ARMENIA.--Bulgarian affairs had not received their final solution at

the Berlin Congress, for the peaceful revolution of Philippopolis in

1885 had forcibly reunited Bulgaria and East Roumelia. But the powers

did not recognize the change until Prince Alexander had withdrawn, and

Prince Ferdinand had placed himself more under Russian tutelage, making

this emphatic by the decision to bring up his son, Prince Boris,

according to the Greek rite. The success of Bulgaria rendered the

Armenians envious. Discontent at the failure to carry out the reforms

promised by the treaty of Berlin led to the formation of a

revolutionary party which hoped by provoking a Turkish repression,

similar to the Bulgarian "atrocities," to necessitate a new European

intervention. Such a scheme was opposed by American missionaries and by

the native clergy, for they saw that it was doomed to disaster. The

revolutionists endeavored to compromise the missionaries by posting

their placards on the walls of the American college at Marsivan. The

suspicions of the Turks were directed against the missionaries, and the

Girls' Schoolhouse was burned by a mob. Ostensibly to capture agitators

the Kurds followed by the regular troops perpetrated terrible massacres

in the mountain villages of Sasún in 1893 and 1894. The powers could

not agree upon any common plan to check such evils, and when they did

force upon the Sultan a scheme of reform, it served only as a signal

for worse massacres, which recurred chronically until the final

massacre in Constantinople in August, 1896. As the "concert" was

honeycombed by jealousies, it was impossible to do more than prevent

the development of this horror into a general European war. England was

unable to intervene separately because of the hostile attitude of

Russia. Such statesmen as Lord Salisbury recognized that England's

traditional support of Turkey had been discredited by such

events. When, in the following year, war broke out between Greece and

Turkey, and when Crete fell into a state of anarchy, the powers were

more successful in their common action, for they were able to mitigate

the terms which the victorious Turks demanded, and to withdraw Crete

from direct Turkish control.

EGYPT.--The history of Egypt touches both the situation in the Turkish

empire and the more general situation of Africa and the routes to the

Far East. England's occupation of Egypt, at first considered temporary,

gave her practical control of the Suez Canal; it also gave her a strong

position in the eastern Mediterranean, the lack of which had been one

reason for her hostility to the treaty of San Stefano in 1878. The

problem of the equatorial provinces had remained vexatious ever since

the triumph of the Mahdi and of his successor, the Kalifa. Any attempt

to begin a campaign for their recovery was hindered by the peculiar

financial condition of Egypt. As all the funds were either mortgaged to

creditors, or at least under an international control not favorable to

the presence of England, the only money absolutely under the control of

the Egyptian government was a special reserve fund, the result of

painful administrative economies. But the necessity of an advance was

imperative. Although the attempt of the Congo Free State to establish a

permanent foothold in the upper Nile basin had been checked by England,

France was striving to extend her territorial possessions straight

across from Senegal to Jibutil, on the Gulf of Aden. Major Marchand had

left Paris secretly in 1896 with this mission. In this year also the

defeat of the Italians at Adowa, and the pressure of the troops of the

Kalifa upon Kassala, held by the Italians for the English, did not

permit longer delay. A great preparatory work had been done in the ten

years previous. A new army had been created. The advance began in

March, under the leadership of Sir Herbert Kitchener. One of its most

effective and brilliant features was the construction in the following

year of a railway 230 miles across the Nubian desert to save a river

journey of 600 miles. The decisive campaign took place in 1898, with

the battle on the Atbara and the crushing defeat of the Kalifa at

Omdurman in September. During the summer Marchand had been establishing

posts in the upper Nile region as far as Fashoda. Kitchener immediately

proceeded thither, raised the English and Egyptian flags near by,

leaving the settlement of the question to diplomacy. The French, not

being supported by Russia in an aggressive attitude, were obliged to

give way, and their sphere of influence was not to include any portion

of the Nile basin. The war had been economically managed, so that

Egyptian finances were not seriously disarranged. The help that England

was obliged to give justified her in considering the Sudan as territory

held jointly by her and by Egypt. The general consequence of English

rule in Egypt has been a reduction of taxation, and, at the same time,

the collection of a larger revenue. Vast public improvements, like the

dam at Assouan, also added to the resources of the country.

AFRICA.--Although Africa since 1885 had been the subject of an

important conference at Berlin and of various international agreements

it was, strictly speaking, beyond the sphere of action of the European

concert. Its partition among the European states, a movement

originating in the expeditions of Livingstone and Stanley, went on

rapidly from 1884. The Congo Free State, which at first promised to be

an international enterprise, speedily changed into a territorial

possession of the king of Belgium. When in 1890 it became necessary for

him to raise funds for the support of his rule, it was agreed that the

reversion of the territory belonged to Belgium as a colony. King

Leopold, as already remarked, made an attempt to establish his

authority over a part of the upper Nile basin, but here he was thwarted

by the ambition of both England and France. England undertook to lease

the Bahr-el-Ghazal in consideration of the lease from him of a strip

fifteen and a half miles wide along the eastern border of the state, in

order to make possible the scheme of a railway on land under British

control from "the Cape to Cairo." This scheme was defeated by the

Germans as well as by the French. The Portuguese were in turn prevented

from extending their holdings from Angola to Mozambique. The French and

the English, though each disappointed in their extreme purposes, made

substantial gains; England in the regions north of the Cape, across the

Zambezi, in Uganda, and in the Sudan; France in western and northern

Africa, so that all the northwest, except the coast colonies and the

independent Sultanate of Morocco, came under her power. France also

turned her protectorate of Madagascar into a colonial

possession. England's policy of expansion, together with difficulties

arising out of the gold mining industry, involved her in a war with the

Boer republics, the South African Republic and the Orange Free

State. The center of the mining industry was Johannesberg. So rich were

the mines that the foreign population there soon outnumbered the

Boers. These foreigners, or uitlanders, desired all the privileges of

Englishmen, although they had become residents in a state ruled by

primitive agriculturists. They claimed that their industry was

ruinously hampered by unwise taxation. So great did their sense of

wrong become that they entered into an arrangement with Cecil Rhodes,

premier of Cape Colony, and with Dr. Jameson, administrator of the

South African Chartered Company, in accordance with which, at a given

signal, they were to rise and Dr. Jameson with armed troopers was to

come to their assistance. Dr. Jameson did not wait for the signal, the

scheme broke down, and he and his troops were captured. To the Boers

all this seemed to be an English plot against their independence, and

so they became more suspicious. Through a series of incidents the

Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain, was led to attempt to extort by

force from the Boers the desired concessions. Before the diplomatic

campaign was well begun new issues were introduced, both parties began

to prepare for war, and finally in October, 1899, the Boers took the

initiative and invaded the British colonies. The war was at first

disastrous for the English, but finally through a large army under Lord

Roberts the Boers were driven from both the Transvaal and the Orange

Free State, which were occupied and declared to be colonies of the

empire. But it was not until three years after the beginning of the war

that the last Boer bands were compelled by Lord Kitchener to surrender,

and the country was pacified. England's influence in South Africa was

greatly strengthened by this victory, although her prestige in the

world at large was somewhat compromised.

THE FAR EAST.--Before the close of the century the interest which had

once belonged to the near East was transferred to the Far East. The

first indication of this was the action of the powers at the close of

the war which broke out between Japan and China, in 1894, over their

relations to Korea. Japan was triumphant, demonstrating in the battle

of the Yaloo River the superiority of her new navy. She occupied the

peninsula of Liaotung and Port Arthur, a harbor of strategic

importance. She demanded a cession of this peninsula, together with

Formosa and a large indemnity. Russia, Germany, and France intervened

and kept Japan from establishing herself on the mainland. This action

did not appear altogether in the interest of China, for each of the

three powers soon asked of China quite as important concessions for

themselves,--France in the south, Germany at Kiaochow, and Russia at

Port Arthur,--which compelled England to guard her interests by leasing

WVei-hai-wei, opposite Port Arthur. At this time began the marking out

of spheres of influence, a practical partition of China, accompanied by

demands of all sorts of railway and mining concessions. This unedifying

pressure from aggressive Europeans seemed for a time to awaken

China. The emperor began to urge forward reform. It was thought that

China might follow in the footsteps of Japan, but suddenly there was a

palace revolution, the dowager-empress seized control, and the

reformers had to fly for their lives. Closely following this came a

serious anti-foreign outbreak, led by "the Boxers," and encouraged by

certain high officials. Before Europe was aware of the gravity of the

situation it was alarmed by the report that the foreign legations at

Pekin had been besieged, captured, and massacred. Although this was a

false report, it was true that from June 20 to August 14, 1899, the

legations were besieged, partly by a mob and partly by Chinese

regulars. The siege was raised by a mixed expedition of European and

Japanese troops sent from the coast. The satisfaction with which the

news of rescue was received in Europe was chilled by stories that some

portions of the expeditionary corps had been guilty of crimes only to

be paralleled in the history of European wars in the seventeenth

century. After the war a difficult diplomatic question remained, all

the more puzzling because the ambitions of the powers prevented any

hearty agreement among them. These questions were only in appearance

settled by the signing of the protocol in January, 1901. Attention was

fixed upon Russia, supported by a new instrument of influence, the

Trans-Siberian railway, because it appeared to be her purpose to

establish her power in Manchuria on a permanent basis.

AUSTRALIA.--During the Boer war the English colonies by their loyal and

generous cooperation strengthened the bonds of empire and forced to the

front schemes to render the imperial tie more practically beneficial

and effective. One of these groups succeeded in completing its own

federal organization. This was Australia. Active effort towards

federation was begun in 1889 by Sir Henry Parkes, but not until six

years later was public sentiment sufficiently aroused. The main

difficulty, as in the case of the American colonies, was to reconcile

the differing trade-interests and to establish a proper balance between

the larger and the smaller states. Finally, in 1900, these difficulties

were overcome, and all the colonies save New Zealand voted to become

parts of the commonwealth of Australia. Each state was to have six

senators, and to be represented in the lower house in proportion to its

population, although no state was to have fewer than five

representatives. Matters of taxation were more fully intrusted to the

lower house than in the United States. For a time it seemed impossible

to settle the delicate questions of appeal to the Judicial Committee of

the Privy Council of England, the only instrument of control left in

the hands of the home government, but this was settled by a judicious

compromise. During the last decade not only Australia, but also New

Zealand, made many interesting attempts to solve labor and social

problems by legislation. Although the prosperity of Australia received

heavy blows after 1890, it began to recover after 1895, and to advance

towards its earlier level.

UNITED STATES: CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION.--Although the

McKinley tariff aided in elevating its author to the presidency, its

first political consequences were not helpful to the Republican

party. In 1892 there was a popular cry for tariff reduction, and

Cleveland was triumphantly elected by the Democrats, who also obtained

control of both houses of Congress. President Cleveland's purpose of

reforming the tariff was hindered at first by a grave financial and

industrial crisis, which came in the spring of 1893. The causes of this

crisis were the extravagant inflation of business during the preceding

years, a financial policy accompanied by the purchase for coinage of

vast quantities of silver, and the natural timidity of capital while

the economic policy of the government was in danger of fundamental

change. The opponents of the administration took skillful advantage of

the panic to bring its policies into discredit. So great was the

stringency of the money market, especially on account of the depletion

of the gold reserve in the treasury, that President Cleveland was

obliged to call an extra session of Congress, and to urge upon that

body the repeal of the law requiring the monthly purchases of silver

for coinage. This measure, adopted by the Senate with evident

reluctance in the late fall, did not wholly relieve the situation, and

to maintain the gold reserve and defend its credit the government was

forced four times to issue bonds for more gold, the consequence of

which was the increase of the public debt by over $262,000,000. During

the controversies upon monetary legislation, the President had

alienated many members of his party in the House, and particularly in

the Senate. He was unable to bring them together for such tariff

legislation as had been promised. A bill was passed which also embodied

income tax provisions, and this bill became a law without the

President's signature. Not long afterwards the Supreme Court declared

the income-tax clauses unconstitutional. Since the tariff bill did not

produce the expected revenue, the government was obliged to face an

ominous deficit. The President, however, by his courage and honesty,

upheld the national credit despite attacks from his own party. His

foreign policy, save in one instance, was conservative. He refused to

take advantage of the Hawaiian revolution to bring on the annexation of

those islands, and he endeavored to maintain the neutrality of the

United States in the struggle between Spain and the Cuban

revolutionists; but he intervened in a boundary dispute between Great

Britain and Venezuela, insisting that the question should be submitted

to arbitration rather than be settled on the terms imposed by the

stronger.

