GERMANY: THE HOLY ALLIANCE.--The years of peace which followed the

_War of Liberation_ produced a signal increase of thrift and of

culture in Germany. But they brought also a grievous disappointment of

ardent political hopes. There was a feeling of national brotherhood,

which that struggle had engendered,--such a feeling as Germans had not

experienced for centuries before. Constitutional government and German

unity were objects of earnest desire. _Frederick William III._,

the king of Prussia (1797-1840), had promised his people a

constitution. But the two emperors, _Francis I._ of Austria and

_Alexander_ of Russia, together with _Frederick William_,

had, at the instigation of _Alexander_,--whose mind was tinged

with religious mysticism,--formed at Paris (Sept. 26, 1815) _"the

Holy Alliance,"_ a covenant in which they pledged themselves, in

dealing with their subjects and in their international relations, to be

governed by the rules of Christian justice and charity. They invited

all the potentates of Europe, except the Sultan and the Pope, to become

parties to this sacred compact. With the exception of _George

IV_., the Prince Regent of England, the sovereigns complied with the

request. This alliance, which was sincerely meant by _Alexander_,

was popularly confused with the alliance of _Austria, Russia,

Prussia, England,_ and _France,_ the aim of which was to

prevent further revolutions. _Francis I.,_ who lived until 1835,

was stubbornly averse to every movement that in the least favored

popular freedom and constitutional government. Supreme in his counsels

for a whole generation was _Metternich_, not a profound statesman,

but an expert diplomatist, who labored, generally with success, to

stifle every effort for an increase of freedom in Germany, and

elsewhere on the Continent. In the smaller German states, especially

those which had belonged to the _Confederacy of the Rhine_, there

was a disposition to found a constitutional system; but the Prussian

government followed in the wake of Austria, and Austria stood in the

way of every such innovation.

AGITATION AND REACTION.--The agitation for liberty was specially rife

among the students in the German universities. A demonstration by them

at the _Wartburg_ (1817), in commemoration of _Luther_ and of

the victory over Napoleon at _Leipsic,_--in which there were songs

and speeches, and a burning of anti-liberal books,--was noticed by the

Prussian and Austrian ministers; and the alleged revolutionary

movements of students were denounced by the Emperor

_Alexander_. This reactionary zeal was whetted by the murder of

_Kotzebue_, a German poet, who was hated as a tool of Russia and a

foe of liberty, and was assassinated by _Karl Sand_, a fanatical

Prussian student (March 23, 1819). Young _Sand_ was executed for

the deed, but his fate drew out many expressions of pity and

sympathy. The Diet of the confederacy (Sept. 20, 1819) adopted what

were called _the Carlsbad Resolutions_, which provided for a more

rigid censorship of the press, committees of investigation to suppress

revolutionary agitation, and a strict supervision of the universities

by the governments. All the states were required to enforce these

regulations. The liberal party, the party of freedom and unity, still

subsisted, especially in the smaller states, where some of the princes,

as _William I_. of _Würtemberg_ (1819-1864) and _Louis

I_. of _Bavaria_ (1825-1848), entertained comparatively liberal

views.

FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XVIII.--The Congress of _Aix-la-Chapelle_

(1818) withdrew the army of occupation left by the allies in France.

The Pentarchy, or Five Great Powers, pledged themselves to the

continued maintenance of peace by means of conferences and

congresses. _Louis XVIII_. (1814-1824), although inactive, was not

void of good sense, and was disposed to accommodate himself to the

times. But the court party, with his brother the _Count d'Artois_

at its head, were unyielding in their despotic ideas. They were for

restoring the system of the old monarchy. The increase in the liberal

members of the Chamber, or legislative assembly, impelled

_Richelieu_, the head of the ministry, to resign (Dec., 1818). A

more liberal man, _Decazes_, succeeded him. He was supported by a

party which arose at this time, called _Doctrinaires_ on account

of a certain pedantic spirit, and a disposition to shape political

action by preconceived theories or ideas, which was imputed to them. In

their ranks were _Royer-Collard, Guizot, Villemain, Barante_, and

others. They advocated a constitutional monarchy. Among the liberals

not affiliated with them was _La Fayette_, who encouraged the

_Charbonniers_, a secret society for promoting liberty, that had

its origin in Italy.

TYRANNY IN SPAIN.--In 1820 revolts broke out against the Bourbon

governments in _Spain_ and _Italy_. _Ferdinand VII_. had

been restored to liberty by _Napoleon_ in 1814, and had returned

to the Spanish throne. In 1812 the Cortes had established a

constitution with a system of parliamentary government, limited

prerogatives being left to the king. In favor of the new system were

the educated and enlightened class generally. But--as was not the case

in Germany--the uprising against _Napoleon_ in Spain had owed its

strength very much to the ignorant and superstitious peasantry, who,

while they hated the foreign yoke, clung to the feudal and

ecclesiastical abuses which the French rulers in Spain, as far as time

and opportunity permitted, swept away. _Ferdinand_ thus had a

strong support in his movement to bring back the former bigoted and

exclusive system. He wrested the national property from the holders to

whom it had been sold. He restored the Inquisition: not less than fifty

thousand individuals were imprisoned for their opinions. From his

tyranny ten thousand Spaniards escaped into France.

SOUTH AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE.--The French usurpation in Spain cost that

country its American colonies. They would not submit to the French

sovereignty, and after its fall maintained their

independence. _Buenos Ayres_ broke loose from Spain in 1810, and

in 1816 joined the Plate states in a confederation. _Paraguay_

declined a union with Buenos Ayres, and continued under the patriarchal

absolutism introduced by the Jesuits, _Dr. Francia_ being its

ruler until his death (1840). _Uruguay_ became a republic distinct

from Buenos Ayres in 1828. In the northern colonies, the principal hero

of the struggle for independence was _Simon Bolivar_, who sprang

from a noble Creole family. He first fought for the independence of

Venezuela (1810), but was made by _New Granada_ its general in

1812, and became president of the two countries, which were united

under the name of _Colombia_ (1819). _Quito_ was now taken,

and Peru was set free from the Spanish rule. Upper Peru, in 1825, was

named, in honor of the "Liberator," _Bolivia_. He found it

impracticable to connect the different states in one confederacy, and

closed his eventful life in 1830. _Colombia_ divided itself into

the three states, _Venezuela_, _New Granada_, and

_Ecuador_ (1831).

MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE.--After the year 1808, there were various attempts

at revolution in _Mexico_. In 1821 its independence was achieved

by an insurrection under _Iturbide_, a native Mexican. He failed

in the effort to make himself emperor (1822); and the Republic of

Mexico was organized in 1824, and was recognized by the United States

in 1829.

MILITARY REVOLT IN SPAIN.--The loss of her American colonies, and the

efforts to restore them, reduced Spain to extreme poverty. In 1820 a

successful military insurrection, led by _Quiroga_, _Riego_,

and _Mina_, proclaimed anew the constitution of

1812. _Ferdinand_, who was capable of any amount of hypocrisy as

well as cruelty, swore to uphold it. The revolution was supported by

the intelligent class of people, but the defenders of it were split

into different parties. The clergy and the peasantry were arrayed on

the other side. Guerilla bands were organized under the name of the

"Army of the Faith."

CONGRESS OF VERONA.--The military revolt in Spain alarmed the Great

Powers. The three sovereigns were now leagued for the defense of "the

throne and the altar;" for _Alexander_, who had shown liberal

inclinations on the subject of the emancipation of the serfs, and even

towards _Greece_ in its aspiration for independence, now recoiled

from every thing that savored of freedom. At the Congress of

_Verona_ (Oct., 1822), the sovereigns resolved to interfere in

Spain. The _Duke of Wellington_ declined to concur with them, and,

on his return from the congress, advised _Louis XVIII._ to take

the same course.

ENGLAND: CANNING.--_George IV._ (1820-1830) had been regent since

1810. Already unpopular, he became still more so in consequence of his

abortive effort (1820) to procure a divorce from _Queen Caroline_,

whom he had married at the demand of his father (1795). She was not

allowed to be present at his coronation. On account of the profligacy

of her husband, there was a strong sympathy with her, although she was

a coarse-minded woman. For a number of years after the Peace of 1815,

the English government resisted movements towards reform at home; and

in its foreign policy, under the guidance of _Castlereagh_, it

sustained the reactionary cause abroad. Disaffection towards the

ministers gave rise to a plot, contrived by some desperate men, to

destroy them in a body. It was detected; and _Thistlewood_, with

some of his confederates, was executed (1820). On the death of _Lord

Castlereagh_ in 1822, _Canning_, a disciple of _Pitt_,

became foreign secretary. He adopted a more liberal policy, and worked

against the schemes of Metternich for interference in the affairs of

foreign states. He transferred England, says Guizot, "from the camp of

resistance and of European order into the camp of liberty."

THE REBELLION CRUSHED IN SPAIN.--The French unwisely rejected

England's advice. _Louis XVIII_. sent an army into Spain, under

the _Duke of Angoulême_, released _Ferdinand_ at Cadiz, and

gave him the power to revoke all that he had done in favor of

liberty. The brave _Riego_ was hung on a gibbet of enormous

height. The Spanish army was disbanded, and the "Army of the Faith"

took its place. Many thousands of constitutionalists were thrown into

prison. _Canning_ recognized the republics of South America, lest

they, too, should fall under French control. It was his boast, that he

"called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the

Old."

PORTUGAL: BRAZIL.--The royal family of Portugal were residing in

_Brazil_ when the Spanish revolution occurred. Portugal, in the

absence of King _John VI_., framed a liberal constitution. The

Brazilians were eager for independence from Portugal. _John_

decided to withdraw. Arrived in Portugal, he accepted the new

constitution; but the anti-revolutionary party rallied about his son

_Dom Miguel_, who was supported by his mother, a sister of

_Ferdinand VII_, of Spain. _Dom Miguel_ was at length driven

into exile, and went to _Vienna_. Meantime _Dom Pedro_, a son

of _John VI_., had made himself emperor in Brazil by allying

himself with the constitutional party; and _John_ was prevailed on

by the British, in 1825, to recognize the new South American empire.

