the production of it by the cotton-gin, made the prospect of

emancipation by legislative action less probable as time advanced. The

_American Colonization Society_ was formed in 1811; and the

fallacious hope was entertained by many, that the negroes might be

carried back to the _Liberian_ settlement on the African

coast. The extension of slavery in the territory north-west of the Ohio

had been prevented by the Congressional ordinance of 1787. When the

question of the admission of _Missouri_ to the Union came up, the

members of Congress from the North and the members from the South were

in hostile array on the point, and a dangerous excitement was

kindled. By the exertions of _Henry Clay_, the "Missouri

Compromise" was adopted, by which the new State was admitted with

slavery in it; but, as a kind of equivalent, slavery was prohibited

forever in all the remaining territory of the United States north of

36° 30' north latitude, the southern boundary of _Missouri_.

THE "MONROE DOCTRINE."--When the "Holy Alliance" was engaged in its

crusade against liberty in Europe, it was thought that they might

attempt to conquer for Spain the revolted South American

republics. _Canning_ suggested to the American minister in

England, that it would be well for the United States to take action

against such a scheme. President Monroe, in his annual message in 1823,

said that we should consider an attempt of the allied powers to extend

their system in this country, or any interference on their part for the

purpose of controlling the destiny of the American States, as

unfriendly action towards the United States. This is the "Monroe

Doctrine." An additional statement in disapproval of future

colonization on the American continents by European powers was made in

the same message. This second statement was never sanctioned by the

House of Representatives. It is vague, and was probably meant to

exclude _indirect_ attempts to overthrow the liberty of the new

American republics. The only thing which the "Monroe Doctrine" really

contains is the intimation on the part of the United States of a right

to resist attempts of European powers to alter the constitutions of

American communities.

The true origin and intent of the "Monroe Doctrine" are often

misunderstood. They are set forth in Woolsey's _International

Law_, and in his article in Johnson's _Encyclopedia_, "Monroe

Doctrine;" also in Webster's writings, Vol. III. p. l78, and in

Calhoun's "Speech on the Panama Question." See also Foster, _A

Century of American Diplomacy_, Chap. XII.

PARTIES AFTER MONROE.--At the expiration of Monroe's second term, there

being no choice for president by the people, _John Quincy Adams_,

who had long been in public life in various important stations, was

chosen by the House of Representatives. His supporters combined with

the adherents of _Henry Clay_, who became secretary of state. This

alliance was loudly denounced by their opponents as a "bargain." From

the close of the last war with Great Britain, a party called by their

adversaries "loose constructionists" of the Constitution, of which

_Clay_ was a leader,--a party who were in favor of measures like a

protective tariff, a national bank, and internal improvements,--as the

making of canals,--to be undertaken by Congress,--had been growing

up. It now took the name of _National Republicans_, which was

afterwards exchanged for that of _Whigs_. On the other side were

the "strict constructionists," who, however, differed among themselves

respecting certain measures,--for example, the tariff. In their ranks

_Andrew Jackson_ belonged. Of this political tendency, _John

C. Calhoun_ of South Carolina became a leading promoter. _Andrew

Jackson_ was a favorite candidate for the presidency, and the name

of _Democrats_ was applied to his followers.

PRESIDENCY OF JACKSON.--_Jackson_ was elevated to the presidency

in 1829. He was a fearless man, an ardent patriot, with a choleric

temper and an imperious will. He carried to an unexampled extent a

custom, which had begun with _Jefferson_, of supplanting

office-holders of the opposite political party by supporters of the

administration. This came to be called the "spoils system," from the

maxim once quoted in defense of it, that "to the victors belong the

spoils."

NULLIFICATION.--During _Jackson's_ administration, there occurred

the "nullification" crisis. In 1828 a new protective tariff had been

passed, which was regarded in the South, especially in South Carolina,

as extremely unjust and injurious. The New England States had been

averse to protection; and in 1816 _Daniel Webster_ opposed the

tariff measure as specially hurtful to the Eastern States, whose

capital was so largely invested in commerce. After the protective

policy had been adopted, and when, under its shield, manufacturing had

been extensively established in the North, the former adversaries of

protection, with _Webster_, as well as _Clay_, who had been

a protectionist before, thought it unfair and destructive to do away

with the tariff. Its adversaries denounced it as

unconstitutional. _Calhoun_ and his followers, moreover,

contended that _nullification_ is legal and admissible; in other

words, that a law of Congress may be set aside by a State within its

own limits, provided it is considered by that State a gross infraction

of the Constitution. There was a memorable debate on this subject in

1830, in the United States Senate, when the State-rights theory was

advocated by _Robert Y. Hayne_ of South Carolina, and the

opposite doctrine defended by _Webster_. In 1832 South Carolina

passed an ordinance declaring that the tariff laws of 1828 and 1832

were null and void, and not binding in that State. President

_Jackson_ issued a spirited proclamation in which the

nullification doctrine was repudiated, and the opposite, or national,

theory was affirmed, and the President's resolute intention to execute

the laws of the United States was announced. The difficulty was ended

by the compromise tariff introduced by _Henry Clay_, providing

for the gradual reduction of duties (1833).

REMOVAL OF THE DEPOSITS.--The President was hostile to the National

Bank, which he considered dangerous, as liable to be converted into a

tool for partisan ends. Not being able to carry Congress with him, he

assumed the responsibility, after his second election, of removing the

deposits, or public funds, from its custody, or, rather, of an order

for the cessation of these deposits. For this he was censured by the

Senate, a majority of which regarded his act as arbitrary and

unconstitutional.

ANTI-SLAVERY AGITATION.--From about this time, the agitation respecting

slavery constantly increased. In the North a party arose, which,

through lectures and in newspapers and pamphlets, denounced slavery as

iniquitous, and called for immediate emancipation. The most prominent

leader of this party was _William Lloyd Garrison_, and its most

captivating orator was _Wendell Phillips_. This party advocated

disunion, on account of the obligations imposed upon the North in

reference to slavery by the Constitution. They were sometimes assailed

by mobs in Northern cities. The major part of the people in the North

desired some method of extinguishing slavery which should leave the

Union intact. Meantime they were for obeying the Constitution, although

the obligation to restore fugitive slaves was felt to be obnoxious, and

there grew up a disposition to avoid compliance with it. The

"colonizationists" diminished in number. There were various types and

degrees of anti-slavery sentiment. The resolution to confine slavery,

by political action, within the limits of the States where it was under

the shield of local law, became more and more prevalent. In the South,

on the contrary, the enmity to "abolitionism" was intense, and served

to increase the popularity of the doctrine of State-rights. Slavery

came to be defended as necessary under the circumstances, and as

capable of justification on moral and Scriptural grounds. Occasions of

reciprocal complaint between North and South, for illegal doings

relating in one way or another to slavery, tended to multiply.

ANNEXATION OF TEXAS.--In 1836 _Texas_ declared its independence of

Mexico. General _Sam Houston_, an emigrant from Tennessee, was the

leader in the revolt. He defeated the Mexicans under _Santa Ana_,

at the _San Jacinto_ (1836). In 1845, largely by the agency of

Mr. _Calhoun_, Texas, by an Act of Congress, was annexed to the

United States. The motive which he avowed was the fear that it might

fall into the hands of England, and become dangerous to the institution

of slavery in the South. The measure was strenuously opposed in the

North as a scheme by which it was intended to strengthen the influence

of the slaveholding States in Congress. It was favored, for the same

reason, by those who were inimical to abolitionism in whatever form.