MCKINLEY ADMINISTRATION.--In the campaign of 1896 the older leaders of

the democracy were thrust aside and William J. Bryan became the party

candidate, with the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 as

its watchword. This appealed strongly to the distressed debtor class,

very numerous in the West on account of the "hard times." The tone of

the platform and of the speeches of the leaders was such as to attract

the workingmen. The Republicans nominated McKinley, with the promise to

reenact the former tariff legislation, to foster industries, and to

protect the financial credit of the country. The success of the

Republicans was at first doubtful; but the conservative interests

became alarmed, and finally the Republicans gained a decisive

victory. By the time President McKinley was inaugurated, the period of

business liquidation and readjustment was over, confidence had

returned, and so the new President became, as campaign placards of his

party had announced, "the advance agent of prosperity." The tariff was

restored to its older level, the monetary system was reformed, and the

gold standard legally established. It was not this legislation,

however, that rendered the period significant; it was the adoption of a

new national policy of expansion, incident to the war with Spain. The

Spaniards had been unable to put down the Cuban insurrection. The

drastic measures, especially the policy of "reconcentration" adopted by

General Weyler, had discredited the Spanish cause. The ancient

tradition of Spain's cruelty to her colonies predisposed the American

people to credit reports of atrocity. The administration was apparently

anxious to perform its duties as a friendly power, but this was

rendered more and more difficult owing to the growing popular demand

for intervention. On the 15th of February, 1898, the American

battleship _Maine_ was blown up in Havana harbor. Although there

was no decisive proof that this was due to the Spaniards, there was no

doubt of it in the popular mind. A little later the Spaniards were

ready to make any concessions short of an actual abandonment of their

sovereignty. It was now too late. There was an irresistible demand for

war, and war was declared in April. The result was inevitable, and

Spain was obliged to yield sooner than was anticipated. Her fleet at

Manila was destroyed by Admiral Dewey, May 1, and her West India

squadron by the fleet in which Rear Admiral Sampson held the chief

command, on July 3. Meantime a small American army had rendered

Santiago untenable. After the surrender of Santiago, Porto Rico was

soon overrun. Manila, which had been under the American guns since May,

was also forced to surrender. A protocol signed in August led to the

negotiation of peace in December. According to its terms, not only was

Cuba to be evacuated, but Porto Rico, the Philippines, and the Ladrones

were to become American possessions. In this way a war begun because of

popular sympathy with the Cubans, turned into a means of territorial

expansion. The resistance to the policy of an expansion of this sort

was strong in certain sections of the country. Many senators held

similar opinions, long delaying the ratification of the treaty of

peace.

COLONIAL PROBLEMS.--Simultaneously with the ratification of the peace,

war broke out in the Philippines between the American army and the

natives, whose leaders had been bent on securing independence. The

American troops easily defeated the organized native armies, though one

consequence of the struggle was widespread ruin in the island of Luzon;

but they were unable for over two years to pacify the country. Even

before these troubles were ended, measures were taken to substitute a

civil for a military administration, which went into effect in the

summer of 1901. Porto Rico was organized as a partly autonomous

territory, and although on its trade with the United States there was

not at first a full freedom from tariff restrictions, these

subsequently disappeared. In dealing with Cuba there had been no formal

recognition of the revolutionary organization. It was suspected by many

that the military occupation would be prolonged until annexation was

brought about, but the President insisted upon the fulfilment of the

pledges which had been made at the beginning of the war. A Cuban

convention agreed to a treaty in accordance with which the United

States acquired the right to intervene to guarantee the independence of

the island should this be endangered by entanglements with foreign

states. The Cubans also promised to sell or lease to the United States

sites for naval stations. The army of occupation was then withdrawn,

and the new government inaugurated in 1902. Even before the outbreak of

the war, President McKinley had endeavored to bring about the

annexation of the Hawaiian Islands, but it required such a pressing

need of a controlling position in the mid-Pacific, as the hostilities

emphasized, to overcome the opposition. It was not until after the war

closed that the islands were organized as a territory. About the same

time England withdrew from her joint control of Samoa, and Germany

agreed with the United States for a partition of the group. Active

preparations were also made for the building of an interoceanic canal

through Nicaragua or the Isthmus of Panama on the route laid out by the

French. With these questions of expansion and colonial government,

other equally important problems, growing out of the new period of

prosperity, agitated the public mind, particularly the formation of

gigantic corporations, a form of organization which tended to supersede

the trusts. As the state laws were helpless to check abuse of power by

such corporations, there was a growing demand for the better

enforcement of the national laws already enacted or the adoption of

other laws more effective. In 1900 McKinley was reëlected, Bryan again

being put forward by the Democrats. A few months after his

inauguration, while he was visiting the Pan-American Exposition at

Buffalo, he was fatally shot by an anarchist. Upon his death, the

Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt, became President.

CHAPTER VIII. DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: SCIENCE AND LITERATURE:

PROGRESS OF HUMANE SENTIMENT: PROGRESS TOWARD THE UNITY OF MANKIND.

As an era of invention and discovery, the nineteenth century is a rival

of the fifteenth.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES.--Too much was already known of the globe to

leave room for another so stupendous discovery as that of the New

World. Nevertheless, many important geographical discoveries have been

made, especially since about 1825. Geographical societies without

number have been founded, of which the Royal Geographical Society in

England (1830) is one of the best known. Geographical knowledge is

increased in two ways,--first, by the discovery of places not before

known; and secondly, by the scientific examination of countries and

districts, with accurate surveys, and the making of maps. In both these

departments, especially in the latter, the recent period won

distinction. The _Russians_ in their advance rendered the regions

of Northern and Central Asia accessible to travelers. Not only India,

but also extensive districts in Central Asia, have been explored by the

British. China has been traversed by a succession of travelers, and

Japan has unbarred its gates for the admission of foreigners. Abyssinia

has been traversed. The mystery respecting the sources of the Nile has

been dispelled by _Speke_, _Grant_, and _Baker_. In 1822

and 1825 _Clapperlon_, in two journeys, went over the whole route

from Tripoli to the coast of Guinea. In 1830 _Richard_ and _John

Lander_ settled the question as to the outlet of the _Niger_.

_Barth_, and other later explorers, have carried forward the study

of the course of this great river, in the exploration of which _Mungo

Park_ lost his life (1806). In 1816 the Congo was explored to the

falls of Yellala. The travels of _Schweinfurth_,

_Livingstone_, _Barth_, _Cameron_, and _Stanley_

have greatly enlarged our acquaintance with formerly unknown portions

of the African continent. In 1879 _Stanley_, commissioned by King

_Leopold_ of Belgium, opened up communication with the populous

basin of the Congo. During the struggle of the European states to

acquire colonial territory, no part of the continent remained

unexplored. European rivalries also had similar important consequences

to geography in Asia, especially in the Trans-Caspian region and in

Tibet. Dr. Sven Hedin was the most successful of the explorers in

Tibet, traversing wholly unknown districts. Unknown regions on the

American continent, in South America, in far north-western North

America, and in Labrador, have been visited. The same is true of the

interior of Australia. The eagerness to find a north-western passage

(and later in scientific exploration) has led to hazardous and not

unfruitful expeditions under _Ross_, _Parry_,

_Franklin_, _Kane_, _Markham_, _McClintock_,

_Greely_, and other voyagers. In 1875 _Markham_ reached the

highest latitude that up to that time had been attained (83° 21'

26"). A still higher point (86° 14') was reached by Dr. Nansen who in

1893 started to drift in the _Fram_ across the polar regions. In

1892 Lieutenant Peary crossed Greenland from the west coast to a part

of the north-east coast never before visited. The Antarctic seas were

also explored first by the _Challenger_ in 1874. By 1900 the

farthest point reached was 78° 50'. Geography has become a much more

profound and instructive science. The physical character of the globe,

and of the atmosphere that surrounds it, have been studied in their

relation to man and history. Physical geography, or physiography, has

thus arisen. In recent years scientists have gone far in the study of

the physical geography of the sea, in making maps of its bottom, and in

the endeavor to define the system of oceanic winds and currents. In

connection with physical geography, the distribution of animal life on

the land and in the depths of the sea has been studied, and much

valuable information gained.

FOUR INVENTIONS.--Among the useful inventions of the present century,

there are four which are of preëminent consequence. The honor connected

with each of these, as is generally the case with great inventions,

belongs to no individual exclusively. Several, and in some cases many

persons, can fairly claim a larger or smaller share in it. (1) The most

efficient agent in bringing the _steam-engine_ to perfection was

_James Watt_ (1736-1819), a native of Scotland. (2) In connection

with the application of steam to navigation, no name stands higher than

that of _Robert Fulton_. (3) Carriages on railroads were at first

drawn by horses. In 1814 _George Stephenson_, in England, invented

the locomotive, and afterwards (1829) an improved construction of it.

The first great railroad for the transportation of passengers began to

run between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830. Remarkable achievements

in engineering have been connected with the construction of

railways. The Alps were pierced, and the Mont Cenis tunnel was

completed in 1871. The principal civilized countries have gradually

become covered with networks of railways. The whole method of

transportation of the products of industry has been altered by

them. Besides their vast influence in facilitating and stimulating

travel and trade, they have modified the method of conducting warfare,

with very important results. (4) In contriving the _electric

telegraph_, _Wheatstone_, an Englishman, _Oersted_, a

Dane, and _Henry_, an American, had each an important part. The

most simple and efficient form of the telegraphic instrument is

admitted to be due to the inventive sagacity of _Morse_

(1837). His instrument was first put in use in 1844. The first

submarine wires connecting Europe with America transmitted messages in

1858, between England and the United States. Since that time numerous

submarine cables have been laid in different parts of the globe. Upon

the invention of the telegraph, another invention--that of the

_telephone_--has followed, by which conversation can be held with

the voice between distant places. By the phonograph it has become

possible to reproduce audibly songs, speeches, and conversations. Still

more recently a system of wireless telegraphy has been invented by

which messages may be sent even across the Atlantic without the use of

a cable.

The Suez Canal, a channel for ships, connecting the Mediterranean

with the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, and opening thus a shorter

highway by water between Europe and the East, was officially opened

on the 17th of November, 1869.

USES OF STEAM.--The practical applications of steam, besides its use in

the propulsion of vessels, and of carriages on railways, are

numberless. It is used, for example, in automobiles, in traction

engines, in plowing and harvesting machinery, in fire-engines, in

road-rollers, and in all sorts of hoisting and conveying machinery.

Steam forge hammers were invented by _Nasmyth_, an engineer of

Manchester, in 1839. In a multitude of industrial occupations, where

water-power was once used, or tools and machines whose use involved

muscular exertion, the work is now done by the energy of steam. More

recently electricity has been displacing steam not only on street

railroads and suburban railroads, but also in many other industrial

processes, as well as the lighting of buildings and streets.

TOOLS AND MACHINES.--In modern days no small amount of skill has been

directed to the devising of tools and machines for the more facile and

exact production of whatever costs labor. Factories have become

monuments of ingenuity, and museums in the useful arts. Improved

machinery lightens the toil of the sailor. Machines in a great variety

facilitate agricultural labor. They open the furrow, sow the seed, reap

and winnow the harvest. In-doors, the sewing-machine performs a great

part of the labor formerly done by the fingers of the seamstress. The

art of printing has attained to a marvelous degree of

progress. _Hoe's_ printing-press, moved by steam, seizes on the

blank paper, severs it from the roll in sheets of the right size,

prints it on both sides, and folds it in a convenient shape,--all with

miraculous rapidity. Inventions in rock-boring and rock-drilling have

made it possible to tunnel mountains. The use of explosives for

mechanical purposes is a highly important fact in connection with the

modern labor-saving inventions.

INDIA RUBBER.--Shoes made of _caoutchouc_, the thickened milky

juice of the india-rubber plant, were imported from Brazil to Boston as

early as 1825. Improvements in the use of this material, in the solid

form and in solution, were made by Mr. _Macintosh_ of Glasgow, and

_Thomas Hancock_ of Newington, England, about 1820. From the

dissolved caoutchouc, a coating was obtained making garments

water-proof. In 1839 _Charles Goodyear_, an American, discovered

the process of vulcanizing india-rubber,--that is, producing in it a

chemical change whereby its valuable qualities are greatly

enhanced. The material thus procured was applied to a great number of

uses. It enters into a great variety of manufactured articles.