NAPLES AND SICILY.--In all the eight principalities of Italy, except in

Tuscany, the misrule of the restored governments was galling to the

people, whose hope of freedom had been raised only to be cast

down. Everywhere the tyrannical influence of _Austria_ was

dominant. The rulers in Italy were slavishly submissive to her will;

and any rising of the people, if not put down by them, was crushed by

Austrian forces sent down from Lombardy. Secret societies sprung up;

the chief of which, the _Carbonari_, aimed at national

independence, but beyond that cherished no definite, united

purpose. The Spanish revolution served as the occasion for a similar

rebellion of the soldiery of _Naples_. A new liberal constitution

was established, which _Ferdinand IV_. (July 13, 1820) solemnly

swore to maintain. The insurrection in Sicily aimed at independence,

but Palermo was surrendered to the revolutionary government of

_Naples_. The Neapolitan rebellion led to the Congress of

_Troppau_ (Oct., 1820), which was transferred to _Laybach_

(Jan., 1821). There Austria, Prussia, and Russia formed a league, the

fruit of which was, that an Austrian army of sixty thousand men marched

into the South of Italy, and the revolution was

crushed. _Ferdinand_ reëstablished his despotism, disbanded the

greater part of his army, and punished with exile, imprisonment, and

death the leading supporters of the constitution which he had taken an

oath to defend.

SARDINIA.--In Piedmont, the demand for a constitution and a rising at

_Alessandria_ impelled _Victor Emmanuel I_. to abdicate in

favor of his brother, _Charles Felix_, who was favorable to

Austria and her policy. Prince _Charles Albert_,--a distant

cousin,--who had liberal views, held the regency for a few months; but

_Charles Felix_, on his return from _Modena_ (Oct., 1821),

governed according to despotic principles. The contest in Italy between

"despots and conspirators" went on until the renewed outbreakings of

revolt in 1830.

THE GREEK INSURRECTION.--The weakness of Turkey emboldened the Greeks

to attempt to throw off the hated Ottoman yoke. The sultans had become

the puppets of their guards, the janizaries. One after another of them

had been dethroned by their soldiers. The pashas were insubordinate: in

Egypt, _Mehemet Ali_ had almost made himself independent. Russia,

by the Peace of _Bucharest_ in 1812, had possessed herself of

_Bessarabia_ and of Eastern _Moldavia_ as far as the

_Pruth_. Among the Greeks, who were not more than a million in

number, and were only one among the various peoples subject to Turkey,

there were formed _Hetaireiai_, or secret societies, for the

purpose of organizing an insurrection. The people were first summoned

to rise by _Alexander Ypsilanti_ (1821). A "national congress"

promulgated a new constitution for Greece (1822). Great enthusiasm in

behalf of the Greek cause was awakened in most of the civilized

countries; but the _Congress of Verona_ (1822), inspired by

_Metternich_, decided to give no help to the "insurgents." In the

war of the Greeks with the Turks, there were atrocities committed on

both sides. _Scio_ was taken by the latter in 1822. Not far from

twenty thousand of the inhabitants were massacred, and twice that

number were enslaved. In 1824 the Greeks began to receive foreign

help. Among those who volunteered with a chivalrous sympathy to aid

them in their combat was _Lord Byron_, who died at

_Missolonghi_ (1824). _Nicholas I_. of Russia, who in 1825

succeeded _Alexander I_., was more inclined to take an active part

in the Greek contest, as he considered himself the head of all

Christians of the Greek faith. The Sultan _Mahmoud II_., by

crushing the janizaries, strengthened himself at home, but weakened his

means of attack and defense abroad. In 1826 he made important

concessions to _Russia_; among other things, allowing her to

occupy the east coast of the Black Sea, and giving to her vessels a

free admission to Turkish waters.

GREEK INDEPENDENCE.--_Mehemet Ali_ hoped to succeed

_Mahmoud_. His son _Ibrahim_ had defeated the Greeks at

_Navarino_ (1825). The next year, in conjunction with the Turks,

he captured _Missolonghi_. The apprehension that _Nicholas_

might seek to divide Turkey with _Mehemet Ali_ caused the

_Treaty of London_ to be concluded by the Great Powers which

founded the kingdom of _Greece_ (July 6, 1827). England, Russia,

and France joined in executing the treaty. They destroyed the

Turkish-Egyptian fleet at _Navarino_ (Oct. 20). Later,

_Nicholas_ waged a separate war with the Porte, which was

terminated by the Peace of _Adrianople_ (1829), when the latter

recognized the independence of Greece. The crown of Greece was accepted

in 1832 by _Otho_, son of Louis of Bavaria.

CHAPTER II. EUROPE FROM THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 TO THE REVOLUTIONARY

EPOCH OF 1848.

CHARLES X.--_Louis XVIII_. died in 1824. His brother, _Charles

X_. (1824-30), dealt generously with the collateral branch of the

Bourbons, the house of _Orleans_. He restored to _Louis

Philippe_, the son of that _Philip Egalite_ whose base career

was ended by the guillotine (p. 512), the vast estates of the Orleans

family, and gave him the title of "Royal Highness." But he failed to

secure the cordial support of this ambitious relative. The _Duke of

Orleans_ stood well with the king, but was on good terms with the

liberal leaders. The king sought to reinstate the ideas and ways of the

old _régime_. He was specially zealous in behalf of ecclesiastics,

and ceremonies of devotion. But liberal views in politics gained ground

in the second Chamber, as well as in the army and among the people. A

liberal ministry under _Martignac_ was in power for a while; but

in 1829 it was succeeded by a ministry the head of which was the

unpopular Prince _Polignac_, and the other principal members of

which were hardly less obnoxious. They represented the extreme

reactionary and royalist party. Their active opponents--_Guizot_,

_Thiers_, and _Benjamin Constant_ among them--found that

their assaults on the government were generally applauded. All of these

were brilliant political writers. _Constant_ (from 1825) had been

the leader of the opposition. _Thiers_ was a journalist of wide

influence. _Guizot_ had held office under the liberal ministers,

and as lecturer on modern history, and by his writings, had laid the

foundation of the great distinction which he deservedly gained, as one

of the foremost students and expounders of history in recent

times. _Thiers_ and _Guizot_ were at this time united in the

advocacy of a constitutional system, as opposed to the reactionary

policy and the personal government to which the king and his ministers

were committed. Later we shall see that the paths of these two

statesmen diverged. In 1830 _Guizot_ was the opposition leader in

the Chamber of Deputies. In the Chamber of Peers, the ministry was

attacked by _Chateaubriand_, who had been a valuable supporter of

the Bourbon cause, and by others. The Chambers were dissolved by the

king. The capture of _Algiers_, in a war against the piratical

power of which it was the seat, did not avail to lessen the growing

hostility to his government. It found expression through the press and

in speeches at a great banquet.

ORDINANCES OF ST. CLOUD.--Taking advantage of the provision in the

charter which gave extraordinary powers to the king for special

emergencies (p. 537), the ministry took the fatal step (July 25, 1830)

of issuing the "ordinances of St. Cloud," dissolving the Chamber of

Deputies, further restricting the suffrage so that many merchants and

manufacturers lost this privilege, and reëstablishing the censorship

of the press in a peculiarly burdensome form.

THE JULY REVOLUTION.--The ordinances were published on July 26. That

evening Prince _Polignac's_ windows were broken by a mob. The

whole city of Paris was in a tumult. The liberal journals

protested. There were collisions between the mob and the king's

troops. A protest of the liberal deputies, who met at the house of

_Casimir Perier_, was issued. In the night the people armed

themselves. _La Fayette_ arrived in Paris. On the 28th students,

workmen, and all classes of citizens, armed themselves with whatever

weapons they could lay hold of. The revolutionists took possession of

the Hôtel de Ville. The cry was that the charter was violated. All

efforts to induce the king to make concessions failed. Many of the

soldiers in Paris fraternized with the people, who on the 29th had

control of the whole city, except the vicinity of the Tuileries, which

they gained possession of that evening. _La Fayette_, at the call

of the deputies, assumed command of the National Guard. Finally, when

it was too late, the king decided to withdraw the ordinances, and to

change the ministry. _Thiers_ and _Mignet_ caused anonymous

placards to be posted, proposing that the _Duke of Orleans_ should

take the crown from the people. On the 30th _Louis Philippe_

entered Paris on foot: he had passed the summer at his country place at

_Neuilly_. _Talleyrand_,--whose influence was great with

foreign courts,--_Lafitte_, and _Thiers_ were active in the

effort to advance him to the throne. The deputies decided that he must

be made lieutenant-general of the kingdom. _Charles X._, who still

blindly confided in him, on the 31st appointed him to this office. What

the intentions of _Louis Philippe_ were, is not clear. He probably

meant to be governed by circumstances. On the 29th a municipal

commission was installed at the Hôtel de Ville, consisting of _La

Fayette_ and six other leading men. They selected several persons as

officials whose authority was generally acknowledged. _Louis

Philippe_, at the head of the deputies, went to the Hôtel de

Ville. He was cordially received by _La Fayette_ and his

associates. It was agreed that there should be "a popular throne, with

free institutions." On the balcony, under the tri-color flag, the Duke

of Orleans was introduced as "the man of the people." _La

Fayette_ felt that a republic would be contrary to the national

wish. _Thiers_ was of the same mind. They feared complications and

contests abroad, and what might be the results of general suffrage, in

the existing state of the country, at home.

FLIGHT OF CHARLES X.--The desertion of _Charles X._ by his troops

would have rendered an armed contest on his part impracticable. The

dexterous management of _Louis Philippe_ was made effectual by the

favoring circumstances. On Aug. 2 the king abdicated in favor of his

grandson, the _Duke of Bordeaux_, and was compelled to fly from

the kingdom. The volunteer army had been stirred up to go out to

_Rambouillet_ to drive him away. The angry old king did not wait

for their coming.