WAR WITH MEXICO.--A consequence of the acquisition of Texas was a war

with _Mexico_. The successes of Gen. _Zachary Taylor_ at

_Palo Alto_ and _Monterey_ (1846), and at _Buena Vista_

(1847), and the campaign of Gen. _Winfield Scott_, who captured

_Vera Cruz_, fought his way through the pass of _Cerro

Gordo_, and at length entered the city of _Mexico_ (Sept. 14,

1847), compelled the Mexicans to agree to the Treaty of _Guadaloupe

Hidalgo_ (1848). By this treaty all claim on Texas to the Rio Grande

was relinquished, together with the provinces of _Upper

California_ and _New Mexico_.

THE "WILMOT PROVISO."--The Wilmot Proviso was proposed in Congress,

excluding slavery from all territory to be acquired from Mexico. This

demand for the prevention of the further extension of slavery in the

territories subject to national jurisdiction, became a rallying-cry. On

the nomination of General _Taylor_ to the presidency by the Whigs

(1848), a "Free-Soil" party was organized on this basis,--the precursor

of the Republican party. The convention which nominated _Taylor_

laid on the table a motion approving of the Wilmot Proviso. The Whigs

succeeded in the election, but their party lost a portion of its

adherents.

CLAY'S COMPROMISE.--The application of _California_ for admission

to the Union, which, on account of the rapid growth of that community

through the discovery of gold, was soon made, brought the sectional

difficulty to another crisis. _President Taylor_ died (July 9,

1850), and was succeeded by _Millard Fillmore_, the

vice-president. The contest in Congress was soon after adjusted by

_Clay's_ compromise, by which _California_ was admitted as a

free State, _Utah_ and _New Mexico_ were organized into

Territories without any mention of slavery, the slave-trade was

prohibited in the District of Columbia, and a new fugitive-slave law

was enacted, that was framed in such a way as to give great offense at

the North. _Webster_, in a celebrated speech in favor of the

compromise (March 7), gave as a reason for not insisting on the Wilmot

Proviso, that the physical character of the new Territories of itself

excluded slavery from them.

THE KANSAS TROUBLES.--In 1854, during the administration of _Franklin

Pierce_, the standing sectional controversy reached a new phase. Two

Territories, _Kansas_ and _Nebraska_, were knocking at the

doors of Congress for admission as States. _Kansas_ lay west of

Missouri, and, like _Nebraska_ on the north, was protected from

slavery by the Missouri Compromise (p. 601). But the Democrats carried

through Congress a bill introduced by Mr. _Douglas_ of Illinois,

practically repealing that compromise, and leaving the matter of the

toleration of slavery to be determined by the actual settlers as they

might see fit. This measure was extensively regarded in the North as a

breach of faith. Companies of emigrants were organized in the Northern

States, to form permanent settlements in _Kansas_; and in order to

prevent that country from becoming a free State, marauders from

_Missouri_ crossed the line, to attack them, and to harass the

newly planted colonies.

THE DRED-SCOTT CASE.--_James Buchanan_ became president in

1857. At this time the Supreme Court decided that neither negro slaves

nor their descendants, slave or free, could become citizens of the

United States; and added incidentally the dictum that the Missouri

Compromise was unconstitutional, and that Congress had no right to

prohibit the carrying of slaves into any State or Territory. The effect

of this opinion, if embodied in a legal decision, would have been to

prevent the exclusion of slavery, even by a Territorial legislature,

prior to the existence of the State government. This judicial act,

following upon the attitude taken by the government at Washington with

reference to the Kansas troubles, greatly strengthened the numbers and

stimulated the determination of the Republican party in the Northern

States.

THE JOHN BROWN RAID.--An occurrence not without a considerable effect

in exciting the resentment, as well as the apprehensions, of the South,

was the attempt of _John Brown_, a brave old man of the Puritan

type, whose enmity to slavery had been deepened by conflict and

suffering in the Kansas troubles, to stir up an insurrection of slaves

in Virginia. With a handful of armed men, he seized the United States

arsenal at _Harper's Ferry_ in Virginia. Half of his followers

were killed: he himself was captured, and, after being tried and

convicted by the State authorities, was hanged (Dec. 2, 1859).

SECESSION OF STATES.--In the election of 1860, _Abraham Lincoln_

received the electoral vote of every Northern State except New

Jersey. The conviction of the Southern political leaders that the

anti-slavery feeling of the North, with its great and growing

preponderance in wealth and population, would dictate the policy of the

general government, determined them to attempt to break up the

Union. The result, it was expected, would be the permanent

establishment of a slave-holding confederacy, or the obtaining of new

constitutional guaranties and safeguards of the institution of slavery;

which, it was felt, would be undermined even if nothing more were done

than to prevent the spread of it beyond the States where it

existed. _South Carolina_ passed an ordinance of secession

(Dec. 20, 1860), and was followed in this act by _Mississippi,

Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana,_ and _Texas_. The

delegates of the seceding States met at _Montgomery_, Ala., and

formed a new government under the name of the Confederate States of

America (Feb. 8, 1861). _Jefferson Davis_ was elected president,

and _Alexander H. Stephens_ vice-president. Except at

_Pensacola_ in Florida, and in _Charleston_, all the national

property within the borders of the seceding States was seized. Efforts

looking to compromise and conciliation were of no effect. After the

accession of Mr. _Lincoln_, the purpose of the government to send

supplies to the garrison of _Fort Sumter_ in the harbor of

Charleston, caused the Confederates to attack that fortress, which the

commander, Major _Anderson_, after a gallant defense, was obliged

to surrender. President _Lincoln_ immediately issued a

proclamation calling for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve for

three months, and called Congress together (April 15). There was a

great uprising in the Northern States. The President's call for troops

at once met with an enthusiastic response. _Virginia_,

_Arkansas_, _Tennessee_, and _North Carolina_ now joined

the Southern Confederacy, the capital of which was established at

_Richmond_. Great Britain recognized the Confederate States as

having the rights of belligerents (May 13). France did the same.