ENGINERY OF WAR.--A continual advance has been made in the construction

of the implements of war. The whole science and art of war have been

fundamentally changed, mainly in consequence of these modern

inventions. Reference may be made to the invention of _rifled

cannon_, heavier ordnance, breech-loading guns, and shells and

explosive bullets. It was the _needle-gun_ of the Prussians, which

gave them a signal advantage in their war with the French. The building

of armored battle ships has been followed by the construction of small

swift vessels from which to launch torpedoes at the battle ships. Other

swift vessels have been constructed to pursue and destroy the torpedo

boat. High explosives and smokeless powder have also been invented.

THE TELESCOPE AND MICROSCOPE.--Among the instruments which have

promoted the extension of science, the microscope, with its modern

improvements, is one of the most interesting. It has aided discovery in

botany, in physiology, in mineralogy, and in almost all other branches

of science. It has even assisted in the detection of crime. The large

refracting telescopes have been constructed within the last few

decades. Telescopes have recently been used with increasing success in

photographing the heavens with accuracy.

INSTRUMENTS IN MEDICINE AND SURGERY.--The microscope has rendered

inestimable service to the healing art. Rare ingenuity has been exerted

in contriving surgical instruments by which difficult operations are

performed with comparative safety and without pain. In medicine and

surgery, the discovery of _anesthetics_ for the general or partial

suspending of nervous sensibility is one of the triumphs of practical

science in later times. _Chloroform_ was brought into general use

in the medical profession in 1847; although it had been discovered, and

had been used by individuals in the profession, much

earlier. _Nitrous oxide_ was first used by _Horace Wells_, a

dentist of Hartford, in the extraction of a tooth (1844). In 1846 the

great discovery of anæsthetic _ether_, by _Morton_ of Boston,

was first applied in surgery. _Jackson_ and others were claimants,

with more or less justice, to a part in the honors of this

discovery. Lately _cocaine_ has been found to benumb the

sensibility of the more delicate membranes, as those of the eye and the

throat. In _auscultation_, or the ascertaining of the state of the

internal organs by listening to their sound, a very valuable instrument

is the _stethoscope_. The principle of the _ophthalmoscope_,

that wonderful instrument for inspecting the interior of the eye, was

expounded by _Helmholtz_ in 1851. By its aid, not only the

condition of that organ is explored, but indications of certain

diseases in the brain, and in other parts of the body, are

discovered. Helmholtz did an equal work in acoustics. The recent

discovery and use of the _X-rays_ has assisted surgeons in

locating foreign substances and in diagnosing disease.

THE SPECTROSCOPE: PHOTOGRAPHY.--In connection with the phenomena of

light, the _spectroscope_, by which the chemical elements entering

in the composition of the sun and of other heavenly bodies are

ascertained, is one of the marvels of the age. The way was paved for

this discovery by a succession of chemists and

opticians,--_Fraunhofer_ (1814), _Brewster_ (1832), _Sir

John Herschel_ (1822), _J. W. Draper_, and others; but the

instrument was devised by _Kirchhoff_ and

_Bunsen_. _Photography_, or the art of making permanent

sun-pictures, is the result of the labors of _Niepce_ (who died in

1833), _Daguerre_ (1839), _Fox Talbot_, an Englishman,

_J. W. Draper_, and other men of science and practical

artisans. _Instantaneous_ photography has been of much service in

the observation of eclipses and other astronomical phenomena. Progress

has also been made in color-photography.

THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.--Perhaps the most important conclusion of

physical science which has been reached in the recent period is the

doctrine of the conservation of energy. Chemists had shown that the sum

of matter always remains the same. In the transformations of chemistry

no matter is destroyed, however it may change its form. Now, it has

been proved that the quantity of power or energy is constant. If lost

in one body, it reappears in another; if it ceases in one form, it is

exerted in another, and this according to definite ratios. One form of

energy is convertible into another: heat, light, electricity,

magnetism, chemical action, are so related that one can be made to

produce either of the others. This fact is termed the

_correlation_ of physical forces. Connected with the discovery of

it are _Meyer_ in Germany, and _Grove_ and _Joule_ in

England. It has been expounded by _Sir William Thompson_,

_Helmholtz_, _Tait_, _Maxwell_, etc. The truth was

elucidated by _Tyndall_ in his _Heat considered as a Mode of

Motion_, and by _Balfour Stewart_ in his _Conservation of

Energy_. But _Count Rumford_, an American (1753-1814), the real

founder of the Royal Institution, long ago opened the path for this

discovery by furnishing the data for computing the mechanical

equivalent of heat.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.--In geology, from the publication of

_Lyell's_ work (1830), the tendency has more and more prevailed to

explain the geological structure of the earth by the slow operation of

forces now in action, rather than by violent convulsions and

catastrophes. In 1831 _Sedgwick_ and _Murchison_, likewise

English geologists, commenced their labors. _Agassiz_ published

his Essay on the Glaciers in 1837, the precursor of like investigations

by _Tyndall_ and others. These are only a small fraction of the

numerous body of explorers and writers in geological science. In the

United States, _Benjamin Silliman_ (1779-1864), an eminent

scientific teacher, lent a strong stimulus to the progress of geology,

as well as of chemistry. Even in the branch of _paleontology_, or

the study of the fossil remains of extinct animals, it would be

impracticable to give the names of those who have added so much to our

knowledge of the earth and its inhabitants in the ages that preceded

man.

ASTRONOMY.--The great French geometers, _Lagrange_ and

_Laplace_, made an epoch in astronomical science. Since their

time, however, there has been a large increase of knowledge in this

branch. The discovery of the planet Neptune (1846) by _Galle_, as

the result of mathematical calculations of _Leverrier_, which were

made independently also by _Adams_, was hailed as a signal proof

of scientific progress; and, recently, the discovery of a fifth

satellite of Jupiter. Besides Neptune hundreds of thousands of stars

have been discovered and registered. Mathematical astronomy has

advanced, while the study of nebulae and of meteors, and the

investigation of the constitution of celestial bodies by the help of

the spectroscope, are among the more recent achievements of this oldest

of the sciences. Among the names identified with the recent progress of

astronomy are _Sir John Herschel_ and _A. Herschel_,

_Maxwell_, _Struve_, _Secchi_, _Bessel_,

_Bond_, _Peirce_, _Newton_, _Newcomb_,

_Young_, _Lockyer_, _Schiaparelli_.

PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY.--In chemistry the major part of the more rare

elements have been discovered since the century began. It was proved in

1819 that the capacities for heat which belong to the atoms of the

different elements are equal. In the same year _Mitscherlich's_

law was propounded,--the law of _isomorphism_, according to which

atoms of elements of the same class may replace each other in a

compound without altering its crystalline structure. Chemists have

directed their attention to the _molecular_ structure--the

ultimate constitution--of various compounds. _Faraday_ (1791-1867)

developed the relations of electricity to chemistry. _Liebig_

(1803-1873), a German chemist, in connection with numerous laborers in

the same field, made interesting contributions in the different

departments of chemical science. Among the recent elements which have

been discovered are argon, which enters into the composition of air,

helium, and radium.

BIOLOGY.--No branch of natural science has been more zealously

cultivated of late than _biology_. Among those who have given an

impulse to the study of natural history, one of the most eminent names

is that of _Charles Darwin_. His work on _The Origin of

Species_ (1859) advocated the opinion that the various species of

animals, instead of being all separately created, spring by natural

descent and slow variation from a few primitive forms of animal

life. He laid much stress upon "natural selection," or the survival of

the strongest or fittest in the struggle for existence. With the name

of Darwin should be associated that of _Wallace_, who

simultaneously propounded the same doctrine. The general doctrine of

_evolution_, or of the origin of species by natural generation,

has been held in other forms and modifications by _Richard Owen_,

and other distinguished naturalists. One of the most noted opponents of

the evolution doctrine in zoology was _Louis Agassiz_ (1807-1873),

a very able and enthusiastic student of nature. One of its most eminent

expounders and defenders was _Huxley_. Some have sought to extend

the theory of natural development over the field of inorganic as well

as living things, and to trace all existences back to nebulous vapor.

ARCHEOLOGY.--Geology lends its aid to _archeology_, or the inquiry

into the primitive condition of man. Not only has much light been

thrown on obscure periods of history, by the uncovering of the remains

of Babylon, Assyria, and other abodes of early civilization, and by the

deciphering of monumental inscriptions in characters long forgotten;

but the discovery of buried relics of prehistoric men has afforded

glimpses of human life as it was prior to all written memorials. One of

the most instructive writers on this last subject is _Tylor_ in

his _Primitive Culture_, and in other works on the same general

theme.

PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE.

PHILOSOPHY IN FRANCE.--_Victor Cousin_ (1792--1867), a brilliant

thinker and eloquent lecturer and writer, founded in France the

_eclectic school_ of philosophy. He aimed to construct a

positive view on the basis of previous systems, which he classified

under four heads,--_idealism_, _sensualism_,

_skepticism_, and _mysticism_. In his teaching, he sought a

middle path between the German and the Scottish schools, leaning now

more decidedly to the one, and now to the other. _Jouffroy_

(1796-1842), the most prominent of _Cousin's_ disciples, but

more exact and methodical than his master, wrote instructively,

especially on _aesthetics_ and _moral

philosophy_. Philosophy in France took an altogether different

direction in the hands of _Auguste Comte_ (1798-1857), the

founder of the _positivist_ school. He taught that we know only

phenomena, or things as manifested to our consciousness, and know

nothing either of first causes, efficient causes, or of final causes

(or design). We are limited to the ascertaining of facts by

observation and experiment, which we register according to their

likeness or unlikeness, and their chronological relation, or the

order of their occurrence in time.

SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHY.--The most distinguished expounder of the

_Scottish_ philosophy, and the most learned of that whole

school, was _Sir William Hamilton_ (1788-1856). He maintained

the doctrine of _natural realism_,--that we have a direct, "face

to face" perception of external things. He held that the range of the

mind's power of conceptive thought lies between two

_inconceivables_, one of which must be real. Thus we can not

conceive of free-will (which would be a new beginning), nor can we

conceive of an endless series of causes. Free-will--and the same is

true of the fundamental truths of religion--is verified to us as real

by our moral nature. A Scottish writer of ability, who, however,

opposed the peculiar tenets of the Scottish school, was

_Ferrier_ (1808-1864). Among the other philosophical writers of

Scotland, affiliated, but with different degrees of dissent, with the

school of Reid and Hamilton, are Professors _Fraser_ and

_Calderwood_, and the late _James McCosh_.

PHILOSOPHY IN ENGLAND.--More allied to the philosophy of Hume and of

Comte are the metaphysical theories of _John Stuart Mill_

(1806-1873). _Intuitions_ were regarded by Mill as the

impression produced by a frequent conjunction of like experiences,

and thus to be the product of sensation. _Causation_ was

resolved into the invariable association of phenomena, by which an

expectation is created that seems instinctive. Another writer of the

same general tendency, who seeks for the explanation of knowledge in

the materials furnished by the senses, is _Alexander Bain_, a

Scottish author, versed in physiology. _Herbert Spencer_

constructed a general system of philosophy on the basis of the theory

of evolution. He holds that our knowledge is limited to

_phenomena_, which are the manifestation in our consciousness of

things which in themselves are unknown; and that behind and below all

is "the Unknowable,"--an inscrutable force, out of which the universe

of matter and mind is developed, and which gives to it unity and

coherence.

PHILOSOPHY IN GERMANY.--In Germany the decline of the school of

_Hegel_ was succeeded by a sort of anarchy in

philosophy. _Herbart_ (1776-1841), a contemporary of

_Hegel_, framed a system antagonistic to Hegelian

idealism. Among numerous metaphysical authors, each of whom has a

"standpoint" of his own, are the justly distinguished names of

_Fichte_ (the younger), _Ulrici, Trendelenburg_, and

_Hermann Lotze. Lotze._ in his _Microcosm_, has unfolded,

in a style attractive to the general reader, profound and genial

views of man, nature, and religion. A remarkable phenomenon in German

speculation is "pessimism,"--the doctrine gravely propounded in the

systems of _Schopenhauer_ and _E. Von Hartmann_, that the

world is radically and essentially evil, and personal existence a

curse from which the refuge is in the hope of annihilation. In its

view of the world as springing from an unconscious force, and of the

extinction of consciousness as the state of bliss, as well as in its

notions of evil as inwrought in the essence of things, this

philosophy is a revival of Indian Oriental speculation. Historical

and critical writings in the department of philosophy abound in

Germany. The histories of philosophy by _Ritter, Erdmann, Zeller,

Kuno Fischer,_ and _Lange_, are works of remarkable merit.