LOUIS PHILIPPE MADE KING.--The Chamber of Deputies declared the throne

vacant. They altered the charter,--putting all religious bodies on a

level, giving freedom to the press, limiting the powers of the king,

and giving to the Chambers, as well as to him, the initiative in

framing laws. They chose _Louis Philippe_ "King of the French."

He owed his elevation to the middle classes, and claimed to be the

"citizen king."

SEPARATION OF BELGIUM.--The effect of the new revolution was to set in

motion the elements of discontent in the other European

countries. _Belgium_ was the first to feel the shock. The Belgians

were restless under the rule of _William I._, whose treatment of

them aggravated the disaffection which their political relation to

Holland constantly occasioned. A revolt broke out at _Brussels_.

The offer of a legislative and administrative separation of

_Belgium_ from _Holland_, with one king over both, might have

been accepted if it had been made earlier; but it followed unsuccessful

efforts to quell the insurrection by force. A provisional government

was created at _Brussels_, which proclaimed the independence of

_Belgium_ (Oct. 4), and convoked a national congress. France

confined itself to preventing the interference of foreign powers. A

conference of ministers at _London_ (Jan., 1831) recognized the

new state, which adopted a liberal constitution. _Leopold I._ of

_Saxe-Coburg_ was chosen king. He was aided by the forces of the

French; but the war with Holland lasted until 1833, and it was not

until 1839 that Holland definitely accepted the action of the London

congress.

POLAND.--Poland was harshly ruled for the Czar by the Grand Duke

_Constantine_. The revolution in France was the signal for a

Polish rising, that began in an unsuccessful attempt of students and

others to seize the person of the grand duke. The insurrection spread:

men of talents and distinction, as well as Polish soldiers, joined the

cause of the people. The Czar, _Nicholas_, would make no terms

with the insurgents, and the Diet (Jan. 25, 1831) declared him to have

forfeited the Polish crown. The Poles fought with desperate valor in a

series of bloody battles, only to be overwhelmed by superiority of

numbers. They were defeated at _Ostrolenka_ by _Diebitsch_

(May 26). After his death, _Warsaw_ surrendered to

_Paskievitch_ (Sept. 8), and another Russian general entered

_Cracow_. _Poland_ was now reduced, as far as it could be, to

a Russian province. The army was merged in the Russian forces; the

university was suppressed; the Roman Catholic religion, the prevailing

faith, was persecuted; and it was computed that in one year (1832)

eighty thousand Poles were sent to Siberia.

GERMANY: HUNGARY.--In Saxony and in the minor states of Germany,

disturbances were consequent on the tidings of the revolution at

Paris. Prussia and Austria were little affected by it; but the demands

of the Diet in _Hungary_, when _Ferdinand_, the son of

_Francis I._ was crowned king of that country, were an augury of a

far greater commotion to arise at a later day. In the Diet of 1832

_Louis Kossuth_ first appeared as a member. Between the years 1828

and 1834, the German states (not including Austria), under the guidance

of Prussia and Bavaria, formed a _Zollverein_, or customs-union,

which was an important step in the direction of German unity, and one

which Austria looked on with disfavor.

ITALY.--In 1831, there were signs of revolt in different states of

Italy. At _Modena_, a provisional government was erected. The same

thing was done at _Bologna_. _Maria Louisa_ was driven out of

_Parma_. Among those who joined the insurgents in the Papal

Kingdom were _Napoleon_ and his younger brother _Louis

Bonaparte_, sons of _Louis Bonaparte_ king of Holland. The

elder of the sons died soon after at _Forli_. The Italians relied

on the help of _Louis Philippe_, but the citizen king had no

disposition to engage in war with _Austria_. The uprisings were

put down with the assistance of Austrian troops. _Charles Albert_,

after April, 1831, king of _Sardinia_, did a good work in the

discipline of his army. Without any esteem for Austria, he refused to

further the plans of the revolutionary party, and thus incurred the

hostility of _Mazzini_, who was organizing the movement of "Young

Italy" for independence and unity. _Mazzini_, a man of elevated

spirit and disinterested aims, was long to be known as the head of the

republican patriots and plotters.

ENGLAND.--In _England_, reform went forward peacefully. The middle

class gradually obtained its demands. The national debt, at the close

of the wars with Napoleon, amounted to nearly eight hundred millions of

pounds. In 1823, with the accession of _Mr. Huskisson_ to office,

began the movement for a more free commercial policy, which led in the

end to the repeal of the corn-laws. The question of "Catholic

disabilities" was agitated from time to time, and something had been

done to lighten them. Yet in 1828 Catholics were still shut out by law

from almost every office of trust and distinction. They could not sit

in either house of Parliament. The endeavors of liberal statesmen for

their relief were defeated by the Tory majorities. The agitation was

increased by the "Catholic Association" formed in Ireland by the Irish

leader and orator, _Daniel O'Connell_. A Tory ministry was formed

by the _Duke of Wellington_, with Mr. (afterwards _Sir_)

Robert _Peel_ for its chief supporter in the House of Commons

(1829). Yet, to avert the danger of civil war, the ministry introduced,

and with aid of the Whigs carried, the "Catholic Emancipation Bill."

THE REFORM BILL.--On the death of _George IV._, _William

IV._, his brother (1830-1837), succeeded to the throne. He was

favorable to parliamentary reform. The ferment on this subject caused

the resignation of the _Wellington_ ministry, which was succeeded

by the ministry of Earl _Grey_. A bill for reform was presented to

Parliament, depriving eighty-eight "rotten or decayed" boroughs, where

there were very few inhabitants, of a hundred and forty-three members

of the House of Commons, who were given to counties or to large towns,

such as _Birmingham_ and _Manchester_, which had no

representation. At the same time the franchise was greatly

extended. The bill was strenuously resisted by the Tories, who now

began to be called _Conservatives_. Its repeated rejection by the

House of Lords caused a violent agitation. Finally, in 1832, when it

was understood that the king would create new peers enough to pass the

measure, it was carried in the upper house, and became a law.

SLAVERY ABOLISHED.--In 1833 the system of slavery in the British

colonies was abolished, twenty million pounds being paid as a

compensation to the slave-owners. This measure was the result of an

agitation in which _Wilberforce_, _Clarkson_, and

_Buxton_ had been foremost.

In the latter part of the eighteenth century, a strong feeling arose

against the slave-trade. _Granville Sharp_ (1734-1813) was one of

the earliest promoters of its abolition. By his agency, in the case of

a negro,--_Somerset_,--claimed as a slave, the decision was

obtained from Lord _Mansfield_, that a slave could not be held in

England, or carried out of it. The Quakers were early in the field in

opposition to the traffic in slaves. In the House of Commons,

_Wilberforce_, a man of earnest religious convictions and one of

the most eloquent orators of his time, contended against it for

years. His friend _Pitt_, and _Fox_, joined him in 1790. The

measure of abolition was carried in 1807. Then followed the agitation

for the abolition of slavery itself. The slave-trade was made illegal

by France in 1819. It had been condemned by the Congress of Vienna. In

the French colonies, slavery continued until 1848.

LEGAL REFORMS.--In the same year the monopoly of the East-India Company

was abolished, and trade with the East was made free to all

merchants. A new _Poor Law_ (1834) checked the growth of

pauperism. In 1835, by the _Municipal Corporations Act_, the

ancient rights of self-government by the towns, which had been lost

since the fourteenth century, were restored to them. Civil marriage was

made legal, in compliance with a demand of the Dissenters, who were

likewise relieved of other grounds of complaint (1836). Increased

attention began to be paid to popular education.

CHARTISM.--Notwithstanding the constitutional changes in England, the

distress and discontent of the poorer classes occasioned the riotous

"Chartist" movement in 1839, when universal suffrage, annual

parliaments, and other radical changes were in vain demanded. Mass

meetings were held, and outbreakings of violence were feared; but order

was preserved.

CHINA: AFGHANISTAN.--A war with China (1839) had no better ground than

the refusal of the Chinese government to allow the importation of

opium. The occupation of _Kabul_ in 1839 caused a general revolt

of the Afghans. A British army was destroyed in the _Khyber

Pass_. The British then conquered, but did not care to retain,

Afghanistan.

REPEAL OF THE CORN LAWS.--_Victoria_, the only child of the Duke

of Kent, the brother of _William IV._, succeeded the latter in

1837. She married her cousin, _Albert_ of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

(1840). In 1846 the party which had long advocated free trade gained a

triumph in the repeal of the _Corn Laws_, which had existed since

1815, imposing duties on imported grain. In the agitation which

preceded the repeal, _Richard Cobden_ was the leader: he was

effectively aided by _John Bright_. But the measure was carried by

_Sir Robert Peel_, who on this question abandoned his former views

and those of the Conservatives, by whom he had been raised to power. He

was bitterly assailed, especially by _D'Israeli_, who was rising

to the position of a leader among them.

LOUIS PHILIPPE.--Louis Philippe made up his first ministry from the

party which had raised him to the throne. Among its members were

_Broglie_, _Guizot_, and _Casimir Périer_. The king

aimed by shrewd management to maintain his popularity at home, and to

keep the peace with foreign powers, by taking care to encourage liberal

movements abroad, yet without taking any step in that direction which

would bring on war. He did nothing for the _Poles_ in their mortal

struggle, and nothing really effectual for the _Italians_. Several

abortive attempts upon his life were made by secret societies; one of a

dangerous character, by _Fieschi_ (1835), who fired "an infernal

machine" from his window when the king was passing. This was followed

by the "Laws of September," to curb the license of the press. They

reminded the public of the royalist laws of 1820. They were opposed by

the more liberal men: _Royer-Collard_ and _Villemain_ spoke

against them. They went by the name of the "Fieschi laws." An effort to

raise an insurrection among the French troops in _Strasburg_ was

made by _Louis Napoleon Bonaparte_ (1836), who, after his flight

from Italy, had resided in Switzerland, where he had busied himself in

study, and had written several books. The enterprise proved a

ridiculous failure: its author was allowed to go to America.