EVENTS OF THE WAR IN 1861-62.--Only a brief account can be given of the

events of the war. General _Winfield Scott_ was at first in

command of the Union forces, and General _J. E. Johnston_ of the

forces of the Confederates. It was imagined at the North, that there

could be an easy and quick advance of the Federal forces to

_Richmond_; but the troops were not drilled, and the preparations

for a campaign were wholly inadequate. The Union troops were defeated

at _Bull Run_, or _Manassas_, and _Washington_ was

thrown into a panic (July 21, 1861). Congress at once adopted energetic

measures for raising a large army and for building a navy. General

_George B. McClellan_ was placed in command of the forces. It was

foreseen on both sides, that the result of the conflict might depend on

the course taken by foreign powers, especially by England. The South

counted upon the demand for cotton as certain to secure English help,

direct or indirect, for the Southern cause. Mr. _Charles Francis

Adams_ was selected by Mr. _Seward_, the secretary of state, to

represent the Union at the Court of St. James. The Confederates sent

abroad Mr. _Mason_ and Mr. _Slidell_ to procure the full

recognition of the new Confederacy by England and France. The

_Trent_, on which they sailed, was stopped by Captain

_Wilkes_ of the United States Navy, and the commissioners taken

from it. This breach of international law threatened war, which was

averted by the surrender of the two captives to England. England,

however, refused to assent to _Louis Napoleon's_ proposal to

recognize the independence of the seceding States; but the laxness of

the British Government in not preventing the fitting out of vessels of

war in her ports, to prey on American commerce, excited indignation in

the United States. _Palmerston_ was at the head of the cabinet,

and Lord _John Russell_ was secretary for foreign affairs. For the

depredations of the _Alabama_, the tribunal chosen to arbitrate at

the end of the war, and meeting at Geneva, condemned England to pay to

the United States an indemnity of fifteen and a half millions of

dollars. Early in 1862 _Fort Henry_ on the Tennessee, and _Fort

Donelson_ on the Cumberland, were taken by General _Ulysses

S. Grant_, who led the land forces, and Commodore

_A. H. Foote_, who commanded the gunboats. At Fort Donelson nearly

fifteen thousand prisoners were captured. _Grant_ fought the

battle of Pittsburg Landing, or _Shiloh_, which continued two days

(April 6, 7), and ended in the retreat of the Confederates. Their

general, _A. S. Johnston_, was killed, and the command of his

troops devolved on _Beauregard_. _Grant_, who had been

reinforced by _Buell_, drove the Confederates back to

_Corinth_, Miss., nineteen miles distant. The capture of _Island

Number Ten_, by _Pope_, followed; and soon _Memphis_ was

in the hands of the Union forces. _Farragut_ ran the gauntlet of

the forts at New Orleans (April 24), and captured that city. In the

East the Union forces had not been so successful. The iron-sheathed

frigate _Merrimac_ destroyed the Union fleet at _Hampton

Roads_ (March 9), but was driven back to _Gosport_ by the

timely appearance of the iron-clad Union vessel, the

_Monitor_. _McClellan_ undertook to approach _Richmond_

by the peninsula. The campaign lasted from March to July, and included,

besides various other engagements, the important battles of _Fair

Oaks_, and of _Malvern Hill_ (July 1). At the end of June the

Union army was driven back to Harrison's Landing on the James

River. Meantime the Confederate general, _Jackson_, in the valley

of the Shenandoah, repulsed _Fremont, Banks_, and _McDowell_,

and joined General _Robert E. Lee_, the commander of the

Confederate forces, who now pressed forward towards

Washington. _Pope_ was defeated at _Manassas_ (Aug. 29, 30),

and _Lee_ crossed the Potomac into Maryland. He was met by

_McClellan_, and defeated at _Antietam_ (Sept. 17), but was

able to withdraw in safety across the river. _McClellan_ was

superseded by _Burnside_, who was defeated by _Lee_ at

_Fredericksburg_ (Dec. 13).

EMANCIPATION.--On the 1st of January, 1863, President _Lincoln_

issued a proclamation declaring all slaves in States or parts of States

in rebellion, to be free. This act was legally possible only as a

belligerent measure, or as an exercise of the right of a commander. The

refusal of the Government to carry on the war for the direct purpose of

emancipation, or to adopt measures of this character before,--measures

which the Constitution did not permit,--was not understood in foreign

countries, and, in England especially, had tended to chill sympathy

with the Northern cause. Regiments of negro soldiers were now formed.

THE FIRST SIX MONTHS OF 1863.--_Hooker_ succeeded _Burnside_

in command of the Potomac Army, and was defeated by _Lee_ at

_Chancellorsville_ (May 3). There _"Stonewall" Jackson_, one

of the best and bravest of the Confederate generals, lost his

life. _Lee_ now crossed the river, and entered

_Pennsylvania_. This was the critical moment in the

struggle. Great pains were taken, by such people in the North as were

disaffected with the administration at Washington, to manifest

hostility to the war, or to the method in which it was prosecuted. A

riot broke out in the city of New York while the drafts for troops were

in progress, and it was several days before it was put down. The defeat

of _Lee_ by _Meade_ at _Gettysburg_ (July 1-3) turned

the tide against the Confederates; their army again retired beyond the

Potomac. At the same time, in the West, General _Grant_ captured

_Vicksburg_ with upwards of thirty thousand men (July 4), and

_Port Hudson_ was taken. The Mississippi was thus opened to its

mouth. The Union navy acted effectively on the Atlantic coast, and at

the end of the year nearly all the Southern ports were closed by

blockades.

VICTORIES AT CHATTANOOGA.--_Grant_ assumed command of the military

division of the Mississippi, including the region between the

Alleghanies and that river. With the Army of the Cumberland under

_Thomas_, with reinforcements from Vicksburg under _Sherman_

and from the Army of the Potomac under _Hooker_, he won the

victories of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, at

_Chattanooga_, Tennessee (Nov. 24 and 25). This success opened a

path for the Union forces into Alabama and the Atlantic States.

_Sherman_ was sent to reinforce _Burnside_ in Tennessee, and

defeated _Longstreet._

TO THE SURRENDER OF LEE.--_Grant_ was made lieutenant-general, or

first in command under the President (March 7, 1864). Three attempts to

reach Richmond, made severally by _McClellan_, _Hooker_, and

_Burnside_, had failed, as Lee's two aggressive movements had been

defeated at _Antietam_ and _Gettysburg_. The "border States"

in the West were in the hands of the Union forces, as well as the lower

Mississippi; and the blockade was maintained along the Atlantic

coast. The plan now was for _Sherman_ to secure _Georgia_,

and to march eastward and northward into the heart of the Confederacy,

starting at _Chattanooga_. Military operations, which had been

prosecuted over so vast an extent of territory, now began to have a

unity which they had greatly missed before. _Grant_ personally

took command of the Army of the Potomac. His object was to get between

Lee's army and Richmond. This object was not effected; but the

sanguinary battle of _the Wilderness_ (May 5, 6), and other

subsequent battles, had the effect, in the course of six weeks, to push

_Lee_ back within the fortifications of _Petersburg_ and

_Richmond_. During the long siege of these places, diversions were

attempted by _Early_ in Maryland and Pennsylvania; but he was

repelled and defeated by _Sheridan_. The Confederate vessel

_Alabama_ was sunk in the English Channel by the _Kearsarge_

(June, 1864). _Farragut_ captured the forts in _Mobile

Bay_. _Sherman's_ forces, after a series of engagements,

entered _Atlanta_, Ga., which the Confederates had been compelled

to evacuate (Sept. 2). A detachment was sent by _Sherman_, under

_Thomas_, after _Hood_, which defeated him at

_Nashville_ (Dec. 15, 16). _Sherman_ marched through Georgia,

and entered _Savannah_ (Dec. 21). On Feb. 1, 1865, he commenced

his movement northward. The attempts of General _J. E. Johnston_

to check his advance were ineffectual. _Sherman_ entered

_Columbia_, S. C., and pushed on to _Raleigh_;

_Johnston_, whose numbers were inferior, retiring as he

approached. The efforts of _Lee_ to break away from _Grant_,

in order to effect a junction with _Johnston_, did not

succeed. _Sheridan's_ victory over _Lee_ at _Five Forks_

(April 1) compelled him to evacuate _Petersburg_. He was pursued

and surrounded by _Grant_, and surrendered his army at

_Appomattox Court House_ (April 9). The Union forces had entered

_Richmond_ (April 2). _Johnston_ surrendered his forces to

_Sherman_ (April 26). _Jefferson Davis_ was captured by a

body of Union cavalry in Georgia (May 10).