PHILOSOPHY IN ITALY.--Among the Italian metaphysicians, the two

writers who are most noteworthy are _Rosmini_ (1797-1855), who

taught idealism; and _Gioberti_ (1801-1882), whose system is on

a different basis,--a gifted writer who was equally conspicuous as a

statesman and a philosopher.

PHILOSOPHY IN THE UNITED STATES.--Philosophy in America has been

zealously cultivated, both in connection with theology and apart from

it, by a considerable number of teachers and writers. Among them are

_James Marsh, C. S. Henry, Francis Wayland, L. P. Hickok,

H. B. Smith_, and other eminent authors, mostly of a more recent

date.

POLITICAL ECONOMY.--_Ricardo_ (1772-1823), who followed _Adam

Smith_ (p. 492), dealt more in abstractions and processes of

logic, than his predecessor. The writings of _Ricardo_, together

with the discussions of _Malthus_ (1766-1834) on population,--in

which it was maintained that the tendency to an increase of

population outstrips the increase of the means of subsistence,--led

to numerous other writings.

Political economy was handled in productions by _James Mill_

(1821), _J. R. McCulloch, N. W. Senior_ (1790-1864),

_R. Torrens_ (1780-1864), _Harriet Martineau_ (1802-1876),

_Thomas Chalmers_, the celebrated Scottish divine, Archbishop

_Richard Whately, Richard Jones_ (1790-1855), a critic of the

system of _Ricardo_, and others. An eminent writer, an expositor

with important modifications of the Ricardian teaching, is _John

Stuart Mill_ (1806-1873). _Fawcett_ and other able authors

have followed for the most part in Mill's path. An English author of

distinction in this field is _J. E. Cairnes_ (1824-1875). The

French school of economists have adhered to the principles of _Adam

Smith_ much more than have the Germans. Among the most noted of

the French authors in this field are _Say_ (1767-1832), whose

views are founded on those of _Smith; Sismondi_ (1773-1842),

who, however, departs from the English doctrine, and favors the

intervention of government to "regulate the progress of wealth";

_Dunoyer_ (1786-1862); _Bastiat_ (1801-1850), one of the

most brilliant advocates of free-trade; _Cournot_ (1801-1877),

who applies, with much acumen, mathematics to economical questions.

In America, since the days of _Franklin_ and _Hamilton_,

both of whom wrote instructively on these topics, a number of writers

of ability have appeared. Among them are _H. C. Carey_, who

opposes the views of _Ricardo_ and _Malthus_, and defends

the theory of protection; _Francis Bowen_, also a protectionist;

_F. A. Walker, Perry_, etc. In Italy, there have not been

wanting productions of marked acuteness in this department. Of the

numerous German writers, one of the most eminent is _List_

(1798-1846), a critic of _Adam Smith_, and not an adherent of

the unqualified doctrine of free-trade. In the list of later English

writers, the names of _Bagehot, Leslie, Jevons_, and

_Sidgwick_ are quite prominent. With regard to free-trade and

protection, the latter doctrine has been maintained in two

forms. Some have regarded protection as the best _permanent_

policy for a nation to adopt. Others have defended it as a

_provisional_ policy, to shield manufactures in their infancy,

until they grow strong enough to compete, without help, with foreign

products. After the repeal of the corn-laws in England (1846), the

free-trade doctrine prevailed in England. Since _Comte_

published his exposition of _Sociology_ (1839), the tendency has

arisen to consider political economy as one branch of this broader

theme. With it the controversies pertaining to socialism are

intimately connected.

The disciples of _Adam Smith_ have contended for the

non-intervention of governments in the industrial pursuits of the

people. They are to be left to the natural desire of wealth, and the

natural exercise of competition in the pursuit of it. The prevalent

theories of _socialism_ are directly hostile to this--called the

_laissez-faire_--principle. Socialists would make government the

all-regulative agent, the owner of land and of the implements of

labor.

ENGLISH ESSAYISTS.--In literature the later time has seen an

extraordinary multiplying of periodicals and newspapers, among whose

editors and contributors have been included numerous writers of much

celebrity. In Great Britain, several famous authors first acquired

distinction mainly by historical and critical articles in reviews. This

is true of _Thomas Babington Macaulay_ and _Thomas

Carlyle_. Each of them became a historian. _Macaulay_, an

ardent Whig, with an astonishing familiarity with political and

literary facts, wrote in a spirited and brilliant style a _History of

England from the Accession of James II_. to the death of his hero,

_William III. Carlyle_, with a unique force of imagination and a

rugged intensity of feeling, original in his thought, yet strongly

affected by German literature, especially by _Richter_ and

_Goethe_, wrote in his earlier days a _Life of Schiller_. He

wrote later a history of the French Revolution, in which the scenes of

that tragic epoch are depicted with dramatic vividness; and a copious

_History of Frederick the Great_. Among the most characteristic of

his writings are his _Heroes and Hero-Worship_; the "Latter-Day

Pamphlets," in which is poured out his contempt of democracy; and the

_Life of John Sterling_,--the counterpart of a biography of

_Sterling_, written in a different vein by a learned and scholarly

divine, _Julius Hare_.

Of essayists in a lighter, discursive vein, one of the most popular,

who has already been referred to (p. 544), was the Scottish writer,

_John Wilson_ (1785-1854), the author of numerous tales and

criticisms, and of diverting papers written under the name of

"Christopher North." Without the fancy and humor of Wilson, yet master

of a style keeping within the limits of prose while verging on poetry,

was _Thomas De Quincey_, the author of _The Confessions of an

Opium Eater, Essays on the Roman Emperors_, etc.

HISTORICAL WRITINGS IN ENGLAND.--The literature of history has been

enriched by British authors with important works besides those named

above. _Grote_ and _Thirlwall_ each composed histories of

Greece which are the fruit of thorough and enlightened scholarship. The

work of _Grote_ is a vindication of the Athenian democracy, a view

the antipode of that taken in the work on Grecian history by

_Mitford_. An elaborate work on the _History of the Romans under

the Empire_ is one of several historical productions of _Charles

Merivale. Stanhope_ [Lord _Mahon_] composed a narrative of the

War of the Spanish Succession, and other useful histories. Sir

_W. F. P. Napier_ wrote a _History of the War in the

Peninsula_, in which the campaigns of _Wellington_ in Spain are

described by an author who took part in them. The constitutional

history of England has been treated with satisfactory learning and

judgment by _Hallam, May,_ and _Stubbs_. The Puritan

revolution has been described with masterly skill and judicial fairness

by _S. R. Gardiner_. In the earlier field, Mr. _Edward

A. Freeman_ labored with distinguished success, the _History of

the Norman Conquest_ being his principal work in this branch of

historical inquiry. _J. R. Green_ is the author of an attractive

history of the English people. _J. A. Froude_ wrote with engaging

literary art a _History of England in the Reign of Elizabeth_,

which attempts, in the preliminary part, an apology for the character

and conduct of _Henry VIII_. _Spencer Walpole_ has written a

_History of England since 1815_. _Ramsay_ has written the

_Foundations of England, Angevin England, Lancaster, and

York_. _John Hill Burton_, a Scottish author, educated as a

lawyer, composed vigorously written histories of Scotland and of the

reign of Queen Anne. _Lecky_ wrote in a pleasing style a

_History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, besides a

_History of Rationalism in Europe_, and a _History of European

Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne_. In ecclesiastical history,

_Milman_, whose leading work is the _History of Latin

Christianity_, Dean _Stanley_, and Bishop _Creighton_ have

been the principal writers.

ENGLISH NOVELISTS.--The series of "Waverley novels" by _Walter

Scott_ (1771-1832) had an unbounded popularity. Pervaded by a

cheerful, healthy tone, they presented fascinating pictures of life and

manners, and kindled a fresh sympathy with the Middle Ages and with the

spirit of chivalry. The poems of Scott depicted, in a metrical form,

like picturesque scenes, and knightly combats and adventures. The

fictions of Scott gave rise to a school of writers, one of whom was

_G. P. R. James_ (1801-1860). A new and different type of novel

appeared, in connection with which the names of _Dickens_

(1812-1870) and _Thackeray_ (1811-1863) are preëminent. Both are

humorists; in _Dickens_ especially, humor runs into broad

caricature. Both present pictures of society and of common life. They

illustrate the tendency of the novel at present to rely for its

attraction upon scenes and incidents of ordinary life, and the minute

portraiture of manners and of character. _Dickens_ owes his

popularity largely to the unique sort of drollery and the genuine

pathos that are mingled in his pages. _Thackeray_ is a satirist,

with a keen eye to detect the weaknesses of humanity, but with a deep

well of sympathy, veiled, however, and sedulously guarded from

sentimentalism, by a tone of banter and a semblance of

cynicism. Measured by their popularity with the cultivated class, the

novels of Mrs. _Lewes_ (_George Eliot_) stand next in rank to

the productions last referred to. In some of her tales, the artistic

motive and spirit are qualified by the didactic aim, or the underlying

"tendency,"--the purpose to teach, or to promote a favorite

cause,--which has become a frequent characteristic in modern

fiction. Among the other English novelists, _Bulwer_ (1805-1873),

whose later stories are free from the immorality that stains the

earlier, is one of the most widely read. The novels of _Charles

Kingsley_ (1819-1875) are among the justly popular productions in

this department. Among the novelists of the late Victorian Era were

_Charles Keade_, _Blackmore_, _Stevenson_,

_Kipling_, _Meredith_, _Hardy_, and Mrs. _Humphry

Ward_.

ENGLISH POETS.--_Alfred Tennyson_ (1809-1892), the author of

_The Princess_, _In Memoriam_, and the _Idylls of the

King_, held the first place among the poets of his day. An adept in

the metrical art, he combines in these mature productions, with

terseness of diction and fresh, striking imagery, deep reflection and

sympathy with the intellectual questionings and yearnings of the

time. In his lyrical poems the fullness of his power is seen. He was,

without question, a consummate literary artist. _Browning_

(1812-1889), careless of rhythmical art, with a defiance of form, but

with dramatic power, in his descent to "the under-currents" of the

soul, placed himself open to the reproach of obscurity. Among English

poets of high merit in the recent period stand the names of the

delightful humorist _Thomas Hood_ (1798-1845), _Arthur

Clough_ (1819-1861), and more recently, _Matthew Arnold_

(1822-1888).

With this reference to the poets may be coupled the name of the most

eloquent and suggestive of the English writers on art, _John

Ruskin_.

THEOLOGY IN ENGLAND.--Theological scholarship in Great Britain, after a

long season of partial eclipse, again shone forth in the present

period. Critical works relating to the Scriptures have been produced,

which are on a level with the best Continental learning. About 1833,

there began at Oxford what has been called the "Tractarian movement,"

from a series of "Tracts for the Times," relating to theology and the

Church, which were issued by its promoters. The party thus originating

were called "Puseyites," as Dr. _Edward Pusey_ (1800-1882), the

author of learned commentaries, and of works in other departments of

divinity, was their acknowledged leader. They formed one branch of the

class called "High Churchmen." They laid great emphasis on the doctrine

of the "apostolic succession" of the ministry, the necessity and

efficacy of the sacraments administered by them, and the importance of

visible ecclesiastical unity. They claimed to stand in the "middle

path" between the Church of England and the Church of Rome. One of the

leading associates of _Pusey_ was _John Keble_ (1792-1866),

the poet, author of _The Christian Year_. The most eminent writer

in this group of theologians was _John Henry Newman_ (1801-1890),

who won general admiration by the subtlety of his genius and its rare

felicity of expression. He entered the Church of Rome, and was advanced

to the rank of a cardinal. One of the principal literary undertakings

of the recent period is the Revision of the Authorized Version of the

Bible, by associated companies of English and American scholars. In the

long catalogue of influential writers in theology, it is practicable to

refer here to a few suggestive names. _Thomas Chalmers_

(1780-1847) was equally noted as a glowing preacher, an eloquent

defender of the Christian faith, and a lucid expounder of the

Calvinistic system. _Edward Irving_ (1792-1834) was a pulpit

orator of unsurpassed eloquence in his day, whose peculiar view as to

the restoration of the miraculous gifts of the Spirit, that were

granted in the apostolic age, gave rise to a religious body calling

itself the "Catholic Apostolic Church." _Frederick Denison

Maurice_ (1805-1872) was one of the leaders of the "liberal," or

"Broad Church," portion of the English Episcopal Church. His writings

have exerted a strong influence. In the same general direction, but of

a more critical and argumentative tone, were _Richard Whately_

(1787-1863), Archbishop of Dublin; and _Thomas Arnold_, who, in

addition to his influence as a teacher, classical scholar, and

historian, engaged actively in discussions on the questions relating to

Church and State.