FRENCH POLICY IN THE EAST.--Various causes conspired to undermine

_Louis Philippe's_ government. One of these was its connection

with the war of _Mehemet Ali_ with the Sultan. In the former war

with his over-lord, the Sultan, the viceroy of Egypt had been invested

with _Syria_ as a fief. He now sent an army into Syria, under his

son _Ibrahim_, who overran that country, advanced victoriously

into Asia Minor, and threatened _Constantinople_ (1832). The

European powers intervened, and obliged _Mehemet Ali_ to content

himself with Syria, together with the district of _Adana_ in Asia

Minor, and the island of _Candia_, which the Sultan had ceded to

him before. In 1839 the Sultan tried to recover Syria, but encountered

an overwhelming defeat, and lost the entire Turkish fleet. England now

combined with Austria, Prussia, and Russia, and the Western powers once

more saved the Turkish Empire; although France, under the ministry of

_Thiers_, had strongly favored the cause of _Mehemet Ali_

(1840). Contrary to the wish of the French, he had to give up Syria. He

secured for himself and his descendants the pashalic of Egypt

(1841). The failure of the French policy in the East, by this action of

the _Quadruple Alliance_, caused indignation and chagrin in

France. Even _Thiers_, who was in sympathy with the cause of

Mehemet Ali, was loudly blamed. There was danger of a rupture with

England. _Thiers_ was a principal author of the plan for

fortifying Paris by encircling the city with forts. The king judged

that they might prove to be of use in putting down

insurrections. _Louis Napoleon_ thought the occasion favorable for

another attempt to seize the crown. He landed from England at

_Boulogne_ with a few followers, and proclaimed himself

emperor. He was captured, tried, and imprisoned in the fortress of Ham,

where he spent six years. His time there was mostly given to study and

writing. A few months before this attempt of _Louis Napoleon_, the

French government had arranged for the bringing of the body of the

first _Napoleon_ from _St. Helena_ to _Paris_. It was

one of various impolitic measures, in which _Thiers_ was actively

concerned, for doing honor to the emperor and his military

achievements. But at that time _Louis Napoleon_, who was known to

be a man of slow mind, but whose capacity for intrigue was not

understood, was regarded with contempt, and the Bonapartists excited no

alarm. In 1841, in the presence of the royal family and of a vast

concourse, the remains of _Napoleon_ were deposited with great

pomp in a magnificent tomb under the dome of the Church of the

Invalides. Marshal _Soult_ superseded _Thiers_ at the head of

the ministry (1840); but _Guizot_ was the ruling spirit in the

cabinet, and was associated with the king until his dethronement. The

death of the _Duke of Orleans_, the eldest son of _Louis

Philippe_, by a fall from his carriage (July 13, 1842), endangered

the new dynasty. The duke's eldest son, the _Count of Paris_, was

then only four years of age.

GUIZOT'S ADMINISTRATION.--From 1840 _Guizot_ was the principal

minister of _Louis Philippe_, and _Thiers_ was in the

opposition. They differed both as regards foreign and domestic

policy. _Thiers_, who in his convictions was a decided liberal,

and in full sympathy with the spirit of the French Revolution, was for

the extension of suffrage, and for making the influence of France felt

and respected in matters of European concern, even at the risk of war.

_Guizot_, on the contrary, clung to the English alliance, and he

considered that a foreign war--for example, in defense of _Mehemet

Ali_,--would be to France a great and needless calamity. Claiming to

be a fast friend of representative government, _Guizot_

nevertheless inflexibly resisted movements for the extension of popular

rights,--movements which he believed would lead, if they were not

withstood, to revolution and anarchy. On the one hand were the

legitimists, aiming at the restoration of the elder branch of the

Bourbons; on the other hand there were the republicans, who wished to

be rid of monarchy altogether. The government of _Louis Philippe_

satisfied neither. It served as a transition, or temporary

halting-place, in the progress of France towards the goal of rational

and stable republicanism, to which the great Revolution tended. It was

an "attempt to put new wine in old bottles." This inherent weakness of

the Orleans rule, it would have been difficult by any means to

neutralize in such a way as to avert, sooner or later, a

catastrophe. The unbending conservatism of _Guizot_--as seen, for

instance, in his refusal to extend suffrage--hastened this result. A

government over which less than half a million of voters of the middle

class alone had an influence, could not stand against the progressive

feeling of the country. The middle class, on which the throne depended,

became separated from the advanced party, to which the youth of France

more and more rallied. _Guizot_ was personally upright; but

official corruption was suffered to spread in the last years of his

administration, and bribery was used in the elections. These

circumstances, added to the mortification of national pride from the

little heed paid to France by the other powers, weakened the

throne. The failure of the government to support the cause of liberty

in _Poland_ and _Italy_ was another important source of its

growing unpopularity.

_Guizot_, in the personal _Memoirs_ written by him after the

fall of _Louis Philippe_, has defended himself against the charge

of a want of loyal support of _Thiers_, the head of the ministry,

while he (Guizot) was ambassador to England (1840). There was a private

understanding that he should go no farther than his sympathy with the

views of _Thiers_ extended. _Guizot_ has undertaken, also, to

show that a war in behalf of _Mehemet Ali_ would have been most

unwise; and that it was for the interest of France to regain its weight

in European affairs, not by the renewal of the bloody and fruitless

contests of the past, but by methods of peace. He deemed it his duty

not to give way to the "warlike tastes and inclinations" of the French

people. The effort, however, to tie down so spirited a nation to so

tame a policy, proved to be futile. The recollections of the empire,

which the government itself did so much to arouse, moved the people to

compare the achievements of the past with the humiliating position of

their country under the Orleans rule.

Guizot has left this interesting exposition of his principles and

policy: "In the diplomatic complication which agitated Europe, I saw

a brilliant opportunity of exercising and loudly proclaiming a

foreign policy, extremely new and bold in fact, though moderate in

appearance, the only foreign policy which in 1840 suited the peculiar

position of France and her government, as also the only course in

harmony with the guiding principles and permanent wants of the great

scheme of civilization to which the world of to-day aspires and

tends.

"The spirit of conquest, of propagandism, and of system, has hitherto

been the moving cause and master of the foreign policy of states. The

ambition of princes or peoples has sought its gratification in

territorial aggrandizement. Religious or political faith has

endeavored to expand by imposing itself. Great heads of government

have attempted to regulate the destinies of nations according to

profound combinations, the offspring rather of their own thought than

the natural result of facts. Let us cast a glance over the history of

international European relations. We shall see the spirit of

conquest, or of armed propagandism, or of some systematic design upon

the territorial organization of Europe, inspire and determine the

foreign policy of governments. Let one or other of these impulses

prevail, and governments have disposed arbitrarily of the fate of

nations. War has ever been their indispensable mode of action.

"I know that this course of things has been the fatal result of men's

passions; and that, in spite of those passions and the evils they

have inflicted on nations, European civilization has continued to

increase and prosper, and may increase and prosper still more. It is

to the honor of the Christian world, that evil does not stifle

good. I know that the progress of civilization and public reason will

not abolish human passions, and that, under their impulse, the spirit

of conquest, of armed propagandism, and of system, will ever

maintain, in the foreign policy of states, their place and

portion. But, at the same time, I hold for certain that these various

incentives are no longer in harmony with the existing state of

manners, ideas, interests, and social instincts; and that it is quite

possible to-day to combat and restrain materially their empire. The

extent and activity of industry and commerce; the necessity of

consulting the general good; the habit of frequent, easy, prompt, and

regular intercourse between peoples; the invincible bias for free

association, inquiry, discussion, and publicity,--these

characteristic features of great modern society already exercise, and

will continue to exercise more and more, against the warlike or

diplomatic fancies of foreign policy, a preponderating

influence. People smile, not without reason, at the language and

puerile confidence of the _Friends of Peace_, and of the

_Peace Societies_. All the leading tendencies, all the most

elevated hopes of humanity, have their dreams, and their idle, gaping

advocates, as they have also their days of decline and defeat; but

they no less pursue their course; and through all the chimeras of

some, the doubts and mockeries of others, society becomes

transformed, and policy, foreign and domestic, is compelled to

transform itself with society. We have witnessed the most dazzling

exploits of the spirit of conquest, the most impassioned efforts of

the spirit of armed propagandism; we have seen territories and states

molded and re-molded, unmade, re-made, and unmade again, at the

pleasure of combinations more or less specious. What survives of all

these violent and arbitrary works? They have fallen, like plants

without roots, or edifices without foundation. And now, when

analogous enterprises are attempted, scarcely have they made a few

steps in advance when they pause and hesitate, as if embarrassed by,

and doubtful of, themselves; so little are they in accord with the

real wants, the profound instincts, of existing society, and with the

persevering, though frequently disputed, tendencies of modern

civilization.... I repeat, our history since 1789, our endless

succession of shocks, revolutions, and wars, have left us in a state

of leverish agitation which renders peace insipid, and teaches us to

find a blind gratification in the unexpected strokes of a hazardous

policy. We are a prey to two opposing currents,--one deep and

regular, which carries towards the definite goal of our social state;

the other superficial and disturbed, which throws us here and there

in search of new adventures and unknown lands. Thus we float and

alternate between these two opposing directions,--called towards the

one by our sound sense and moral conviction, and enticed towards the

other by our habits of routine and freaks of imagination."

(_Memoirs of a Minister of State, from the year 1840_ pp. 7-9,

10.)

THE KING'S AVARICE.--The imputation of avarice to Louis Philippe was

one source of his increasing unpopularity. On his accession he had

handed over to his children the estates of the house of Orleans, in

order that, as private property, they might not be forfeited with the

loss of the crown. He was not content with increasing his wealth by

adding to it all the possessions of _Charles X_. and of the

_Duke of Bourbon_, but it was discovered that he was engaged in

business ventures. In providing for ample marriage settlements for his

children, he resorted to devices which gave offense to the Chamber of

Deputies and to the public. Yet writers like _Martin_, who are

strongly averse to his method of rule, clear him of blame in these

particulars, if he is to be judged by what is usual in a monarchical

system.