MURDER OF LINCOLN.--The joy felt in the North over the complete victory

of the Union cause was turned into grief by the assassination of

President _Lincoln_ (April 14), who had begun his second term on

the 4th of March. He was shot in a theater in Washington, by a fanatic

named _Booth_, who imagined that he was avenging wrongs of the

South. An attempt was made at the same time to murder Secretary

_Seward_ in his bed. The assailant inflicted on him severe but not

fatal wounds.

Mr. _Lincoln_ had taken a strong hold upon the affections of the

people. With a large store of plain common-sense, with an even temper,

an abounding good-nature, and a humor that cast wise thoughts into the

form of pithy maxims and similes, he combined an unflinching firmness,

and loyalty to his convictions of duty. He refused to be hurried to the

issue of an edict of emancipation, which, as he judged, if prematurely

framed, would lose to the Union cause the great States of Maryland,

Tennessee, Arkansas, and Missouri. Keeping steadily before him the

prime object of the war, he inculcated, as he felt, malice toward none,

and charity for all. What _Clarendon_ says of _Cromwell_ is

true of _Lincoln_: "As he grew into place and authority, his parts

seemed to be raised, as if he had had concealed faculties, till he had

occasion to use them."

FINANCES IN THE WAR.--The Confederate Government had carried on the war

by the issue of paper money made redeemable on the condition of success

in gaining independence. This currency, of course, became

worthless. The debt of the United States at the close of the war had

risen from about sixty-five millions to more than twenty-seven hundred

millions of dollars, not to speak of the debts incurred by States and

towns.

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION.--The _Thirteenth_ Amendment to the

Constitution (declared in force Dec. 18, 1865) prohibited slavery in

the United States. The _Fourteenth_ Amendment (declared in force

July 28, 1868) secured to all the freedmen the right of citizenship and

equality under State law, and ordained that the basis of representation

in each State should be reduced in proportion to any abridgment by

State law of the right of suffrage in its male population. The

Fifteenth Amendment (declared in force March 30, 1870) forbade the

abridgment of the right to vote, on account of race, color, or previous

condition of servitude. The effect of the amendments was to confer on

the blacks the civil and political rights enjoyed by the whites.

RECONSTRUCTION: ADMINISTRATION OF JOHNSON.--The Southern States were

conquered communities; but the theory was held that they had not been,

and could not be in law, dissevered from the Union. The difficulty of

reconstructing State governments was aggravated by the fact that the

bulk of the intelligent people in the seceding States were precluded,

or excluded themselves, from taking part in the measures requisite for

this end; by the additional fact of the ignorance of the blacks, and of

the selfish greed of white adventurers who took the place of leaders

among them; and by dissensions in the North, and in the administration

at Washington, as to the right and lawful course to be pursued. The

President, _Andrew Johnson_, who succeeded _Lincoln_, became

involved in a contest with the dominant Republican party in Congress,

on questions pertaining to reconstruction. He was impeached and tried

by the Senate (Feb. 24-May 16, 1868), but the number of votes for his

conviction was one less than the number required. On the expiration of

_Johnson's_ term, General _Grant_ was raised to the

presidential office. It was complained, that the new governments

instituted in the South by the freedmen and their white coadjutors were

grossly corrupt and incapable, and that their "returning boards" made

false results of elections. On the other hand, it was complained, that

the opponents of these governments resorted to violence and fraud to

intimidate their political adversaries, and to keep them out of

office. The troops of the United States, which had sustained the

officers appointed by the blacks and by their white allies in several

of the States, were at length withdrawn; and political power was

resumed throughout the South by the adverse party, or the class which

had contended against what were derisively styled "carpet-bag"

governments. A difficulty arose in 1876, in consequence of a dispute

about the result of the presidential election. It was referred to an

"Electoral Commission" appointed by Congress, and _Rutherford

B. Hayes_ was declared to be chosen (1877-1881). During his

administration (Jan. 1, 1879) the banks and the government resumed

specie payments, which had been suspended since an early date in the

civil war. The rapid diminution of the national debt is one of the

important features of later American history. The Republicans succeeded

in the next national election; but General _Garfield_, who was

chosen President, was mortally wounded by an assassin (July 2, 1881), a

few months after his inauguration. _Guiteau_, who committed the

causeless and ruthless deed, claimed to be "inspired by the Deity," but

was judged to be morally and legally responsible, and died on the

gallows. _Chester A. Arthur_, the Vice-president, filled the

highest office for the remainder of the presidential term. At the

election in 1884 _Grover Cleveland_, Governor of New York, was

elected as Chief Magistrate; and the Democrats, for the first time

since the retirement of Mr. _Buchanan_ and the inauguration of

Mr. _Lincoln_ (in 1861), took the reins of power into their hands;

the Republicans, however, retaining a majority in the

Senate. _Benjamin Harrison_ (Republican) succeeded

_Cleveland_ as President, 1889. The McKinley Tariff Bill, 1890,

reduced the duty on some imports, but increased them heavily on

others. In 1892 the four hundredth anniversary of America's discovery

was celebrated, and _Grover Cleveland_, Democratic nominee, was

again elected to the presidency. The revival of industry and prosperity

in the Southern States, and efforts for popular education for the

blacks as well as whites, are circumstances worthy of special record.

GRANT AND LEE.--About two months after his retirement from the

presidency, General _Grant_ began a tour of the world. He landed

in San Francisco from Japan, on his return, in September, 1879, after

an absence of nearly two years and a half. In 1880 an effort was made

by his warm political supporters to bring him forward as a candidate of

the Republicans for a third term in the presidency. This effort failed,

as had a similar endeavor, made with less vigor, four years before. The

remainder of his days were spent in private life. His death occurred on

July 23, 1885. He was buried in New York, on Aug. 8, with distinguished

honors. General _Lee_, the commander of the Confederate forces in

the civil war, from the close of the struggle to his death (Oct. 12,

1870) was president of Washington and Lee University, at Lexington, Va.