LITERATURE IN AMERICA: POEMS AND TALES.--The period which we are now

considering witnessed a gratifying development of belles-lettres and

historical literature in the United States. At the outset, two writers

appeared who acquired a transatlantic fame. _Washington Irving_

(1783-1859) in 1818 published _The Sketch Book_, in a series of

pamphlets. It had been preceded by _Knickerbocker's History of New

York_ and other humorous publications. Among his later writings were

included the _Life of Columbus_, the _Life of Mohammed_, and

the _Life of Washington_. The refinement and charm of his style,

which brought back the simplicity of Goldsmith, satisfied the foreign

critics who had ridiculed the florid rhetoric of previous American

authors. _James Fenimore Cooper_ (1789-1851) published _The

Spy_, the first of his novels, which attracted much attention, in

1821. This was followed, two years later, by _The Pioneers_, the

first of the famous "Leatherstocking" series of novels, in which Indian

life and manners were portrayed. Cooper was also the founder of the

"sea-novel," a line of fiction in which he was followed by an English

writer, _Marryat_ (1792-1848). _Richard H. Dana_ and

_Fitz-Greene Halleck_ were poets who had a much higher than the

merely negative merit of freedom from tumidity, the bane of the earlier

American bards. Not only in verse, but also in his prose tales,

_Dana_ manifested genius. Several later poets, acknowledged at

home and abroad, well deserve the name. Such are _Bryant_

(1794-1878), whose poems, pensive and elevated in their tone, lack

neither vigor nor finish; _Longfellow_ (1807-1882), a poet of

exquisite culture, whose purity of sentiment, as well as polish and

melody of diction, have made him a favorite in both Europe and America;

_Whittier_ (1807-1892), whose spirited productions are pervaded

with a glowing love of liberty and humanity. _Lowell_ (1819-1891)

has justly earned fame as a poet and a critic; and, as a poet, in both

serious and humorous compositions. The "Biglow Papers" are without a

rival in the species of humor that characterize them. Distinction as a

poet and a prose writer belongs likewise to _Oliver Wendell

Holmes_ (1809-1894), who was especially successful as an author of

"poems of society." _Edgar Allan Poe_ (1809-1849), faulty in his

moral spirit as he was wayward in his conduct, exhibited, both in his

poems and tales, which are unique in their character, the traits of a

wild and somber genius. _Ralph Waldo Emerson_ (1803-1882), admired

as a poet, but more generally as an essayist, valuing insight above

logic, has commented on nature, man, and literature with so rare a

penetration and felicity of expression that _Matthew Arnold_ has

placed his productions on a level with the Meditations of the Emperor

_Marcus Aurelius_. In the list of American novelists the foremost

name is that of _Nathaniel Hawthorne_. In his romances the subtle

analysis of the workings of conscience and sensibility, in particular

the obscure--including the morbid-action of these powers, is combined

with perfection of style and of literary art. The novels of _Harriet

Beecher Stowe_, especially those which relate to slavery and depict

negro character, have had a world-wide currency. Among other novelists

were _Paulding_ and _Sedgwick_, and more recently,

_Howells, James, Bret Harte, Cable_, and _Aldrich_. The most

distinguished humorist has been _S. M. Clemens_ (Mark Twain).

Good work has been done by Americans in literary history and criticism.

The _History of Spanish Literature_, by _George Ticknor_, is

the fruit of many years of labor by a competent scholar.

HISTORICAL WRITINGS IN AMERICA.--Creditable works have been produced in

America in the department of historical literature. The lives of

Washington and Franklin, and other biographical and historical writings

of much value, have been composed or edited by _Jared Sparks. George

Bancroft_ (1800-1891) published, in successive editions, the results

of extensive researches in the history of the United States. Works on

the same subject have been published by _Richard Hildreth_ and

many others. _John G. Palfrey_ is the author of an excellent

history of New England. _William H. Prescott_ by his _History of

the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella_, his histories of Spanish

conquest in America, and his fragment on the reign of Philip II. of

Spain, has deservedly attained to a high distinction on both sides of

the Atlantic. The same may be said of _John Lothrop Motley_

(1814-1877), in his _Rise and Progress of the Dutch Republic_. The

history of French colonization and of the contests of France in America

has been detailed with thoroughness and skill by _Francis

Parkman_. Other prominent writers have been _John Fiske, Justin

Winsor, Henry. Adams, James F. Rhodes_, and _A. T. Mahan_.

AMERICAN WRITERS ON LAW ANS POLITICS.--American writers on law embrace

names of world-wide celebrity. Among them are _Henry Wheaton_, in

international law, a science to which _Woolsey_ and

_Lawrence_ have made valuable contributions; _James Kent_,

whose _Commentaries on American Law_ is a work held in high honor

by the legal profession; and _Joseph Story_, a jurist and legal

writer of distinguished merit. The speeches and other productions of

_Webster, Calhoun, Clay, John Quincy Adams, Edward Everett, Seward,

Sumner_, form a valuable body of political writings. The works of

_Francis Lieber_, a German by birth, and the treatise on

_Political Science_ by _Theodore D. Woolsey_, are important

contributions to the branch of knowledge to which they relate.

PHILOLOGY IN AMERICA.--On the catalogue of students of language, the

name of _Noah Webster_ (1758-1843) is prominent, through his

English Dictionary, the fruit of many years of arduous labor; a work

that since his death has appeared in successive and improved

editions. Another successful laborer in the same field was _Joseph

E. Worcester_ (1784-1865), likewise the author of a copious and

valuable lexicon of the English language. _George P. Marsh_, an

erudite Scandinavian scholar, wrote also on the _Origin and History

of the English Language_. In the departments of classical learning,

of Oriental study, and of general philology, there have appeared other

American authors of acknowledged merit, e.g. _William D. Whitney_.

THEOLOGY IN AMERICA.--Theology has been cultivated with much fruit by a

large number of preachers and authors, of different religious bodies.

_Moses Stuart_, by his commentaries on Biblical books, and

_Edward Robinson_, especially through his published Travels in the

Holy Land, were widely known. _Charles Hodge_, long a professor at

Princeton; _Nathaniel W. Taylor_, who broached modifications of

the Calvinistic system; _Henry B. Smith_, an acute and learned

theologian; and _Horace Bushnell_,--are among the influential

authors on the Protestant side. To these should be added the name of

_William Ellery Channing_, the most prominent leader of the

Unitarians, equally distinguished as a preacher and as a

philanthropist.

The Unitarian movement in New England, which began in the early part

of the nineteenth century, included other theological writers, one of

the most learned and scholarly of whom was _Andrews Norton_

(1786-1853). _Theodore Parker_ (1810-1860) subsequently went so

far in his divergence from received views as to reject miracle and

supernatural revelation altogether. He was one of the most vigorous

combatants in the warfare carried on through the press and in the

pulpit against slavery. Out of the Unitarian school there came a

class of cultured writers in literature and criticism, of whom

_George Ripley_ (1802-1880) was a representative. The

"transcendentalists," as they were popularly styled, with whom these

were often at the outset affiliated, were much influenced by

contemporary French and German authors and speculations. Emerson, was

the most prominent writer in this vaguely defined class. A periodical

called "The Dial" was issued by them.

One of the most ingenious and active-minded thinkers in the Roman

Catholic Church was _Orestes A. Brownson_, a prolific author on

topics of religion and philosophy.

LITERATURE IN GERMANY.--The German mind has been so productive in

almost all branches of literary effort, that the annual issues of the

German press have numbered many thousands. The political condition of

Germany until a recent date was such as to attract large numbers to the

pursuits of literature and science. It is possible to allude to but few

of the principal authors. In imaginative literature, _Heinrich

Heine_ (1799-1856), of Jewish extraction, was a most witty yet

irreverent satirist, and one of the principal song-writers of modern

times. _Gustav Freytag_ has written some of the best of the later

German novels. _Auerbach_, _Keller_, and _Spielhagen_

stand very high on the roll of novelists. Of numerous recent poets,

_Lenau_ and _Freiligrath_ are among the few best esteemed. In

the long catalogue of German historical writers, to whom the world owes

a debt, are found the names of _Schlosser_ (1776-1861),

_Heeren_ (1760-1842), _Raumer_ (1781-1873); _Ranke_,

whose numerous works are based on original researches, and are written

with masterly skill; _Gervinus_, a critic as well as historian;

_Von Sybel_, _Droysen_, _Duncker_, _Weber_,

_Giesebrecht_, _Mommsen_, _Curtius_,

_Treitschke_. A powerful impulse was given to the study of history

by _Niebuhr_ (1776-1831). German researches have been carried into

every region of the past. In Egyptology, _Lipsius_, _Bunsen_,

_Brugsch_, and _Ebers_ are leading

authorities. _Neander_, _Gieseler_, _Baur_,

_Döllinger_, _Hefele_, _Alzog_, _Harnack_,

_Janssen_, and _Pastor_ are writers on ecclesiastical

history. German travelers have explored many of the countries of the

globe. _Schliemann_ has uncovered the ruins of Troy. In

mathematics and the natural sciences, in philology and criticism, in

philosophy, in law and the political sciences, and in the different

branches of theology, the world acknowledges its debt to the patient,

methodical investigations and the exhaustive discussions of German

students during the nineteenth century.

THEOLOGY IN GERMANY.--The history of religious thought in Germany

includes the successive phases of _rationalism_, or that general

theory which makes the human understanding, apart from supernatural

revelation, the chief or the exclusive source of religious knowledge,

and the umpire in controversies. In the age of _Frederick II._,

the Anglo-French deism was widely diffused (p. 493). _Lessing_;

the genial poet and critic (1729-1781), allied himself to no

party. In his work on _The Education of the Human Race_, he set

forth the view that the Scriptures have a high providential purpose

as an instrument for the religious training of mankind, but that

their _essential_ contents are ultimately verified by reason on

grounds of its own; so that the prop of authority eventually becomes

needless, and falls away. Not radically different was the position of

_Kant_ (p. 545), who gave rise to a school of theologians that

for a time flourished. This school made the essential thing in

Christianity to be its morality. With _Semler_ (1721-1791), the

rationalistic _Biblical criticism_ took its rise. From that day,

a host of scholars have engaged in the investigation of the origin

and interpretation of the Bible, and of the early history of

Christianity. A middle position between the established orthodoxy and

the Kantian rationalism was taken by _Frederick Schleiermacher_

(1768-1834), a man of genius, alike eminent as a critic, philosopher,

and theologian. He placed the foundation of religion in the feeling

of absolute dependence. In laying stress on _feeling_ as at the

root of piety, he had been preceded by the philosopher

_Jacobi_. From the impulse given by _Schleiermacher_, there

sprung up an intermediate school of theologians, many of whom

departed less than he from the traditional Protestant creed. This

they professed to undertake to revise in accordance with the results

of the scientific study of the Bible and of history. In their number

belong _Neander_, _Nitzsch_, _Twesten_,

_Tholuck_, _J. Müller_, _Dorner_, _Rothe_,

_Bleek_, _Ullman_, and many other influential authors and

teachers. In the department of Biblical criticism, _Ewald_,

_Tischendorf_, _Meyer_, _Weiss_, are among the names

of German theological scholars which are familiar to Biblical

students in all countries. The critical works of _De Wette_

(1780-1849) were extensively studied. The philosophy of

_Hegel_connected itself with a new form of rationalism, which

found expression in the _Life of Jesus_, by _Strauss_,

published in 1835, in which the Gospel miracles were treated as

myths; and in the writings of _Ferdinand Christian Baur_, in

connection with his followers of the "Tubingen School," who attempted

to resolve primitive Christianity into a natural growth out of

preëxisting conditions, and held that the historical books of the New

Testament were the product of different theological "tendencies" and

parties in the apostolic and the subsequent age. The Roman Catholic

system has not lacked in Germany able defenders, one of the most

noted of whom was _Möhler_, the author of _Symbolism_

(_Symbolik_), an ingenious polemical work in opposition to

Protestantism.