THE SPANISH MARRIAGES.--An event of consequence in relation to the fall

of Louis Philippe from power was the affair of the Spanish marriages,

which took place under the ministry of Guizot. The _Duke de

Montpensier_, the youngest son of the king, was married to the

sister of _Isabella II_. of Spain. The design, it was believed,

was, in the anticipated childlessness of the queen, to secure for his

heirs the Spanish crown.

_Ferdinand VII_. of Spain was an absolutist; but the extreme

monarchical party there wished for a king of more energy, and desired

to raise to the throne his brother _Don Carlos_. In 1830

_Ferdinand_, being then childless, was induced by his wife, the

daughter of _Ferdinand IV_. of Naples, to abrogate the Salic law

excluding females from the succession. Her daughter _Isabella_ was

born a few months later. After the death of the king (1833), the

_Carlists_ resisted the exclusion of their favorite from the

throne. _Don Carlos_ was proclaimed in the Basque provinces, and a

civil war arose. The queen, _Maria Christina_, as regent, was

supported by the _moderados_ (moderates) and the liberals, and was

allowed to recruit for her army in England and France. The leading

constitutionalist general, _Espartero_, was successful; and _Don

Carlos_ fled into France (1839). The queen regent allied herself

with the conservative wing of the progressive party (the

_moderados_); but insurrections at _Barcelona_ and

_Madrid_, in the interest of the radical wing, obliged her to make

_Espartero_, the head of the movement, prime minister (1840). His

administration greatly promoted the prosperity of the country. But the

conservatives and absolutists were against him; and, as the result of a

counter-insurrection, _Gen. Narvaez_, the leader of the

conservatives, became chief of the cabinet (1844); but he was dismissed

two years later. The constitution was divested of some of its liberal

features. The queen, _Isabella II_., had been declared of age by

the Cortes, and placed on the throne (Nov. 10, 1843). _Christina_,

her dissolute mother, returned from France, whither she had fled. In

the hope of securing the Spanish throne to the Orleans family, _Louis

Philippe_ arranged with _Christina_ to effect a marriage

between _Isabella_ and a weakling in body and mind, _Francis de

Assis_; and, at the same time, a marriage of his son, the _Duke de

Montpensier_, with her sister _Maria Louisa_ (Oct. 10,

1846). An Orleans prince would not have acquired the crown, even if

Louis Philippe had remained on the French throne, since a daughter was

born to Isabella in 1851.

There was loud complaint in England against the king and _Guizot_,

for the alleged violation of a promise in this affair. Their defense

was that _Lord Palmerston_, who succeeded _Aberdeen_, took a

very different position from that of this minister, which had been the

condition of the engagement. It was from _Palmerston's_ action

previously in the affair of Egypt, that the French were embittered, the

English alliance was weakened, and the policy of _Guizot_, who was

sincerely desirous to maintain this friendly relation, was discredited

at home.

FALL OF LOUIS PHILIPPE.--The scarcity of provisions in 1846 and 1847

provoked much discontent in France. "Bread riots" broke out in various

places. The liberal party, composed of diverse elements, organized

committees as one of their instruments of agitation in behalf of

political reform. The democratic and socialistic journals published

inflammatory discussions and appeals. The complaint of corruption among

officials grew louder. Communism had numerous votaries; and _M. Louis

Blanc_ was an apostle of socialism,--the theory that the government

should furnish work and maintenance to all of its subjects. Great

reform banquets were held, where the spirit was inimical to

_Guizot_,--who would yield nothing to the popular clamor,--and

hostile to the reactionary policy of the Orleans monarchy. The spark

that kindled the flames of revolution was the prohibition by

_Guizot_ of a great reform banquet appointed to be held on the 22d

of February, 1848, in the _Champs Elysées_, in which a hundred

thousand persons were expected to participate. On that day barricades

were thrown up in the streets, and there were some conflicts with the

municipal guard. These disturbances continued on the next day. The

king, who did not lack physical courage, evinced no firmness or

boldness in this crisis, dismissed _Guizot_ as a peace-offering,

and called upon Count _Molé_ to form a cabinet. _Molé_

declined; the riotous disturbances increased; and _Thiers_, on the

promise of the king to consent to the reforms demanded, undertook, when

it was too late, to take office, and try to pacify the people. Soldiers

began to fraternize with the mob. The king showed no spirit, but

abdicated in favor of his grandson, the _Count of Paris_. The

_Duchess of Orleans_ presented her two sons, the count and his

brother, before the Chamber of Deputies. But the motion for a

provisional government prevailed (Feb. 24). It consisted of _Dupont

de l'Eure, Lamartine_ the poet, _Arago, Ledru-Rollin_, and six

associates. It established itself in the Hotel de Ville. This act, and

the firmness and eloquence of _Lamartine_, prevented the

establishment of an ultra-republican, socialistic Directory. The middle

classes, alarmed on account of the displays of mob violence, rallied to

the support of _Lamartine_ and the party of order. _Louis

Philippe_ and his family were allowed to escape to England. There

_Guizot_ temporarily took up his abode. After a year, this "last

of the Huguenots" returned to France, where he died in 1874.

CONTEST WITH SOCIALISTS.--A concession was made to the socialists in

the establishment of government workshops, which turned out to be not

workshops at all, but mere excavations. A mob of the Red Republicans

was checked (April 16) by the National Guards. The National Assembly

voted for a republic. Another mob of socialists and communists was

suppressed (May 15). But the great contest came (June 23-26) when the

government dismissed a part of those given employment on public

works. The battle was severe; but the government troops under the

command of a patriotic general, _Cavaignac_, who was made dictator

during the struggle, subdued the insurgents. He was now appointed

president of the council, or chief of the executive commission.

THE REPUBLIC: LOUIS NAPOLEON.--Fear of communism and of mob violence

gave a new impetus to the conservative tendency. A republican

constitution, however, with a president holding for a term of four

years, was adopted. _Louis Napoleon_ was elected a member of the

assembly. He was chosen president of the republic, mainly by the votes

of the peasantry and common soldiers, and with the help of

_Thiers_ and others who thought him incapable, and desired to

bring about a restoration of the Orleans rule.

_Thiers_ was a personal enemy of

_Cavaignac_. "_Thiers_" says _Martin_, "did not feel

the same repulsion for the consulate and the empire as does the

present generation: he took Louis Napoleon for an inexperienced and

somewhat narrow-minded man, whom he could easily restrain and direct,

not guessing the determined obstinacy and prejudice hidden beneath

his heavy and commonplace exterior." (_Popular History of

France_ [from 1789], iii. 200.)

CHAPTER III. EUROPE, FROM THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 TO THE

AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1866).

DISTURBANCES IN GERMANY.--The effect of the revolution which dethroned

_Louis Philippe_ was felt like an electric shock through all

Europe. It was experienced immediately in the smaller states of

Germany. New ministries were installed, which were pledged to a liberal

policy. _Louis of Bavaria_ resigned the crown to his son

_Maximilian_. The _Grand Duke of Baden_ agreed to the demands

of a popular convention at _Mannheim_, and he placed a liberal

ministry in control of the government. _Prussia_ and

_Austria_ were thoroughly disturbed by the movement for freedom

and national unity. A rising in _Vienna_ (March 13-15), headed by

the students, compelled _Metternich_ to depart for safety to

England, the asylum of political exiles of every creed. The emperor

summoned a Diet to be chosen by popular suffrage, and went for safety

to _Innsbruck_ among his faithful Tyrolese. In _Berlin_, at

the same time, there were excited meetings, and conflicts in the

streets between the people and the soldiers. The Prussian king yielded

to the demand of the crowd which gathered before his palace on the 18th

of March, that the troops should be sent out of Berlin; but he did not

send them away until the next day, and after an attack had been made on

them from behind barricades. The ministry was dismissed, and a call was

issued for a National Assembly to be chosen by ballot.

THE FRANKFORT CONVENTION.--There was a gathering at _Frankfort_,

of about five hundred Germans, who organized themselves as a

provisional parliament under the presidency of _Mittermaier_

(March 31). They resolved to call a National Assembly, to be elected by

the German people. The Confederate Diet recognized the authority of the

provisional parliament.

THE FRANKFORT PARLIAMENT.--The National Assembly met on May 18, and

created a new provisional central government, with the Archduke _John

of Austria_ as its head. The Confederate Diet ceased to exist. But

the division of parties in the assembly, with respect to the system of

government for united Germany, gave rise to long and profitless

discussions. Differences of opinion as to the steps to be taken in a

war which had sprung up with Denmark, respecting the duchies of

_Schleswig_ and _Holstein_, made the strife of factions in

the parliament still more bitter.

NEW PRUSSIAN CONSTITUTION.--The Prussian National Assembly met on May

22. A hot contention arose between the moderate and the radical

parties. At length the king adjourned the assembly to meet in

_Brandenburg_; but the party of the "Left" (the radical party)

protested, and was soon dispersed by force. In Brandenburg a quorum

failed to meet. The government framed a constitution with two

chambers,--the second to be chosen by universal suffrage,--and called a

new parliament to consider it. The new parliament failed to agree with

the government, but another parliament met (Aug. 7, 1849). Mutual

concessions were made, and the king swore to maintain the new

constitution (Feb. 6, 1850).

AUSTRIA: END OF THE FRANKFORT ASSEMBLY.--The Diet of the Austrian

Empire was a confused assembly representing different

nationalities. _Kossuth_, an eloquent Hungarian deputy in the

lower house, demanded independence for his country. The _Slavonic

tribes_ resisted the supremacy of the _Magyars_. When the

emperor took active measures against these (Oct. 6), there was an

uprising in _Vienna_. The city was held by the revolutionists

until the 30th, when it was captured by the emperor after much

bloodshed. _Ferdinand I_ abdicated in favor of his young nephew,

_Francis Joseph_. The Frankfort Assembly debated the question,

what relation Austria should have to united Germany. A majority decided

(March 27, 1849) that a president should be appointed, whose office

should descend in his family, and that he should be styled "Emperor of

the Germans." The station was offered to _Frederick William of

Prussia_, but he declined it. The new constitution was not accepted

by the more important states. The assembly dwindled away through the

withdrawal or resignation of members, and, having adjourned to

_Stuttgart_, was finally dispersed by the Würtemberg government

(June 18). Its history was a grievous disappointment of ardent

hopes. The Prussians helped the _Saxon_, _Bavarian_, and

_Baden_ governments, to put down formidable and partially

successful popular insurrections in their states.