UTAH: THE MORMONS.--The sect of Mormons was founded in _Manchester,

N. Y._, in 1830, by _Joseph Smith_, a native of Vermont, who

claimed to have received heavenly visions from the time when he was

fifteen years old. He pretended that he was guided by an angel to the

spot, near _Manchester_, where was buried a stone box containing

a volume made up of thin gold plates, which were covered with strange

characters in the "reformed Egyptian" tongue. This "Book of Mormon"

was really a manuscript composed, in 1812, for quite another purpose,

by one _Solomon Spaulding_, who had been a preacher. A copy of

it made by a printer, _Sidney Rigdon_, fell into the hands of

_Joseph Smith_. It contains fabulous stories of the settlement

of refugees coming from the Tower of Babel to America, who were

followed in 600 B.C. by a colony from Jerusalem that landed on the

coast of Chili. War broke out among their descendants, from the bad

part of whom the North American Indians sprung. One of the survivors

of the better class of these Hebrews, named _Mormon_, collected

in a volume the books of records of former kings and priests, which,

with some additions from his son, was buried until the prophet chosen

of God should appear. In style the Book of Mormon endeavors to

imitate the English version of the Scriptures. On the basis of this

volume and of its alleged miraculous origin, _Smith_ founded the

sect of "Latter Day Saints," as he styled them. From _Kirtland,

O._, where they came in 1831, and where the converts were

numerous, they removed to a place which they named _New

Jerusalem_, in Jackson County, Mo. Here they were joined by

_Brigham Young_, also a native of Vermont, a man of much energy

and shrewdness. _Smith_ was charged by the Missourians, and some

of his own followers who deserted him, with outrageous crimes and

frauds. The conflict between the Mormons and the Missourians resulted

in the migration of the former to _Nauvoo_ in Illinois, where a

community was organized in which _Smith_ exercised supreme

power. In 1843 Smith, who was as profligate as he was knavish,

professed to receive a revelation sanctioning polygamy. His bad

conduct, and that of his adherents, brought on a conflict with the

civil authorities. Smith, with his brother, was killed in the jail by

a mob. Driven out of _Nauvoo_, the Mormons (1848) made their way

to Utah, and founded _Salt Lake City_. Their systematic efforts

to obtain converts brought to them a large number from the ignorant

working-class in Great Britain and in Sweden and Norway. The

Territory of Utah was organized by Congress in 1849. The laws and

officers of the United States, however, were treated with defiance

and openly resisted by Brigham Young, the Mormon leader; and he was

removed from the office of governor, to which he had been appointed

by President _Fillmore_. A contest with the United States

authorities was succeeded by the submission of the Mormons in

1858. In 1871 efforts for the suppression of polygamy by law were

undertaken by the Federal Government, and have since been continued

with imperfect success. _Brigham Young_ died in 1877, and was

succeeded in the presidency of the Mormons by _John Taylor_, an

Englishman. A body of anti-polygamist seceders from the Mormon

community, including a son of _Brigham Young_, has been

formed. Another Mormon sect opposed to polygamy, calling itself the

"Reorganized Church of Latter Day Saints," originated in 1851. The

number of professed believers in the strange and grotesque tenets of

Mormonism, in all the different places where its disciples are found,

probably exceeds two hundred thousand.

THE FORMATION OF THE STATES.--The "_District of Maine_" formed a

part of Massachusetts from 1651 to 1820, when it was admitted to the

Union as a distinct State. Its northern boundary was not clearly

defined until the treaty of 1842 between the United States and England,

which was made by Mr. _Webster_ and Lord _Ashburton_. The

_North-West Territory_, which was organized in 1789, comprised the

cessions north of the Ohio and as far west as the Mississippi, which

had been made by the "landed States;" that is, the several States

holding portions of this region. A small portion, "the Western

Reserve," was retained by Connecticut until 1795, when it was sold to

the National Government. Out of this "North-West Territory," there were

formed five States. Connected with the name of each is the date of its

admission to the Union: Ohio (1802), Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818),

Michigan (1837), Wisconsin (1848). South of the Ohio and east of the

Mississippi, lay the territory belonging to Virginia, the Carolinas,

and Georgia. From this, the cession of Virginia formed the State of

Kentucky (1792); that of the Carolinas formed Tennessee (1796); that of

Georgia formed Alabama (1819) and Mississippi (1817). The extensive

territory called _Louisiana_ was ceded by France to Spain in 1762,

was ceded back to France in 1801, and purchased by the United States in

1803. From this territory, there have been formed the States of

Louisiana (1812), Missouri (1820), Arkansas (1836), Iowa (1846),

Minnesota (1858), Kansas (1861), Nebraska (1867), Colorado (1876),

Montana and the two Dakotas (1889), Wyoming (1890), and Oklahoma and

Indian Territories. From the cession of Florida by Spain (1819), the

State of Florida was formed (1845). _Oregon_ was claimed by the

United States by the right of prior discovery: it was organized as a

Territory in 1849; the Territory of Washington was formed from it in

1853, and Idaho in 1863. Oregon was admitted as a State in 1859,

Washington in 1889, and Idaho in 1890. Texas was admitted to the Union

in 1845. From the cessions of Mexico (1848) there have been formed the

States of California (1850) and Nevada (1864), and the Territories of

Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. Alaska was purchased from Russia in

1867. West Virginia was formed into a distinct State in 1863, in

consequence of the secession of Virginia.

MEXICO.

THE FRENCH INVASION: MAXIMILLIAN.--After the close of the war with the

United States (1848), there continued to be a war of factions in

Mexico. There was a democratic party, which obtained the upper hand in

1857, but was opposed by the church party. The clergy and the religious

bodies were possessed of nearly one-half of the landed property in the

country. _Benito Juarez_, who had been chief justice, became

president; but he was resisted by the clerical party, with their

military supporters, and there was civil war (1857-58). _Juarez_

was recognized as the lawful president by the United States. Spain,

France, and England demanded reparation for injuries and losses

suffered in Mexico by their subjects. In December, 1861, and January,

1862, they landed troops at _Vera Cruz_, to compel Mexico to

satisfy their claims. The demands of England and Spain were met, and

they withdrew their forces. It became clear, however, that _Louis

Napoleon_, who refused to recognize _Juarez_, had an ulterior

design to overthrow the Mexican government, and to establish an empire

in its place. It was a part of a visionary scheme to establish the

domination of "the Latin race." He expected to check the progress of

the United States, and ventured on this aggressive enterprise on

account of the opportunity offered by the civil war in America. He

persuaded the Archduke _Maximilian_, the brother of _Francis

Joseph_, emperor of Austria, to accept the throne, and agreed to

sustain him with men and money. _Maximilian_ arrived in Mexico in

1864. Large bodies of French troops fought on his side. The war

resolved itself into a guerrilla contest, in which great cruelties were

perpetrated on both sides. The end of the American civil war put the

Government of the United States in a position to demand of _Louis

Napoleon_ the withdrawal of the French forces. His own situation in

France, and the state of public opinion there, prevented him from

refusing this demand. The folly, as well as criminality, of the

undertaking, had become more and more obvious. He therefore decided to

violate his promises to _Maximilian_. Deserted thus by his

defenders, this prince, who, although misled by ambition, had noble

traits, was captured by the troops of _Juarez_, tried by

court-martial, and shot (1867). His wife _Carlotta_, the daughter

of _Leopold I_. of Belgium, and the grand-daughter of _Louis

Philippe_, failing in negotiations at Rome, had lost her

reason. _Juarez_ was installed in power at the capital. In 1868

and 1869, there was a succession of insurrections and revolutions; but

he was again elected in 1871, and died the next year. After that time,

there was more tranquillity in Mexico, and much was done to develop the

mines and other material resources of the country, and for public

education.