PHILOLOGY AND LAW IN GERMANY.--Classical philology was founded as a

science by _Heyne_ (1729-1812) and _Wolf_

(1759-1824). Their work was carried forward by _G. Hermann_

(1772-1848), _Buttmann_ (1764-1829), _Jacobs_ (1764-1847),

_K. O. Muller_ (1797-1840), and by numerous contemporaries and

successors of these. By this succession of scholars, not only have

the tongues of Greece and Rome been accurately learned and taught,

but classical antiquity has been thoroughly explored. Comparative

philology, under the hands of _Bopp_ (1791-1867), of

_Lassen_ (1800-1876), a Norwegian by birth, of _W. von

Humboldt_ (1767-1835), of _Pott_ (born in 1802), of

_Schleicher_ (1821-1868), and their coadjutors, has grown to be

a fruitful science. In the study of the German language and early

literature, _J. Grimm_ (1785-1863), _W. Grimm_ (1786-1859),

_Lachmann_ (1793-1851), _Simrock_ (1802-1878), have been

among the pioneers. The study of law, especially of Roman law, was

placed on a new foundation by the labors of _Savigny_

(1779-1861), while a like thoroughness was brought to the exposition

of German law by _Mittermaier_ and others. In political science,

_Mohl_ (1779-1875), _Bluntschli_ (1808-1881), _Stahl_

(1802-1861), and _Gneist_ (1816-1895) gained a worldwide

celebrity.

LITERATURE IN FRANCE.--A class of vigorous young writers in France

broke loose from the restraints of the "classical" school and its

patterns, and composed dramas in the more free method of the "romantic"

school. They drew their ideas of the drama from _Shakspeare_,

rather than from _Corneille_. Among these writers were

_Alexandre Dumas_, a most prolific novelist as well as writer of

plays; and the celebrated poet and dramatist, _Victor Hugo_. The

romances of _Dumas_ comprise more than a hundred volumes. In his

historical novels, incidents and characters without number crowd upon

the scene, but without confusion, while the narrative maintains an

unfailing vivacity. Of the authors of light and witty comedies,

_Scribe_ is one of the most fertile. _George Sand_

(Mme. _Dudevant_) is one of the principal novel-writers of the

age. _Eugene Sue_ and _Balzac_ are both popular authors in

this department. The leading poets are the song-writer _Béranger_,

_Lamartine_, _Victor Hugo_, and _Alfred de Musset_. With

the close of the first half-century romanticism began to give way

before realism, from which, however, there was a reaction before the

century closed. Among the greater poets are _Sully-Prudhomme_ and

_Coppée_; among the novelists, _Daudet_, _Zola_,

_Maupassant_, and _Bourget_. In history some writers, as

_Villemain_, are remarkable for their power of descriptive

narrative; others, like _Guizot_, for their breadth of

philosophical reflection, superadded to deep researches. Some, like

_Augustin Thierry_, in his work on the Middle Ages, combined both

elements. His brother, _Amédée Thierry_, depicted the state of

society in Gaul and other countries in the period of the fall of the

Roman Empire. _Barante_ composed an interesting history of the

Dukes of Burgundy. Among those, besides Guizot, who treated of the

history of France, _Sismondi_, the spirited _Michelet_, and

the thorough and dispassionate _Henri Martin_ are specially

eminent. _Thiers_, _Mignet_, _Louis Blanc_,

_Taine_, and _Lanfrey_ wrote on the Revolution or

Napoleon. The most eminent of the newer school of scientific historians

are _Boissier_, _Sorel_, _Lavisse_, _Luchaire_, and

_Aulard_. In political economy and the science of politics,

_Chevalier_, _De Tocqueville_ (the author of _Democracy in

America_), and _Bastiat_ are among the writers widely read

beyond the limits of France. _Sainte-Beuve_ is only one of the

foremost in the class of literary critics, in which are included

_Renan_, _Sarcey_, _Brunetière_, _Lemaître_,

_Faguet_, and others, themselves authors. The clearness of

exposition which goes far to justify the claim of the French to be the

interpreters of European science to the world, appears in numerous

treatises in mathematics and physics. The qualities of lucid

arrangement, transparency of style, and terseness of language have

extended, however, to other branches of authorship; so that the French

have presented a fair claim to precedence in the literary art.

SWEDEN AND RUSSIA.--There are Swedish authors who are well known in

other countries. Such are the historian _Geijer_ (1783-1847);

and the novelist _Fredrika Bremer_, who wrote "The Neighbors,"

and other tales. The most famous of the Russian novelists is _Ivan

Turgenejff_, some of whose stories contain admirable pictures of

Russian life.

ARCHITECTURE.--The nineteenth century witnessed in Germany, France, and

England a revival of the ancient or classic styles of

architecture. This appears, for example, in edifices at _Munich_,

and in such buildings as _St. George's Hall_ at Liverpool. But a

reaction arose against this tendency, and in behalf of the Gothic

style, which is exemplified in the new _Houses of Parliament_ in

London. Many Gothic churches have been erected in Great

Britain. Many-storied office buildings are characteristic of America.

SCULPTURE AND PAINTING.--One of the most original of modern sculptors

was _Schwanthaler_ (1802-1848), who carved the pediments of the

Walhalla at Munich, and the bronze statue of Bavaria. French sculptors

at the present day are fully on a level with the recent sculptors of

Italy. _Chantrey_ (1788-1841) and _John Gibson_ (1791-1866),

a pupil of _Canova_ and himself an original mind, are high on the

roll of English sculptors. A genius for sculpture appeared among

Americans, and to the names of _Powers and Crawford_, of _Story,

Brown, and Ward_, the names of other meritorious artists in this

province might justly be added. The German national school of painting

had _Overbeck_ for its most eminent founder. _Cornelius_

(1783-1867) revived the art of fresco-painting, and established the

Munich school. _Von Kaulbach_, who painted the "Battle of the

Huns" in the Berlin Museum, was one of his pupils. _W. von

Schadow_ is the founder of the Düsseldorf school. One of his eminent

pupils was _K. F. Lessing_. Still more recent are _Ad. Menzel,

Liberman, and Lenbach_. In Great Britain, _Constable_

(1796-1837) painted English landscapes full of thought and feeling, and

gave a fresh impulse to this branch of art. _Stanfleld_

(1788-1864) was a master of the realistic school, which aims at a

simple and faithful representation of the landscape to be

depicted. _Wilkie_, a Scotchman (1785-1841), was chief among the

_genre_ painters, of whom _Leslie_ (1794-1859), by birth an

American, was one of the most forcible and refined. _Eastlake_

(1793-1865) was a writer on art, as well as a painter. _Landseer_

(1802-1873) was unrivaled as an animal painter. _William Hunt_

(1790-1864) had decided skill as a painter in water-colors. The

_pre-Raphaelite school_, professing to go back of _Raphael_

to nature, included _Turner, Hunt, Millais_, _and

Burne-Jones_. Other prominent artists have been _Herkomer,

Leighton_, and _Alma-Tadema_. In France, _Paul Delaroche_

(1797-1856) followed in the path of _Horace Vernet_ (1789-1863),

as a painter of battle-pieces and other modern historical

scenes. _Ary Scheffer_ (1795-1858), a Dutchman by birth, painted

in a graceful and pathetic tone "Christ the Consoler," and other sacred

subjects. The more recent French school, comprising _Delacroix,

Meissonier, Gérome, Cabanel, Millet, Rosa Bonheur_, an artist of

masculine vigor, the famous painter of animal pictures,--is

distinguished for technical skill and finish, but also for a bold and

peculiar method of treatment. Among the leading landscape-painters of

this school, _Corot, Daubigny, Rousseau, Diaz_, are

conspicuous. Still more recent are _Bastien-Lepage, Chavannes,

Bréton, Bouguereau, Dagnan-Bouveret, Lhermitte, Jean-Paul Laurens_,

and _Dupré_.

About the year 1825 an American school of landscape-painters was

founded by _Thomas Cole_, many of whose pictures were

allegorical. _Durand_ is one of those who excelled in landscape

painting. In other provinces of the art, _Peale_, _Weir_,

_Huntington_, _Page_, _Morse_, _Chase_,

_Whistler_, _Sargent_, _Abbey_; in landscape,

_Gifford_, _Kensett_, _Church_, _Bierstadt_,

_McEntee_, _Inness_, _Winslow Homer_, well represent

what is best and most characteristic in the later productions of

American painters.

MUSIC.--In music, Germany in the nineteenth century held the palm.

_Schubert_, _Spohr_, _Weber_, _Meyerbeer_, and

_Wagner_ are names of world-wide celebrity, while in the works of

_Mendelssohn_ (1809-1849) and _Schumann_ (1810-1856) the art

of music reached its climax. _Chopin_ (1810-1849), the founder of

a new style of piano-forte music, was born in Poland: his father,

however, was French.

PHILANTHROPIC REFORM.

In a survey of the course of recent history, notice should be taken of

the increased activity of a humane spirit in the several nations.

1. SOCIAL SCIENCE.--The investigation of social evils and of their

proper remedies, and of the laws which govern man in his social

relations, has received of late the name of _social science_. In

1857 a meeting in _London_, over which Lord _Brougham_

presided, resulted in the organization of a society of persons

interested in different forms of social improvement, bearing the name

of the _National Association for the Promotion of Social

Science_. Its work embraced the consideration of these five

subjects: law-amendment,--to promote which a society had existed, of

which Lord _Brougham_ was the head; education; prevention and

repression of crime; public health; and social economy. Branches were

established in various towns in England. Similar societies have

flourished in the United States. An international society of the same

character held its first meeting in _Brussels_ in 1862. The wide

range of special topics which these societies consider may give an

appearance of indefiniteness to their aims. The movement at least

indicates that social advancement has assumed the form of a distinct

and comprehensive problem, and is drawing to itself the deliberate

attention of thoughtful persons of diverse nations and creeds.

2. MITIGATION OF THE SUFFERINGS OF WAR: HOSPITALS.--If wars are still

frequent and destructive, much more has been done of late to mitigate

the sufferings consequent upon armed conflicts. The right of an

invading force to ravage the territory of an enemy was seldom

practically asserted in the nineteenth century. Non-combatants,

according to the modern rules of war, are not to be molested. Their

property, if it is taken, is to be paid for at its fair value. The

doctrine that requisitions may be made by a commander is not yet

abandoned. It was acted on by _Napoleon_ on a large scale. It was

not approved by _Wellington_. There is a growing opinion against

it. It is not now held to be a crime for an officer to hold a fortress

as long as he can. In the care of the sick and the wounded, there has

been a great change for the better. The _ambulance_ system, or the

system of movable hospitals accompanying armies on the field, was

established by the French, with the approval of _Napoleon_, in

1795. The name _ambulance_ is also frequently given to the

vehicles for transporting the wounded and sick. The whole ambulance

system was completely organized in the American civil war, and defined

by an Act of Congress in 1864. To a French surgeon is due, also, the

establishment of a corps of _stretcher-bearers_. By the European

Convention adopted at _Geneva_ (1864), the wounded, and the whole

official staff connected with ambulances, are exempted from capture as

prisoners of war. For the more efficient organization of hospitals, a

great service was rendered by the example of _Florence

Nightingale_, an English lady, who, at the head of a company of

volunteer nurses, during the Crimean war created a great establishment

of this sort at Scutari (1854). The increased pains-taking in the

method of building, in the ventilation and general management of

hospitals, during the last half-century, has gone far towards freeing

them from the dangers and evils to which they were formerly subject.