THE HUNGARIAN REVOLT.--Austria reduced her _German_ provinces to

subjection, and early in 1849 the _Italian_ provinces also. But a

great contest was to be waged with the _Hungarians_, who gathered

an army of one hundred thousand men, and gained decided advantages over

incompetent Austrian generals. But in the end Austria brought together

overwhelming forces and was aided by the intervention of _Russia,_

which sent an army into Hungary. The Hungarian general, _Gorgey,_

whom _Kossuth_ and the ministers had made dictator, surrendered at

_Vilagos_ (Aug. 13, 1849). _Kossuth_ and other Hungarian

patriots fled into Turkey. Hungary was dealt with as conquered

territory. The Austrian commander, _Haynau,_ treated the

vanquished people with brutal severity. The Hungarian constitution was

abolished. The general constitution of Austria was abrogated on

Dec. 31, 1851.

CONDITION OF ITALY.--_Charles Albert,_ the king of

_Piedmont,_ or _Sardinia,_ disliked the preponderance of the

Austrians, and desired to give his people good government, but was

disinclined to enter into the schemes of "Young Italy," composed of the

ardent republicans of whom _Mazzini_ was the chief. On this

account they were exasperated with him. On the contrary, a great part

of the "moderates" placed their hope for Italy in the Sardinian king

and his house. To one of these, _D'Azeglio,_ a nobleman of high

character, who reported to him, in 1845, the danger that revolutionary

risings against misrule in Italy would occur, and set forth the

necessity for a speedy remedy, the king said, "Make known to these

gentlemen, that they must be quiet and not move, for at present nothing

can be done; but let them be certain, that, if the occasion presents

itself, my life, the life of my sons, my arms, my treasure, my army,

all shall be devoted to the cause of Italy." In _Tuscany,_ there

was much less oppression than elsewhere, but even there the government

was despotic.

LIBERAL POLICY OF PIUS IX.--On the death of _Gregory XVI._ (1846),

Cardinal _Mastai Feretti_ was made Pope, and took the name of

_Pius IX._ He adopted a new and liberal policy. Prisoners for

political offenses were set free, an amnesty was proclaimed, and

improvements--including railroads--were promised. The "Gregoriani," who

were devoted to the old administrative system and to Austrian

predominance, were offended. The Roman people generally were full of

joy and hope. The extreme republicans were dissatisfied and

suspicious. On the occasion of disturbances, the Pope consented to the

formation of a National Guard, as the liberal party wished. The

consequence was, that Austrian troops were marched into his

territory. This movement roused _Charles Albert_ to espouse more

actively the Italian cause. In Tuscany the Liberals, with

_Ricasoli_ for a leader, drove the Grand Duke to measures of

reform. Austrian aggressions were more severely felt in _Parma_

and _Modena._ In _Palermo,_ there was a rising (Jan. 12)

against the unbearable tyranny of _Ferdinand II._ This was

followed by an insurrection in _Naples_ itself. The king was

obliged to grant to his people a constitution. The same boon was

granted by _Pius IX._, by the king of _Sardinia_, and by the

_Tuscan_ Grand Duke. Italy, it should be observed, was already on

fire with these revolutionary movements prior to the overthrow of the

government of _Louis Philippe_. The earliest popular

demonstrations at Milan were on Sept. 5 and 8, 1847.

EVENTS IN ITALY.--The revolt in _Vienna_ and in _Hungary_ in

1848 furnished the long-coveted occasion for the Italians to attack the

hated Austrian rule. _Lombardy_ flew to arms, and expelled the

Austrian troops. The _Venetians_ set up a provisional government

under _Daniele Manin_, their leader in the insurrection. The king

of Sardinia declared war against Austria. A multitude of Italian

volunteers rushed to his standard. But there was no national league;

his military management lacked skill; and after some successes he was

defeated by _Radetzky_, the Austrian general, at _Custozza_

(July 25). _Garibaldi_, who had been a sailor, but was now a

gallant and adventurous champion of the Italian movement, kept up the

contest in the mountains on the north. The Austrians were once more in

power. The refusal of the Pope to take part in hostilities against them

alienated the liberals. His best minister _Rossi_, who stood

midway between the extreme parties, was assassinated (Nov. 15). From

the disorder that reigned at _Rome, Pius IX._ escaped in the dress

of a common priest to _Gaeta_. The extreme democrats in

_Tuscany_ got the upper hand, and set up a provisional

government. In _Piedmont, Gioberti_, the minister, gave way to

_Ratazzi_, who was of the democratic school. But the dream of an

Italian confederation was dissipated by the great defeat of _Charles

Albert_ by _Radetzky_ at _Novara_ (March 23). The

broken-hearted king resigned his crown to his son, _Victor

Emmanuel_. In _Rome_, the government, after the flight of the

Pope, was lodged in an assembly elected by popular suffrage, with

triumvirs, of whom _Mazzini_ was the first. The French were not

disposed to allow the Austrians to dominate in the peninsula, and sent

an army under _Oudinot_, who captured _Rome_ from the

republicans, after a stubborn defense by _Garibaldi_. A French

garrison now occupied the city. The Pope, who had abandoned the idea of

political changes in the direction of Italian freedom and unity, was

brought back to the Vatican (April, 1850). By the close of the summer

of 1849, the Austrian authority was restored, and was exercised with

redoubled severity in _Venice_ and _Milan_. The rulers of

_Tuscany, Modena_, and _Parma_ had before returned to their

capitals. They were kept in power by means of Austrian garrisons. The

will of Austria was law in the greater part of Italy. _Ferdinand

II._ (called _Bomba_) maintained his tyranny by the help of

Swiss mercenaries and loathsome dungeons. _Piedmont_ was the only

spot where constitutional freedom survived. In its youthful monarch and

in _Garibaldi_, the hope of Italy rested. The course of events

ultimately proved that both the fire of the republicans and the

prudence of more moderate statesmen were requisite for its

emancipation.

COUP D'ÉTAT OF LOUIS NAPOLEON.--The Legislative Assembly in France,

consisting of one chamber, had in it many monarchists. As the

_first_ Napoleon was sustained by the dread of Jacobin rule, so

the _third_ Napoleon profited by the dread of the

ultra-republicans. It was felt by the trading-class, that the safety

of society depended on him. When the French troops were sent to Rome in

1849, the opposition of _Ledru-Rollin_ and his radical party

became more furious. But _Changarnier_ and his troops dispersed

their procession (June 13), and broke down their barricades. The Paris

insurrection was put down, and _Ledru-Rollin_ fled the

country. _Thiers_, _Broglie_, _Molé_,

_Montalembert_, and other adherents of the Bourbons, either of the

old or of the Orleans branch, now professed to yield to _Louis

Napoleon_ their adhesion. His measures for the restraint of the

press, the punishment of political offenses, etc., were popular,

especially in the provinces. The clergy were favorable to him. The

soldiers, in the autumn of 1850, began to shout "_Vive

I'Empéreur!_" _Changarnier_ was removed from the command of the

troops (Jan., 1851) when it was learned that his regiments did not join

in the cry. Movements of this kind, together with petitions for a

revision of the constitution, provoked hostility in the Assembly. The

struggle between the president and that body culminated in the "_Coup

d'État_" of December 2, 1851. _St. Arnaud_ had been appointed

minister of war, the fidelity of the troops in Paris rendered sure, and

all needful preparations made with profound secrecy. The president gave

a great party on the night of the first. During the night, the

republican and Orleanist leaders--_Cavaignac_, _Changarnier_,

_Lamoricière_, _Thiers_, _Victor Hugo_, and many

others--were surprised in their beds, and imprisoned. They were sent

away in custody to different places. Placards were posted, dissolving

the Assembly, and declaring Paris in a state of siege; also, an address

submitting to the people the question whether there should be a

responsible chief of state for ten years. The soldiers fired on

gatherings of the people in the streets, killing many innocent persons,

for the purpose of forestalling any attempt at resistance. The

deputies, as they persisted in their purpose to meet, were surrounded,

and placed under arrest. Within a few weeks many thousands of persons

suspected of disaffection were exiled or imprisoned. Nearly seven and a

half million votes were cast for _Napoleon_, and only 647,292

against him. The political prisoners were released. _Thiers_ was

allowed to return to Paris.

NEW FRENCH EMPIRE.--A new constitution was promulgated (Jan. 14, 1852),

resembling that which existed under the consulate. The Legislative

Assembly was virtually stripped of power.

One year later, the restoration of the Empire was decreed, and

sanctioned by popular vote. The change was at first viewed with alarm

by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. _Francis Joseph_ made a visit to

_Berlin_, and was received with great honor. The two principal

German sovereigns reviewed the troops of Berlin, in front of the bronze

statue of _Blücher_. But _Napoleon_ declared that the Empire

meant peace, and the other great powers followed the example of England

in recognizing his imperial government.