DIAZ: INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS.--President _Juarez_ died in 1872, and

was succeeded by _Lerdo de Tejada_. Under him the authority of the

State over the Church was maintained. The monastic orders were

abolished. The democratic constitution, which had been framed in 1857,

was amended (1873-4), and was afterwards upheld against the efforts of

the reactionary or ecclesiastical party to overthrow it. In 1876, there

were three claimants of the presidency,--_Tejada, Iglesias_, the

chief justice, who denied the validity of his election, and

Gen. _Porfirio Diaz_, who was at the head of a revolt. _Diaz_

established himself in power, and was succeeded in 1880 by _Manuel

Gonzalez_. On the expiration of his term (1884), _Diaz_ was

once more chosen to the same office. In 1891 an insurrection, headed by

_Catarino Garza_, a journalist, and General _Riez Sandival_,

was directed against the Diaz government. It was put down and

_Diaz_ was re-elected president, July 11, 1892. Under _Diaz_

and his coadjutors much was done for the development of the

country. Mexico has advanced towards a stable government in the

republican form.

SOUTH AMERICA.

BRAZIL.--After returning to Portugal, King John recognized the

independence of Brazil, and his son Dom Pedro as emperor of the country

(1825), although John kept the title during his lifetime (p. 553). The

two crowns were not to be united. On the death of his father (1826),

Dom Pedro resigned his claim to the throne of Portugal. His subsequent

career in Brazil was a troublous one, owing to his contest with a

liberal party. He returned to Spain in 1831. After his departure there

were party contests under a regency. In 1840 Dom Pedro II., who had

been left behind in Brazil by his father, and was then fourteen years

of age, was proclaimed emperor. Measures were taken against the

slave-trade, and it was finally abolished; an effective plan for the

gradual emancipation of slaves was adopted (1871). Rosas, dictator of

Buenos Ayres, who intended to subvert the republics of Uruguay and

Paraguay, was defeated by the Brazilian forces and their allies

(1852). A long war against Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, ended in his

capture and death (1870). This war involved losses to Brazil in men and

money. Under Dom Pedro II., public works, manufactures, and commerce

were promoted. A long strife of the government with the Catholic

hierarchy ended in an accommodation (1875). In November, 1889, as the

result of a bloodless revolution, Dom Pedro II. was dethroned, and a

republican form of government declared. In Feb., 1891, Marshal Deodoro

da Fonseca was confirmed as President, resigned in November, and was

succeeded by Vice-President Floriano Peixoto, who held office until

Nov. 15, 1894, when Prudente de Moraes, the first Brazilian President

elected by a popular vote, was inaugurated.

OHILI, PERU, BOLIVIA.--The contest of Chili with Peru and Bolivia has

attracted special notice. Chili, after the formation of its

constitution in 1833,--which resembles the constitution of the United

States,--enjoyed remarkable prosperity. The strife to which we refer

began between Chili and Bolivia. The point in dispute was the right to

the province of Atacama, between Chili and Peru, the southern part of

which was claimed by Chili. Bolivia claimed the whole. By a treaty in

1866, the territory in dispute was to be, under certain conditions,

common property. A rivalry existed between Chili and Peru, and a secret

alliance was formed in 1873 between Peru and Bolivia. Bolivia now

asserted her title to the entire province of Atacama. The Argentine

Republic was disposed to take sides against Chili, but, in consequence

of the success of the Chilians, remained neutral. The Chilians captured

(Oct. 8, 1879) the Peruvian iron-clad vessel, the Huascar. They gained

other advantages, and took possession of the whole province, with its

deposits of nitrate and guano. Revolutions ensued in Bolivia and

Peru. Chilians took _Lima_, the Peruvian capital, and overran the

country. Terms of peace proposed by Chili, involving large cessions of

territory, were ratified by the Congress at _Lima_ (March 1,

1884). A treaty of peace was made between Chili and Bolivia (May 4). In

Jan., 1891, war broke out in Chili, resulting in the defeat of

President _Balmaceda_ in August. An assault on American seamen by

Chilians in Valparaiso, Oct., 1891, caused strained relations between

Chili and the United States, the latter demanding apology and

reparation. Chili complied, Jan., 1892.

CHINA AND JAPAN.

CHINA AND FOREIGN NATIONS: THE TAIPING REBELLION.--In the recent

period, there has been a gradual but grudging and reluctant opening of

_China_ to commercial intercourse with foreign nations, and to the

labors of Christian missionaries. In 1840 there began the first war

with Great Britain, called the "opium war" for the reason that it was

caused by the Chinese prohibition of the importing of that article. In

the treaty at the end of the war, five ports were made free to British

trade; _Hong-Kong_ was ceded to England; and it was provided that

the intercourse between the officials of the two nations should be on

the basis of equality (1842). Two years later an advantageous treaty

was concluded by the United States with China: a treaty was also

concluded with France (1844). Aggressions of the Chinese led to a

second war with Great Britain, in alliance with France (1857-60); in

which the Chinese fleet was destroyed, and _Canton_, a city of a

million inhabitants, was captured. Treaties were made, but the

infraction of them was followed by the capture of _Peking_

(1859). In the settlement which immediately took place, toleration was

granted to Christianity, and liberty to foreign ambassadors to reside

at the capital. In 1868 Mr. _Anson Burlingame_, who had been

United States minister to China, with two Chinese envoys, visited the

powers which had made treaties with China, and negotiated agreements by

which important principles of international law were mutually

adopted. The most important domestic event in China, in recent times,

is the _"Taiping"-rebellion_, which broke out in 1850, in Southern

China. Complaints of oppression and consequent disorder were brought to

a climax on the accession of the young emperor, _Heen-fung_. The

revolt spread from province to province, and found a leader in the

person of _Hung Lew-tseuen_, who called himself _Teen-Wang_

(Celestial Virtue). He proclaimed his purpose to overthrow the

_Manchu_ dynasty, and to restore the throne to the native

Chinese. He claimed a divine commission, had caught up certain

Christian ideas, and professed to be an adherent of

Christianity. Multitudes flocked to his standard.

City after city fell into their hands. The war with England and France

operated in his favor. After the conclusion of peace, the government

was more energetic and successful in its effort to suppress the

rebellion, and was helped by foreign officers, in particular by Major

(afterwards General) _Gordon_. _Nanking_ was recaptured

(1864); and the revolt, which had been attended with an enormous

destruction of life, came to an end.

JAPAN AND FOREIGN NATIONS.--Up to the year 1866, the actual rulers of

Japan were the _Shogun_, or emperor's lieutenant, who resided at

_Yedo_, and the _daimios_, or territorial nobles, whose

residence was also there. The _Mikado_, or emperor, lived in

_Kioto_, surrounded by his relatives, the imperial nobles. There

was a strict classification of the whole people, and a strict

supervision of them, and the country was shut to foreigners. In 1853

Commodore _Perry_, of the United-States Navy, first entered the

harbor of _Yedo_, and in 1854 returned, and negotiated a treaty

with the _Shogun_, which opened certain ports to foreign trade,

and to the admission of consuls. Treaties of a like nature between

Japan and the other principal nations were soon made. The _Mikado_

and his court were deeply incensed at the _Shogun's_ usurpation of

authority, and were at the same time hostile to the introduction of

foreigners. Thus a double contest arose. There was an attempt to put

down the _Shogun_, and to strip him of his authority, and to drive

off the strangers. This last effort led the _Mikado's_ officers to

fire on the ships of the foreign nations. The punishment which these

inflicted in the harbor of _Shimonoseki_ (1864) so impressed the

emperor, in conjunction with his fear lest the foreigners should help

the _Shogun_, that he completely reversed his policy, and

proceeded to remove the barriers to intercourse with them. The

_daimios_, who had been compelled to live at _Yedo_, flocked

to _Kioto_. The _Mikado_, countenanced by the foreigners,

overcame the resistance of the party of the Shoguns. He removed his

residence to _Yedo_, now called _Tokio_ (1869). Feudalism was

abolished (1871), and a constitution promulgated in 1889. The empire

was thus united and strengthened. Institutions and customs of Western

civilization were rapidly introduced. Political and legal reforms kept

pace with the introduction of railroads and other material

improvements. Christian missionaries actively engaged in preaching and

teaching.