SANITARY SCIENCE.--Sanitary science, and the engineering connected with

it, belong to the nineteenth century, and mainly to the second half of

it. Systems of drainage have been devised which involve much mechanical

skill, not to dwell on their usefulness in promoting health. Prior to

1815, in England, the law forbade the discharge of sewage in

water-drains. The law of 1847 required that which up to 1815 was

prohibited. The great change on this whole subject dates from the

cholera of 1832, which awoke public attention to the sources of

disease. The condition of the poor, and the discussions relating to it,

lent a new stimulus to the inquiry. A series of English reports, from

1842 to 1848, had a great influence in producing a sanitary reform, in

the particulars referred to, in England and in other countries.

3. PUBLIC EDUCATION.--During the nineteenth century, systems of general

education were established in different countries. In a part of the

United States, an effective common-school system has always existed. In

Germany also, especially in Prussia, there have long been thorough

provisions for the instruction of all the young in elementary

branches. In France, in consequence of the laws requiring primary

schools in all the communes of any considerable size, the average of

illiteracy has of late steadily diminished. In 1881, in France,

instruction in the public primary schools was made absolutely

free. England has witnessed a very great change in the legal

establishment of means of instruction in the rudiments of knowledge for

the whole people. The Education Act of 1876 required that every child

between the ages of five and fourteen should receive such teaching. In

England, and in some other countries, the employment of children who

have not had a certain amount of school instruction was prohibited by

law. In the new kingdom of Italy, every commune having four thousand

inhabitants was required by law (1859) to maintain a primary school. By

subsequent legislation, the compulsory principle was adopted as far as

the circumstances of the country would allow. The result has been a

most remarkable diminution in the numbers of the wholly illiterate

class. Other European states have made primary education

compulsory. For instance, in Hungary, attendance at school was made

obligatory for children from the beginning of the eighth to the end of

the twelfth year. Such measures in behalf of general education as

governments have adopted in recent times are founded, to be sure,

partly on the conscious need of self-protection against ignorance and

its baleful consequences to the state. A more directly humane impulse,

however, mingles with this motive. The operation of benevolent feeling

is seen in the multiplying of special schools for the benefit of the

blind, of the deaf and dumb, and even of imbeciles.

4. REFORM OF CRIMINAL LAW.--The advance of humane sentiment has

produced a reform of criminal law. In England, in the closing part of

the eighteenth century, there were two hundred and twenty-three

offenses that were punished with death. To injure Westminster Bridge,

to cut down young trees, to shoot at rabbits, to steal property of the

value of five shillings, were capital offenses. Vigorous and

persevering opposition was made to the mitigation of this bloody

code. Sir _Samuel Romilly_ (1757-1818) began his effort at reform

by endeavoring to secure the repeal of these cruel laws, one by

one. His bills, when carried with difficulty through the Commons, were

repeatedly thrown out by the House of Lords. One of the most strenuous

opponents of the change was the Lord Chancellor, _Eldon_. Lord

_Ellenborough_, the chief justice, stigmatized the proposed

alteration of the statutes as the fruit of "speculation and modern

philosophy." It was predicted that, if it were made, there would be a

terrible increase of crime. Sir _James Mackintosh_ continued with

success the effort of Romilly. In 1837 the list of capital offenses had

been reduced to seven. One consequence was the striking diminution of

crime. Another reform in England was that of the police-system

(1816). The officers of the police had encouraged crime in order to

secure the reward of forty pounds offered by the government on

conviction, in the case of crimes of a certain grade.

5. PRISON-DISCIPLINE REFORM.--One of the distinctions of modern

philanthropy is the prison-discipline reform. When _Howard_ began

his labors (1773), the prisons in England were generally dirty,

pestiferous dens, crowded with inmates of both sexes,--nurseries of

loathsome disease, and of still more loathsome vice. Soon after this

time, a serious effort began to make prisons a means of reform, instead

of schools of debauchery and crime. There was a movement for the

erection of penitentiaries of improved construction. This was aided by

the exertions of _Jeremy Bentham_. The most successful efforts in

behalf of a better system of management in prisons were made by members

of the Society of Friends. Of these, the most useful person in this

cause was Mrs. _Elizabeth Gurney Fry_ (1780-1845), a woman of rare

powers of mind and of the noblest Christian character. By her personal

influence, she wrought such a transformation of character and behavior

among the female convicts in Newgate Prison as it had been deemed

impossible to effect. The reforms which Mrs. _Fry_ effected spread

to other places. Her labors were not confined to Great Britain. She

visited France (1838), Belgium, Holland, and other countries. Her

correspondence in the interest of the cause which she served extended

to Russia and Italy. Her recommendations bore fruit for good in almost

all parts of Europe. Signal improvements in plans of construction, and

in the interior life of prisons, have been effected under the auspices

of the Prison Discipline Society in England. In these changes, the

example of changes and reforms in this matter in the United States has

had a marked influence. The two great ends kept in view at present in

the arrangements and occupations of prisons are the reform of the

criminal, and the deterring of others from the commission of

crime. Distinct establishments for the detention, reform, and training

of juvenile offenders, who were formerly corrupted by association with

criminals mature in vice, are peculiar to recent times. The

transportation of English convicts to Australia began in 1787. As these

multiplied, there sprang up cruelty on the part of supervisors in the

colonies; and in the penal settlements where the worst offenders were

guarded, there were found the most corrupt and degraded herds of

criminals. The opposition in the colonial communities to transportation

found support in England. In 1840 deportation to New South Wales

ceased. At length Van Dieman's Land also refused to receive this forced

emigration even of released convicts. The British Government was

obliged to rely on other methods of punishment, especially on the

graduation of the term of confinement according to the conduct of the

criminal.

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE UNITY OF MANKIND.

UNITY AMID DIVERSITY.--The path of human progress has led in the

direction of _unity_ as the ultimate goal. It is, however, a

_unity in variety_ toward which the course of history has moved.

The development and growth of distinct nations, each after its own

type, and, not less, the freedom of the individual to realize the

destiny intended for him by nature, are necessary to the full

development of mankind,--necessary to the perfection of the race. The

final unity that is sought is to be reached, not by stifling the

capacities of human nature, but by the complete unfolding of them in

all their diversity. The modern era has made an approach toward this

higher unity that is to coexist with a rich and manifold

development. An enlightened man, Prince _Albert_ of England,

remarked in a public address (1850): "Nobody who has paid any attention

to the peculiar features of our present era will doubt for a moment

that we are living at a period of most wonderful transition, which

tends rapidly to accomplish that great end to which, indeed, all

history points, _the realization of the unity of mankind!_ Not a

unity which breaks down the limits and levels the peculiar

characteristics of the different nations of the earth, but rather a

unity, _the result and product_ of those very national varieties

and antagonistic qualities."

In concluding this volume, it is proper to advert to some of the signs

and means of this unification of mankind, which belong to the recent

era.

1. INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS.--The words quoted above from Prince

_Albert_ were spoken in anticipation of the Great International

Exhibition in London, in 1854. The industrial exhibitions, in which the

products of many nations are collected, and to which visitors are drawn

from different parts of the earth, are one indication of the effect of

manufactures and commerce in drawing mankind together. The first

displays of this kind were for French manufactures alone, and were held

in Paris in 1798, and, under the consulate of Napoleon, in 1801 and

1802. The first _international_ exposition was in Paris in 1844;

and it was followed by the "World's Fair" in London (1850), for which

the vast edifice called "the Crystal Palace," made of iron and of

glass, was constructed. Similar exhibitions were held in New York

(1853), in Paris in 1855 and again in 1867, in Constantinople,

Amsterdam, Vienna, (1873), in Philadelphia on the hundredth anniversary

of American independence (1876), in Chicago in 1893, and in Paris in

1900. In these fairs, the products of the industry of the far East were

shown by the side of the products of European and American manufacture.

2. ECONOMICAL ENLIGHTENMENT.--In connection with the wide extension of

commerce, the better methods and ideas which have come into vogue in

respect to commercial relations deserve notice. The _system of

credit_, facilitating trade and forming a bond of confidence and of

union between different nations, although it began in the Middle Ages,

was not fairly established until the organization of the Bank of

Amsterdam in 1609. This system, if it is "one of the most powerful

engines of warfare," is likewise "one of the great pledges of peace."

The stimulus given to manufactures by mechanical inventions has been an

effective promoter of commercial intercourse. The teaching of _Adam

Smith_, and of the political economists since his time, by which it

is seen that the gain of one nation is not the loss of another, and

that nations are mutually benefited by the interchange of the products

of their labor, which is the true source of wealth, has operated as an

antidote to discord. The ruin of a neighbor, or non-intercourse with

him, has been discovered to be as contrary to the demands of a prudent

self-interest as of a disinterested benevolence.

3. COMMUNITY IN SCIENCE AND LETTERS.--The community of literature and

science has been growing more cosmopolitan. The barriers created by

differences of language are overcome. The custom of learning foreign

languages has become more diffused. The most important writings, in

whatever country they appear, circulate through translations in all

other civilized lands. All well-stored libraries are polyglot.

4. WIDENED POLITICAL SYSTEM.--In the political relations of countries,

it is found necessary to comprehend all parts of the globe in the

political system, in the right adjustment of which each country has a

stake, and over which stretches an acknowledged code of international

law. The establishment of an international tribunal of arbitration at

The Hague is a long step toward making such a code effective and toward

preventing war.

5. INTERNATION PHILANTHROPY.--The growth of humane feeling, of the

interest felt in man as man, engendered a spirit of universal

philanthropy. For example, the hostility to the slave-trade led to the

treatment of it as piracy by the municipal laws and by the treaties of

several nations, while it is prohibited and punished by nearly all of

the countries of Europe. This is the direct result of a heightened

respect for man and for the rights of human nature, however poor or

degraded man may be. Instances have occurred in which help has been

generously given to sufferers by fire or famine, by strangers in remote

lands. A famine in Persia called out liberal contributions from

America. Examples of the exercise of justice and kindness toward

distant nations may remind the reader of opposite examples of wrong and

cruelty. We are pointing out, however, only the _drift_ of

sentiment; and it must be remembered that the facts which have been

referred to as illustrative of the growth of philanthropy, are such as

never occurred in former ages.

6. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS.--The spread of the Christian religion by

missionary efforts is one of the means of unifying mankind. In ancient

times and in the Middle Ages, the two great achievements of the Church

were the conversion of the Roman Empire, and then of the barbarian

nations by whom it was subverted. But, in the Middle Ages, there was

also missionary labor, here and there among the Saracens and in the

lands of the East. Since the thirteenth century, missions in the Roman

Catholic Church have been chiefly prosecuted by the monastic orders. In

this work, the Jesuits, from the first establishment of their order,

were conspicuously active in all quarters of the globe. Of their

missionaries, none have been more eminent and zealous than _Francis

Xavier_ (1506?1552), who died just as he was about to undertake the

conversion of China. Protestants, in the period after the Reformation,

were too busy in the struggles going forward in their own lands, to

undertake foreign missions on an extended scale. Yet they were not

indifferent to the importance of the work. Under the protectorate of

_Cromwell_, an ordinance established a Society for the Propagation

of the Gospel in New England (1649). In 1701 the Society for the

Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was established in

England. Later, the Moravians from the beginning evinced great interest

in foreign missions, and planted missionary stations in several

countries. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Congregation of the

Propaganda was founded in 1622, for the general superintendence of

missionary operations. Colleges for their training were established,

the chief of which was the "Urban College" at Rome, where students from

all nations have been educated for missionary service.

The nineteenth century was marked by an extraordinary outburst of

missionary activity. In this sort of exertion the Roman Catholic body

has kept up an unflagging zeal. Within the various Protestant

denominations, a remarkable increase of fervor and of success in this

department of Christian labor has been witnessed. In the room of

_seven_ societies for this purpose at the end of the eighteenth

century, there were in 1880, in Europe and America, _seventy_

organizations. At this last date, there were not less than twenty-four

hundred ordained Europeans and Americans employed in this service,

besides a great number of assistants, both foreign and native. The

native converts numbered not less than 1,650,000. The yearly

contributions for the support of the missions increased

proportionately. In 1882 British contributions alone amounted to

£1,090,000. It is not an exaggeration to say that the globe is now

"covered with a network of Christian outposts."