THE CRIMEAN WAR.--The administration of the French emperor was

acceptable to the commercial classes, who prized tranquillity. He

erected new edifices in _Paris_, and made many other improvements,

which, however, had an eye to defense against popular insurrection, and

involved much hardship for the poor. He married (Jan. 30, 1853) a young

Spanish countess, _Eugénie Montijo_. What did most to give

stability to his power, and to raise his repute in Europe, was the

union of _France_ with _England_ in the prosecution of the

Crimean war. The Emperor _Nicholas_ thought the time propitious

for the aggressive ambition of _Russia_ with regard to

_Turkey_. His plan of attack embraced a "provisional" occupation

of _Constantinople_ by Russian troops. He had intimated to England

that the situation of "the sick man"--meaning the decaying government

of _Turkey_--opened the way for a division of the Turkish Empire

between the two powers. _Lord Aberdeen_ was then prime minister in

England, and _Mr. Gladstone_ was chancellor of the exchequer. The

dispute of Russia with Turkey, which was the ostensible occasion of the

war, related to the holy places in Jerusalem, the resort of worshipers

of different creeds, and to the privileges accorded by the Sultan to

the Greek and Latin Christians respectively. The claim of

_Nicholas_ resolved itself into a demand to exercise a sole

protectorate over the Christians of the Greek faith in the Turkish

Empire. Without formally declaring war his forces crossed the

_Pruth_. Alarm was awakened in Austria, in consequence of the

Russian movements in that region. _Nicholas_ had only been able to

secure neutrality from Prussia and Austria. _Louis Napoleon_ was

anxious for war. _Lord Aberdeen_ was averse to it; but the

pressure of _Lord Palmerston_ and his supporters was too strong,

and war was declared (March 27, 1854) by _England_ and

_France_ in alliance with _Turkey_. At first the Turks had

unexpectedly gained advantages over the Russians, but the Turkish fleet

was destroyed at _Sinope_ (Nov. 30, 1853). Approaches of Russia

which portend the acquisition of the mouths of the Danube, or of any of

the Slavonic districts of European Turkey, can only excite jealousy and

apprehension on the side of Austria. Nicholas, on the demand of

_Francis Joseph_, which was seconded by _Prussia_, evacuated

the Danubian principalities, which were provisionally held by Austrian

forces. The English and French fleets that were sent into the Baltic

did not produce the effect that was anticipated by the allies. The

shores of the Black Sea were the main theater of the conflict. The

troops of the English and French landed at _Eupatoria_ in the

_Crimea_ in September, 1854, and defeated the Russians in the

battle of the _Alma_. There was a second engagement at

_Balaklava_ (Oct. 25); and in the battle of _Inkermann_

(Nov. 5) the attempt of the Russians to surprise the British forces met

with a defeat. The effort of the allies was directed to the capture of

the strong fortress of _Sebastopol. St. Arnaud_, the French

general, had died, and been succeeded by _Canrobert_. Later,

_Lord Raglan_, the English commander, died. The siege was

prolonged. Once the batteries of _Malakoff_ and _Redan_ were

attacked by the allies unsuccessfully; but, after a month's

bombardment, both were taken by storm (Sept. 8, 1855), and

_Malakoff_, which the French took, was held. The Russians blew up

their forts at Sebastopol, and withdrew to the northern part of the

fortress. Meantime _Nicholas_ had died (March 2, 1855), and been

succeeded by _Alexander II.;_ and _Lord Aberdeen_ had been

superseded by _Palmerston_ as head of the English ministry.

PEACE OF PARIS (MARCH 30, 1856)--In the _Peace of Paris_, Russia

was obliged to cede the mouths of the Danube and a small portion of

_Bessarabia_ to _Moldavia_, to limit the number of her ships

in the Black Sea, and to engage to establish no arsenals on its

coast. The Black Sea was to be open to commerce, but interdicted to

vessels of war. Russia gave up the claim to an exclusive protectorate

over Christians in Turkey. She surrendered also the fortress of

_Kars_ in Turkish Armenia, which she had

captured. _Wallachia_ and _Moldavia_ were confirmed in

important privileges of self-government, under the Porte. Austria,

France, and Great Britain, in a distinct treaty, guaranteed the

independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire.

NEUTRALITY DECLARATIONS.--The parties to the Treaty of Paris

(including Austria and Prussia) united in four declarations on the

subject of neutrality, by which privateering was abolished, the

neutral flag was made to protect enemy's goods except contraband of

war, these goods under an enemy's flag were exempted from capture,

and it was ordained that blockades in order to be binding must be

effective. The _United States_ declined to concur in this

agreement unless the private property of subjects or citizens of a

belligerent power (unless it be contraband of war) should be also

exempted from seizure by armed vessels of the enemy. This rule, were

it adopted, would put private property on the _sea_ on a level

with private property on the _land_, in case of war.

WAR OF FRANCE AND SARDINIA WITH AUSTRIA.--After the contests of

1848-49, Victor _Emmanuel II_. was looked on by all except the

ardent republicans of the school of _Mazzini_ as the champion of

Italian independence. He made _Azeglio_ his chief minister, and

_Cavour_ his minister of commerce. Various reforms were adopted,

especially for the reduction of the power and wealth of

ecclesiastics. The rapid progress of administrative changes led

_Azeglio_ to withdraw from office. _Cavour_, his successor, a

statesman of broad views and consummate ability, began to plan not only

for the Sardinian kingdom, but likewise for all Italy. By his advice,

Sardinia joined England and France in the Crimean war. At the Congress

of Paris (1856), he spread before the European powers the deplorable

misgovernment at Naples and in the other states of Southern Italy. He

denounced a plot against the life of _Louis Napoleon_, which

_Orsini_, a Roman, and a member of a secret society, tried to

carry out, but failed (Jan. 14, 1858). Communications and a personal

interview between _Napoleon_ and _Cavour_ followed. An

alliance was formed, one of the objects of which was the expulsion of

the Austrians from Italy. _Prince Napoleon_, the son of Louis

Napoleon's uncle _Jerome_, was married to _Clotilde_, the

daughter of _Victor Emmanuel_. Napoleon's ministers were opposed

to a war with Austria, and he himself affected to have no intention of

that kind. Russia proposed a congress; but Austria refused to admit

Sardinia, or to join it herself, unless that power should immediately

disarm. Russia was at that moment unfriendly to Austria, which had

refused to help the Czar in the Crimean war. Prussia, also, showed a

disinclination to interfere. _France_ and _Sardinia_ declared

war against _Austria_, and _Napoleon_ proclaimed that he

would free Italy, from the Alps to the Adriatic (May, 1859). As the war

began, a revolt broke out in _Tuscany_. The Tuscan Duke, the

Duchess regent of _Parma_, and the Duke of _Modena_, had to

fly from their capitals. _Cavour_ accepted help from all Italian

patriots except the adherents of _Mazzini_, to whom were imputed

schemes of assassination. _Garibaldi_ led the "Riflemen of the

Alps." _Louis Napoleon_ commanded the French army in person. The

French were victorious at _Magenta_ (June 4), where

_MacMahon_ was made a marshal. At the battle of _Solferino_

(June 24), all of the three contending sovereigns were present. The

Austrians were vanquished with very heavy losses. At this time

_Napoleon_, unexpectedly to his Italian ally, in a personal

interview with _Francis Joseph_ at _Villafranca_, arranged

preliminaries of peace, which provided, to be sure, for the cession of

_Lombardy_ to Sardinia, but left _Venice_ and the

"Quadrilateral,"--as the district, with its fortifications, east of the

Mincio, was called,--under the Austrian rule. It was proposed that an

Italian confederation should be formed, with the Pope for its honorary

president,--a plan not destined to be realized. The Grand Duke of

_Tuscany_ and the Duke of _Modena_ were to be restored, could

it be done without a resort to arms. Napoleon was afraid of a long

war. Russia was not disposed to suffer him to stir up a revolution in

Hungary. Prussia might soon intervene; and this, Austria, too, did not

anticipate without anxiety, since Prussia would thereby become

predominant in Germany. _Cavour_, in disgust and indignation at

this premature close of the struggle, laid down his office.

FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE SARDINIAN KINGDOM.--Tuscany, Modena, and

Parma, and Romagna which belonged to the Pope, by deputies implored

_Victor Emmanuel_ to annex them to his kingdom. _Plus

IX_. made the most strenuous opposition. _Napoleon_ refused to

use coercion, or to suffer it to be used by others, to carry out the

Villafranca arrangements in the duchies. _Cavour_ was recalled to

office in 1860; and at his suggestion, made to _Napoleon_, the

communities just named were allowed to dispose of themselves by popular

vote. The result was their incorporation in the Sardinian kingdom. By

way of compensation to _Napoleon_, _Savoy_ and _Nice_

were ceded by the Sardinian government to France. The Pope

excommunicated all invaders and usurpers of the Papal States, without

the mention of names.

ANNEXING OF NAPLES AND SICILY.--The next great event in Italy was the

expulsion of _Francis II_., the tyrant who reigned in

_Naples_ and _Sicily_ after the death of Ferdinand

II. (1859). _Garibaldi_, without the consent of the Sardinian

government, raised the standard of revolt in Sicily (1860), and

conquered the island. The king and _Cavour_ feared that his

movement would give control to the republicans, and also bring Sardinia

into war with other powers. But, despite this opposition,

_Garibaldi_ entered _Naples_ as a victor, and was joined by

_Mazzini_. The Sardinian troops entered the Papal States, which

the king had threatened to do unless the guerilla attacks of pontifical

troops in the south were suppressed. The French general,

_Lamoricière_, in the service of the pontiff, was defeated at

_Castelfidardo_. _Garibaldi_, triumphant in the Neapolitan

kingdom, met _Victor Emmanuel_ in the Abruzzi, and hailed him as

"King of Italy." _Naples_ and _Sicily_ voted to join the

kingdom of Sardinia. With the exception of _Venice_ and the

_Roman Campagna_, the whole of Italy was now united under the

house of Savoy. On Feb. 18, 1861, the first parliament of united Italy

was opened by _Cavour_. Shortly after, there was a public

reconciliation between him and _Garibaldi_, between whom there had

been an estrangement.

In addition to _Garibaldi's_ general and constant dissent from the

moderate policy of _Cavour_, the former was displeased that his

soldiers had not been rewarded with higher positions in the Sardinian

army than it was practicable or safe to grant to them. _Cavour_

believed that society was on the march towards democracy, but that no

republic, at the present, in Italy could be stable. _Cavour_ had

his heart set on gaining Rome for the capital of the kingdom, and on

establishing "a free church in a free state." He did not live to see

the realization of his hopes. His death occurred (May 30, 1861),

shortly after the amicable interview with the republican patriot, to

which reference has just been made.