CHAPTER VII. THE LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

During the last decade of the nineteenth century tendencies which years

before had begun to appear became the dominant feature of the European

situation. The old ideals of the Manchester school--freer trade, more

intimate and peaceful intercourse between nations, the right of each

people to control its destiny, the development of liberal

institutions--gave way to a policy of high protective tariffs and

bitter commercial warfare, of constant increase in armaments, of eager

rivalry in seizing the territory of less civilized and weaker peoples,

accompanied, particularly on the continent, by a decrease in the

effectiveness of parliamentary government. Several of the great

statesmen of the century yielded to new men. Although the close came

without such wars as desolated Europe at the end of the eighteenth

century, the heavy burdens which rested upon the taxpayer and the

constant danger that the work of civilization would be rudely

interrupted hardly justified the optimism of the earlier decades. The

pronunciamento of the Czar Nicholas in favor of restricting the growth

of armaments and the consequent establishment, in 1900, of an

international tribunal of arbitration at the Hague held out hopes of a

better future.

ENGLAND.--An analysis of the majority which Gladstone had obtained in

the general election of 1892 showed that the prospects of Home Rule for

Ireland were slight. This majority was composed of an English minority

supported by Scottish, Welsh, and Irish groups. The bill which was

introduced in the following year differed from the previous bill in

that it did not withdraw the Irish members from Westminster. Although

the House of Commons gave it a small majority, it was defeated in the

Lords. Gladstone felt that his support was too precarious to force the

question to a final settlement by an appeal to the country. He

accordingly turned his attention to the remainder of his programme, the

most important part of which was a Parish Councils bill. This aimed to

do for local government in the parishes what the previous Salisbury

ministry had done for local government in the counties. After the

success of the bill was assured Gladstone withdrew, and Lord Rosebery

became prime-minister. Gladstone spent the remainder of his life in

retirement. The Rosebery ministry soon fell, and a new Salisbury

ministry dissolved Parliament. In the general election of 1895 the

Conservatives and their allies, the Liberal-Unionists, received an

overwhelming majority. This took the Home Rule question out of

practical politics. Only through a series of minor concessions was the

attempt to be made to satisfy Ireland's legitimate aspirations. This

victory also showed that English public sentiment was ready to break

definitely with the principles of Gladstone and his friends, and

support a policy of energetic imperialism. The Queen, whose jubilee was

again celebrated in 1897, died on January 22, 1901. The new king,

Edward VII., at the age of sixty-one, was crowned in 1902.

GERMANY: BISMARCK's LATER POLICY.--Since 1878, when Bismarck abandoned

his alliance with the National Liberals, he had been endeavoring to

increase the financial strength of the empire by changing the customs

and excise system, to conquer the socialists both by direct attack and

by taking the working classes under the special care of the state, and,

more recently, to procure for Germany colonial possessions. Although

his new financial policy was definitely protectionist, his chief aim

was to free the imperial government from the need of applying to the

different states for a subvention. In consequence of his policy, the

income from customs and excises rose in ten years from 230,000,000

marks to 700,000,000. But the plan of state subventions although

altered in fact was preserved in appearance, for Bismarck was obliged

to concede to Particularist jealousies that all income from these

sources above 130,000,000 must be paid to the states and the deficiency

in the imperial treasury be made up in the usual manner. Later on the

new naval programme again made state contributions a reality. In the

laws to protect the workingmen Bismarck affirmed this to be the duty of

the Christian state; he did not concede that such measures were simply

the right of the workmen. The plan was carried out in three great laws:

that of insurance in case of illness (1883), in case of accident in

mines or factories (1884), and in case of old age or incapacity (1889).

These laws were enacted in the face of much outcry from employers, and

were effectively administered. They did not, however, so far remove the

grievances of the lower classes as to check the growth of the Social

Democratic party. Although the party has since 1891 embodied in its

programme the theories of Marx, it is not wholly socialistic in

character; it is also a protest of the democratic spirit against the

administration of Germany as an aristocratic, military monarchy. In the

face of repressive laws the party grew steadily, so that in 1890 it was

able to cast 1,400,000 votes. The only force able to resist its advance

was the Catholic Center, because the Catholic Church included among its

members all classes in the community; while the Protestant Church, in

the cities at least, was more generally composed of the employing

class. From 1884 Bismarck had put Germany forward as an eager

competitor for colonial acquisitions in Africa and the Pacific. The

lands that Germany was able to obtain were hardly suited to

distinctively German settlement, and afforded comparatively little

advantage to trade.

BISMARCK'S FALL.--William II. began by continuing the policies which

had been characteristic of the closing years of his grandfather's

reign. It was not long before he became restive under the leadership of

Bismarck. He desired to make his own personal aims more prominent. In

1890 there was a struggle over the renewal of the laws against the

socialists and a consequent general election. The Emperor seized the

opportunity to declare his purpose to improve still further the

situation of the working classes, and, with this in view, to call an

international congress. In Prussia he declared it to be the duty of the

state to regulate the conditions of labor. Such declarations took the

control of the electoral campaign out of Bismarck's hands. One result

was decided losses for the conservative groups. Bismarck tried to

maintain his ascendency by insisting that, according to a cabinet order

of Frederick William IV., the king of Prussia must communicate with the

ministers through the president of the council. William retorted by

denying Bismarck's right to negotiate with the chiefs of the

parliamentary groups, and by requiring a decree reversing the obnoxious

cabinet order. On March 20 he demanded Bismarck's resignation. Bismarck

left Berlin amid a great ovation a few days later. For some years he

and his friends formed an unofficial center of opposition and

criticism. He died in July, 1898.

GERMANY SINCE BISMARCK'S FALL.--Bismarck's successors were Count

Caprivi (1890-1894), Prince Hohenlobe (1894-1900), and Count Bülow. It

was tacitly recognized that the anti-socialist laws had failed, and

they were not renewed. The socialists as well as all other groups

received the additional advantage that somewhat later a law was passed

permitting societies of all kinds to affiliate. It was estimated that

in 1900 the Social Democrats controlled over 2,000,000 votes. The

government vainly attempted to dike the rising flood by laws providing

a practical censorship of art and of literature, but these had to be

abandoned. In the parliamentary life of Germany the most significant

change was the disintegration of the old parties, the strengthening of

such groups as the Catholic Center and the Social Democrats, and the

creation of a strong Agrarian party or interest. The Agrarians became

prominent during the controversy over a commercial treaty with

Russia. This treaty was part of a general attempt to develop the

European market to make good the loss through the adoption of high

tariffs in countries like America and France, and, at first, by Russia

herself. Although Germany could not furnish enough grain to feed her

own people, and there was a tariff on imported grain, the price kept

falling, while the prices of manufactured articles steadily

increased. The peasants and the landowners felt that they were

threatened with ruin. Accordingly they formed an alliance in 1893, and

a parliamentary union which, from that time on, was so formidable as to

force important concessions from the government. Among other important

measures of this period were the adoption of a new Civil Code for the

empire, to go into effect Jan. 1, 1900; the reduction of the term of

military service to two years; and the efforts by the successive naval

programmes of 1897 and 1900 to create for Germany a strong sea power

capable of supporting her trade and colonial aspirations.