The following passage, slightly abbreviated, from a German writer,

presents a glowing sketch of the wide extension of recent missionary

labors:--

"At the beginning of this century, the island world of the Pacific

was shut against the gospel; but England and America have attacked

those lands so vigorously in all directions, especially through

native workers, that whole groups of islands, even the whole Malayan

Polynesia, is to-day almost entirely Christianized, and in Melanesia

and Micronesia the mission-field is extended every year. The gates of

British East India have been thrown open wider and wider during this

century; at first for English, then for all missionaries. This great

kingdom, from Cape Comorin to the Punjaub and up to the Himalayas,

where the gospel is knocking on the door of Thibet, has been covered

with hundreds of mission-stations, closer than the mission-net which

at the close of the first century surrounded the Roman empire; the

largest and some of the smaller islands of the Indian Archipelago,

Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, and now New Guinea also, are

occupied, partly on the coast and partly in the interior. Burmah, and

in part Siam, is open to the gospel; and China, the most powerful and

most populous of heathen lands, forced continually to open her doors

wider, has been traversed by individual pioneers of the gospel, to

Thibet and Burmah, and half of her provinces occupied from Hong-Kong

and Canton to Peking; and in Manchuria, if by only a thin chain, yet

at many of the principal points, stations have been founded, while

the population overflowing into Australia and America is being

labored with by Protestant missionaries. Japan also, hungry for

reform, by granting entrance to the gospel has been quickly occupied

by American and English missionary societies, and already, after so

little labor, has scores of evangelical congregations. Indeed, the

aboriginal Australians have, in some places, been reached. In the

lands of Islam, from the Balkans to Bagdad, from Egypt to Persia,

there have been common central evangelization stations established in

the chief places, for Christians and Mohammedans, by means of

theological and Christian medical missions, conducted especially by

Americans. Also in the primitive seat of Christianity, Palestine,

from Bethlehem to Tripoli, and to the northern boundaries of Lebanon,

the land is covered by a network of Protestant schools, with here and

there an evangelical church. Africa, west, south, and east, has been

vigorously attacked; in the west, from Senegal to Gaboon, yes, lately

even to the Congo, by Great Britain, Basel, Bremen, and America,

which have stations all along the coast. South Africa at the

extremity was evangelized by German, Dutch, English, Scotch, French,

and Scandinavian societies. Upon both sides, as in the center,

Protestant missions, although at times checked by war, are

continually pressing to the north; to the left, beyond the Walfisch

Bay; to the right, into Zululand, up to Delagoa Bay; in the center,

to the Bechuana and Basuto lands. In the east, the sun of the gospel,

after a long storm, has burst forth over Madagascar in such

brightness that it can never again disappear. Along the coasts from

Zanzibar and the Nile, even to Abyssinia, out-stations have been

established, and powerful assaults made by the Scotch, English, and

recently also by the American mission and civilization, into the very

heart of the Dark Continent, even to the great central and east

African lakes. In America, the immense plains of the Hudson's Bay

Territory, from Canada over the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean,

have not only been visited by missionaries, but have been opened far

and wide to the gospel through rapidly growing Indian missions. In

the United States, hundreds of thousands of freedmen have been

gathered into evangelical congregations; and, of the remnants of the

numerous Indian tribes, some at least have been converted through the

work of evangelization by various churches, and have awakened new

hope for the future. In Central America and the West Indies, as far

as the country is under Protestant home nations, the net of

evangelical missions has been thrown from island to island, even to

the mainland in Honduras, upon the Mosquito Coast; and in British and

Dutch Guiana it has taken even firmer hold. Finally, the lands on and

before the southern extremity of the continent, the Falkland Islands,

Terra del Fuego, and Patagonia, received the first light through the

South American Missionary Society (in London); and recently its

messengers have pushed into the heart of the land, and are rapidly

pressing on to the banks of the great Amazon, to the Indians of

Brazil."

RESULTS OF MISSIONS.--In carrying forward missionary work during the

nineteenth century, the Bible has been translated into numerous

languages. Missionaries, as in the early days of the Church, have

reduced the languages of uncultivated peoples to writing, and made the

beginning of native literatures. Schools, colleges, and

printing-presses follow in the path of the preachers. The contributions

made to philology and to other branches of science by missionary

preachers and explorers are of high value. As far as the number of

converts is concerned, progress has been more rapid, as was the case in

the first Christian centuries, among uncivilized tribes. The reception

of Christianity is more slow in a country like China, and among the

Aryan inhabitants of India. But the influence exerted by missions in

such communities is not to be measured by the number of

converts. Moreover, history has often shown, that, in the spread of the

Christian religion, the first steps are the most slow and difficult:

they are like the early operations in a siege. Sir _Bartle Frere_

writes thus: "Statistical facts can in no way convey any adequate idea

of the work done in any part of India. The effect is enormous where

there has not been a single avowed conversion. The teaching of

Christianity amongst a hundred and sixty millions of civilized,

industrious Hindoos and Mohammedans in India, is effecting changes,

moral, social, and political, which for extent and rapidity in effect

are far more extraordinary than any that have been witnessed in modern

Europe." Of the same tenor is an opinion expressed in strong terms by

Sir _Henry Lawrence_, governor-general of India during the mutiny

of 1857, and a most competent judge.

It is worthy of remark, as one characteristic of the Christian missions

of the recent period, that the religions of the non-Christian nations

have been studied more thoroughly, and the true and praiseworthy

elements in them have been better appreciated.

The progress made in the past encourages the hope that the unity of

mankind, a unity which shall be the crown of individual and national

development, will one day be reached. That unity of mankind, in loyal

fellowship with Him in whose image man was made, is the community of

which the ancient Stoic vaguely dreamed, and which the apostles of

Christ proclaimed and predicted,--the perfected _kingdom of God_.

LITERATURE. See lists on pp. Alison, _Hist. of Europe_, from

1815 to 1852 (8 vols.); Bulle, _Gesch. d. neuesten Zeit_,

1815-1871 (2 vols.); Flathe. _Zeitalter der Restauration und der

Revolution_; Stern, _Geschichte Europas_ (3 vols.); Debidpur,

_Hist. Diplomatique de l'Europe_ (2 vols.); Seignobus,

_Political History of Europe since 1814_; Sears. _Political

Growth in the Nineteenth Century_; Lavisse et Rambaud. _Hist

Gén._, Vols. X., XI., XII.; Phillips, _European History_,

1815-1899; Müller, _Political History of Recent Times_ (Peters's

translation, 1882); Müller, _Politische Gesch. d. Gegenwart_ (an

annual, since 1867); Honegger, _Grundsteine einer

allgem. Culturgeschichte d. neuesten Zeit_ (5 vols.).

Works on the History of Italy. Thayer, _Dawn of Italian

Independence_ (2 vols.); Reuchlin, _Geschichte Italiens_ (4

vols.); Stillman, _Union of Italy_; Probyn, _Italy from_

1815-1878; Lives of Cavour, by De la Rive (English translation), by

E. Dicey, by Mazade (French); _Life and Writings of Mazzini_ (9

vols.).

Works on the History of Germany. Treitschke, _Deutsche

Geschichte_; Von Sybel, _Founding of the German Empire_ (6

vols,); Busch,_ Bismarck in the Franco-Prussian War_ (2 vols.),

_Bismarck, The Man and the Statesman_ (2 vols.); Springer,

_Geschichte Oesterreichs_ (2 vols.).

France. Hillebrand, _Gesch. Frankreichs_ (1830-1870); Adams,

_Democracy and Monarchy in France_; Stein, _Gesch. der

Sozialen Bewegung in Frankreich_; Guizot, _Memoirs of His Own

Time_ (1807-1848) (4 vols.); Delord, _Hist. du Second Empire_

(6 vols.); Zevort, _Hist. de la 3'me Republique_ (4 vols.);

Hanotaux, _Contemporary France_ (Vol. I.); Bodley, _France_

(2 vols.); Simon, _The Government of M. Thiers_ (from 1871-1873)

(2 vols.).

Works on the History of England. Harriet Martineau, _The History of

England_ (1800-1854); Walpole, _A History of England_, from

1815 (6 vols., 1878-1880); Molesworth, _The History of England_

(1830-1874); Justin McCarthy, _A History of Our Own Times_

(1878-1880); Kinglake, _The Invasion of the Crimea_ (6 vols.);

Seeley, _The Expansion of England_; Rutherford, _The Fenian

Conspiracy_; Richey, _The Irish Land Laws_; King, _The

Irish Question_; Morley, _Life of Gladstone_, 3 vols. (1903)

(an able historical review).

Works on History of the United States. Benton, _Thirty Year's

View_ [1820-1850]; Johnston, _History of American Politics_;

DE TOCQUEVILLE, _Democracy in America_ (2 vols.); Thorpe,

_Constitutional History of the American People_ (2 vols.);

Roosevelt, _Winning of the West_ (4 vols); Stanwood, _A

History of the Presidency_; Bryce, _The American

Commonwealth_ (2 vols).; Ostrogorski, _Democracy and the Origin

of Political Parties_ (2 vols.); Henry Adams, _History of the

United States_ (1800-1817, 9 vols.); Rhodes, _History of the

United States from the Compromise of 1850_ (4 vols.); Wilson,

_Division and Reunion_; Burgess, _The Middle Period, The Civil

War and the Constitution _(2 vols.); Dunning, _Essays on the

Civil War and Reconstruction_; Bolles, _Financial History of the

United States_ (3 vols.); Wilson, _History of the Rise and Fall

of the Slave Power_; Blaine, _Twenty Years in Congress_;

Histories of the Civil War, by the Count of Paris (2 vols.), by

Roper, by J. W. Draper, by H. Greeley, by A. H. Stephens, by

E. A. Pollard (_The Lost Cause_); Swinton's _Twelve Decisive

Battles of the _[_Civil_] _War_; _Memoirs of

Gen. W. T. Sherman,_ by himself; Grant, _Personall Memoirs_

(2 vols.); John Sherman, _Recollections_ (2 vols.); Moore,

_The Rebellion Record_ (1861-1871); Biography of

_Gallatin_, by H. Adams; of _Jackson_, by Parton, by

W. G. Sumner; of _Madison_, by Rives; of _J. Q. Adams_, by

Morse; of _Josiah Quincy_, by Edmund Quincy; of _Webster_,

by G. T. Curtis, by Lodge; of _Clay_, by Schurz; of

_Calhoun_, by Crallé; of _Sumner_, by E. L. Pierce; of

_Lincoln_, by Nicolay and Hay, by Morse; of _Seward_, by

Fr. Brancroft; of _W. L. Garrison_, by O. Johnson, by

W. P. Garrison; _The American Commonwealths_, a series of

histories of the separate States (edited by H. E. Scudder); writings

of J. Q. Adams, Webster, Clay, Calhoun, E. Everett, C. Sumner,

W. H. Seward; John Fiske, _American Political Ideas_.

Literary Biographies. _Life of Walter Scott_, by Lockhart; of

Jeffrey, by Cockburn; of Macaulay, by Trevelyan; of Arnold, by

Stanley; of Dickens, by Forster; of Carlyle, by Froude; of George

Eliot [Mrs. Lewes], by Cross. _Life of Irving_, by P. M. Irving;

of Bryant, by Parke Godwin; _Life and Letters of George Ticknor;

Life of Ripley_, by Frothingham; Series of "American Men of

Letters," including _Washington Irving_, by Warner;

_Cooper_, by T. R. Lounsbury; _Emerson_, by O. W. Holmes,

etc.

Argyll, _The Eastern Question, 1856 to 1858 and the Second Afghan

War_; Taylor, _Russia before and after the War_ [of 1877]

(1880); _Daily News Correspondence of the War between Russia and

Turkey_ [1877-78] (2 vols.); Baker Pasha, _War in Bulgaria_

(2 vols.); Wallace, _Egypt and the Egyptian Question_; Malleson,

_History of Afghanistan_; Labilliere, _Early History of the

Colony of Victoria_ (2 vols.); Grant and Knollys, _The China War

of 1860_; Scott, _France and Tongking_ [in 1884]; Vambéry,

_Central Asia_; Stanley, _Congo and the Founding of its Free

State_ (2 vols.).

Rae, _Contemporary Socialism_; Woolsey, _Communism and

Socialism_; Laveleye, _Le Socialisme Contemporain_ (10th

ed.); Schaeffle, _Quintessens des Socialismus_; A. Menger,

_Das Recht auf den vollen Arbeitsertrag_ (2d ed.).

End of Project Gutenberg's Outline of Universal History, by George Park Fisher