FRANCE: BOULANGER.--In 1888 the continuance of the Republic was

endangered by the support which many of its enemies and some of its

ignorant friends lent to the pretensions of General Boulanger, who had

made himself popular as minister of war by his army reforms and by his

belligerent attitude toward Germany. When he ceased to be minister, and

particularly after he was deprived of his military command, he began an

energetic propaganda for a revision of the constitution, with the cry

"Dissolution, Revision, Constituent." The royalists gave freely to

further the campaign, hoping that moderate men would be frightened into

calling the Count of Paris to the throne in order to save the country

from another military empire. The Boulangists took skillful advantage

of the fact that the deputies representing each department were elected

"at large," and not on single district tickets, so that it was possible

for Boulanger's name to be placed on each departmental ticket, and so

in time to receive the votes of all France. With such a mandate it

would be impossible for the moderate Republicans to resist him. For a

time the scheme was successful. Boulanger was even elected on the Paris

list. Had he been willing to undertake a coup d'etat he might then have

overthrown the Republic, but he wished for a more peaceful triumph at

the approaching general election. This his opponents deprived him of by

abolishing the method of election "at large," so that each deputy was

to represent a particular district. Boulanger was soon after attacked

on a charge of treason before the Senate acting as a high court. He

fled to Belgium and a little later committed suicide on the grave of

his mistress.

PANAMA CRISIS.--Hardly had the danger from Boulanger subsided when, in

1892, many of the leading politicians were discredited by the

disclosures made in the judicial investigation of the bankruptcy of the

Panama Canal Company. It appeared that the company had spent large sums

to muzzle the press, so that ignorant investors should not discover the

precarious condition of the enterprise. It had also contributed to the

campaign expenses of friendly deputies and directly purchased votes in

order to obtain authority to negotiate a loan in a manner ordinarily

illegal.

Although several deputies and senators were tried, no one was convicted

save an ex-minister, who confessed that he had accepted 300,000

francs. Had the exposure come a little earlier, it must have led to the

triumph of Boulanger. Its principal consequence was to bring new men of

less tarnished reputations to the front.

THE CHURCH.--In the same year the Church with direct encouragement and

even pressure from Pope Leo XIII, rallied to the support of the

Republic. The pope issued an encyclical to French Catholics and

followed this by a letter to the French cardinals. Many royalists were

afflicted by this attitude, but nearly all were submissive. They called

themselves the "constitutional party," but were also called the

"rallied." Their watchword seemed to be, "Accept the constitution in

order to modify legislation."

PARTIES.--The radical revolutionary groups, which had been crushed in

the suppression of the Commune of 1871, and which had not been able to

reconstitute themselves effectively until the amnesty of 1880, began in

the early nineties to make their influence more effective. This

coincided with a general shifting of political power toward the

Left. The assassination of President Carnot, in 1894, and the

enthusiasm provoked by the cementing of the Russian alliance and by the

coming of the Czar to Paris, prolonged the control of the moderates, or

Progressists, as they were called in 1896. It was the persistent

attacks of the radicals that disgusted Casimir-Périer with the

presidency. His successor was Félix Faure, a successful business

man. When he died suddenly in 1899, Émile Loubet was chosen by the

support of the groups of the Left. Before the moderate Republicans lost

control they revolutionized the economic policy of France, substituting

for practical free trade and commercial treaties a high protective

tariff.

DREYFUS CASE.--France had not recovered from the shock of the Panama

scandal before she was involved in another scandal far more subtle in

its demoralizing influence. Jealousy of the success of Jewish

financiers, strengthened by the common feeling that capitalists are

enriched by ill-gotten gains, led to an obscure campaign against the

Jews and all capitalists. The reminiscences of Panama did not allay

these feelings. Soon the royalists seized this instrument as a means of

discrediting the Republic, asserting that it had been organized through

the influence of German-Jewish immigrants who were enriching themselves

at the expense of the thrifty but guileless French. It was also

asserted that Jews in the army were betraying its secrets to their

German kindred. As the army was universally popular, this was an

effective blow at the Jews. The denouement was the arrest of Captain

Dreyfus, his degradation, and his confinement on an island off the

coast of French Guiana. The evidence had been slight, and it was

discredited when a courageous officer of the Intelligence Department

told his superiors that even this had been constructed by a Major

Esterhazy. The officer, Colonel Picquart, was removed, and his place

taken by Colonel Henry, who undertook to supply the necessary

evidence. Although he imposed on the minister of war, he was unable to

endure the moral strain, especially after distinguished men like Zola

became champions of the innocence of Dreyfus, and he committed suicide

after making a confession. The government was obliged to bring the case

before the Court of Cassation in 1898, which ordered a new

trial. Although Dreyfus was again convicted by a military court, he was

immediately pardoned by the President.

OTHER COUNTRIES.--After 1897 the situation in Austro-Hungary became

precarious, owing to the difficulties which arose when the time came to

renew the _Ausgleich_, or agreement, between Austria and Hungary,

first made in 1867. Neither portion of the empire was satisfied with

its part of the bargain. As the Hungarians always stood together in any

struggle with Austria, they were likely to get the better of the

bargain. There was the additional difficulty that no agreement of any

sort could be adopted in the Austrian parliament, which had become

hopelessly disorganized through the savage conflicts between the

various groups, Germans, Czechs, anti-Semites, etc. The only way to

prevent the actual dissolution of the empire was to renew the agreement

in behalf of Austria by imperial warrant. Another country belonging to

the Triple Alliance, Italy, was brought into trouble by the policy of

extravagant expansion, pursued especially under the leadership of

Crispi. But the disastrous defeat by the Abyssinians at Adowa, in 1896,

gave pause to the plans of such statesmen. Spain also suffered disaster

in this period, first through the outbreak of revolt in Cuba, and then

through the loss of the remnant of her once splendid colonial empire in

consequence of the war with the United States.

EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY.--The foundation of the Triple Alliance had been

laid by the treaty between Germany and Austria. To this Italy had

acceded in 1883. Such a combination tended to bring Russia and France

together, especially as Russia began to see that the only power

pursuing a policy favorable to her desires was France. Finally Russian

and French officers were authorized to arrange for the possible

coöperation of armies in case of war, and in 1894 a military convention

was completed. That there came to be a definite understanding still

more comprehensive has been generally believed, but its terms were not

divulged. The French minister of foreign affairs used the word

"alliance" in the Chamber of Deputies in 1895, and two years later,

when President Faure visited the Czar at St. Petersburg, the Czar used

the phrase "two great nations, friends and allies." The consequence of

these two alliances, and of the peaceful policy pursued by England, was

the localizing of difficulties and the maintenance of a "concert" on

all questions likely to embroil Europe. This was evident from the

treatment of the Eastern, the African, and the Far Eastern questions.