"THE SEPTEMBER CONVENTION."--The hope of the national party in Italy

was now directed towards the gaining of _Venice_ and

_Rome_. But, as regards Austria, the European powers would not

have suffered a breach of the Peace of Villafranca. _Louis

Napoleon_ had assumed the part of protector of the Holy See, and a

French garrison was stationed at Rome. After Cavour's death,

_Ricasoli_, the head of the ministry, led the constitutional

party; and _Ratazzi_, who succeeded him and had been more in

sympathy with the Garibaldians, did not deviate from his predecessor's

cautious policy. The relations of the Italian government to France,

even obliged the king to interfere to put down a rising, set on foot by

_Garibaldi_, for driving the French out of Rome. Garibaldi was

defeated by the Sardinian troops at _Aspromonte_ (Aug. 27, 1862),

and taken to _Spezzia_. Thence he went to _Caprera_. The

liberal party in Europe were incensed with _Louis Napoleon_. This

was one inducement that moved him to enter into an agreement with

_Victor Emmanuel_, by which France engaged to withdraw her troops

gradually from Rome, leaving the Pope to form an army of his own;

while, on the other hand, the king engaged (Sept. 1864) to prevent any

attack on the papal territory. The French minister of foreign affairs

said to the Italian minister at Paris, "Naturally the result of all

this will be that you will end by going to Rome;" but matters were to

be so managed that France should not be held responsible. This was the

_September Convention_. _Florence_ was made the capital of

Italy; but it was acknowledged that this was a temporary arrangement,

and that, as soon as the progress of events should open the way, the

seat of government would be transferred to Rome. After the withdrawal

of the French troops in 1866, _Garibaldi_, with the connivance of

the Italian government,--in which _Ratazzi_, who had been obliged

to leave his office, was again the ruling spirit,--once more gathered a

force for the capture of Rome (1867); but France interfered, and the

advance of Garibaldi was checked at _Mentana_ by French

troops. Afterwards _Napoleon_ again placed a French garrison in

Rome. _Ratazzi_, whose scheme of capturing Rome by

non-interference was balked, had to lay down his office. The next step

towards Italian unity was to be a result of the _Austro-Prussian_

war.

CHAPTER IV. EUROPE, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR TO

THE END OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1866-1871).

RIVALSHIP OF PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA.--The brief but mighty struggle which

secured for Prussia the preponderance in Germany grew immediately out

of complications respecting _Schleswig-Holstein_. It was, however,

the fruit of a rivalship which had been gaining in intensity since the

times of Frederick the Great. It was the grand triumph of Prussia,

after a long succession of defeats and humiliations in the field of

diplomacy.

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN.--The two duchies of _Holstein_ and

_Schleswig_ had long been annexed to the crown of Denmark, whose

king, as Duke of Holstein, was a member of the German

Confederation. The two duchies, as regards their government, did not

stand on the same footing; but the people of _Holstein_ and the

German portion of the _Schleswig_ people held that by a treaty in

1460 the two duchies could not be separated. Moreover, the law of

succession in the duchies excluded the female line, and when there was

a prospect that the male line of the Danish dynasty would die out the

Germans wished the duchies to become independent under an Augustenburg

prince while the Danes wished to absorb the duchies in Denmark. In 1848

the Germans of Schleswig-Holstein revolted against _Frederick

VII._ The troops of the German confederation assisted them; but the

attitude of England and Russia, which favored the Danes, moved Prussia

to conclude the armistice of _Malmö_,--an act that excited the

anger of the German National Assembly at Frankfort. After the

expiration of the truce, the war, with intermissions, went on, waged by

Schleswig-Holstein, alone or with aid from Germany; later in a

protocol--an agreement signed in _London_ in 1852 by the Great

Powers, in which Austria and Prussia concurred,--the king of Denmark

and his heirs were guaranteed in the possession of the duchies. This

act, however, was not accepted by the duchies themselves, or by the

Diet of the German Confederation; so that the seeds of strife still

remained.

PREPONDERANCE OF AUSTRIA.--After the suppression of the revolts of

1848, Austria, whose counsels were guided by the astute minister

_Schwarzenberg_, labored to dwarf and supplant the influence of

Prussia. _Frederick William IV_. of Prussia aimed to bring about a

closer union of German states, and called a national parliament to meet

at _Erfurt_. Austria withstood these attempts. The disposition of

Prussia to support the resistance in _Hesse_ to the tyranny of its

elector, threatened to bring on an armed contest with Austria and its

German allies; but the attitude of Russia caused Prussia to desist from

its movement. At the conference at _Olmütz_ (1850),

_Manteuffel_, the Prussian minister, yielded every thing to

Austria; and subsequently, under the influence of Russia, the German

Confederation of 1815 was restored. Prussia took no part with the

Western powers in the Crimean war, with which it had no direct concern,

and thus did not, like Austria, make herself obnoxious to the Czar.

WILLIAM I: BISMARCK.--On the accession of _William I_. as regent

(Oct. 1857), the Prussian government initiated a more spirited and

independent policy in its relations to Austria. It refused to lend

active aid to that country in the war with France and Sardinia

(1859). The efficient measures of King _William_ for the

reorganization and increase of the army encountered constant

opposition, year after year, in the assembly, from the liberal party,

which did not divine his motives, and saw in them nothing but the

usurping of an unconstitutional authority. In 1862 the king made

_Bismarck_ minister of foreign affairs, and the virtual head of

the administration. This able man had widened his knowledge of European

politics by serving as ambassador first at _St. Petersburg_ and

then at _Paris_. Previously he had been allied with the absolutist

party of _Manteuffel_: he was always for "strong government."

After 1851, when he was delegate of Prussia at the Federal Diet at

_Frankfort_, he made up his mind to deliver Prussia from the

domineering influence of Austria. But he was held in distrust by the

Prussian liberals, who saw in him only an energetic supporter of the

king in his reform of the army by acts of arbitrary power not warranted

by the constitution. In 1863 _Francis Joseph_ summoned a congress

of German princes to _Frankfort_ to frame a new German

constitution; but as Prussia stood aloof, nothing was

accomplished. There was much bitterness between the two states. For the

moment, however, attention was diverted by the aspect of affairs in

_Schleswig-Holstein_.

EVENTS LEADING TO WAR.--On March 30, 1863, _Frederick VII_. of

Denmark issued a decree for the separation of _Schleswig_, and its

incorporation in Denmark. The troops of the German Confederacy were

sent by the Diet into _Holstein_. Prussia and Austria, who held

that the Danes had broken the Treaty of 1852, announced their agreement

to prosecute the war with Denmark as independent powers, apart from the

confederation. They persisted in this purpose, and their victories over

the Danes compelled _Christian IX_. to sign a treaty (Oct. 30,

1864) by which he resigned his rights in the duchies in favor of the

emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia. How should the duchies be

disposed of? It was _Bismarck's_ aim to annex them to Prussia,

which was sorely in need of seaports. He professed that the war had

abrogated the London Treaty of 1852. The prime object of Austria was to

prevent Prussia from making this gain. The dispute was hot and

threatening; but in the _Gastein Convention_ (Aug. 14, 1865),

_Lauenburg_ (which the Danes had also ceded) was sold to Prussia,

and the disposition of the duchies was left to be determined later.

Meantime the Prussians were to hold _Schleswig_, and the Austrians

_Holstein_. The Prussians were, moreover, to hold provisionally

the port of _Kiel_. The scheme of Austria was to hand over the

debated question to the Diet of the Confederation, where it could

command a majority. To this Prussia would not consent, but demanded

that the Confederacy should be reconstituted in such a that Prussia, as

well as Germany, might have strength in the event of a European

war. _Bismarck_ made a secret treaty with Sardinia, which provided

that Prussia and Sardinia should act together in case of war with

Austria, and that peace should not be made until _Venetia_ had

been given up to the kingdom of Italy. When Austria convoked the

estates of _Holstein_ Prussia retorted by sending twenty thousand

troops into _Holstein_. The Austrian force, which was inferior,

retired. When the Confederation (June 14) passed a motion made by

Austria to put the confederate troops, not Austrian or Prussian, on a

war footing, the Prussian plenipotentiary protested, and declared the

Diet dissolved. He also presented a new constitution as the basis of a

new league of states, from which Austria was to be excluded. Prussia

issued a proclamation, to the effect that the purpose of the war that

was now to begin was the union of Germany, and the establishment of a

free parliament of the German nation.

THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR.--The Prussian military plans were the work of

_Von Moltke_, chief of the general staff, who was without a

superior in military science. They were carried out with astonishing

precision and celerity. On June 15 Prussia required _Saxony_,

_Hanover_, and _Hesse_ to disarm, to remain neutral, and to

send delegates to a German parliament. A few hours were given them to

decide. They refused the demand, and on the 16th the Prussian forces

marched into their lands. On that day they seized the capital of

_Hesse_, and took the elector prisoner. On the 29th they had

surrounded _King George of Hanover_, and he was compelled to

surrender with his whole army. The main Austrian army, under

_Benedek_, made up of contingents from the various nations subject

to the emperor, with the troops of Saxony, one of his German allies,

were gathered in _Bohemia_. Thither three Prussian armies moved,

on different lines, as they were directed by telegraph from

Berlin. Several battles occurred. The armies approached one another,

but were purposely kept apart. On June 30 _King William_ and

_Von Moltke_ left Berlin. On the 2d of July it was determined to

attack the Austrians the next day; and word was sent to the crown

prince, whose division was not so far that he could not bring up his

forces to take part in the combat. In the morning the battle of

_Sadowa_, in which between two hundred thousand and three hundred

thousand men were in each of the contending hosts, began. It raged

until noon, with no decisive advantage on either side. At two o'clock

the division of the crown prince, after a hard march, arrived; and

their attack on the flank of the Austrians was the signal for a forward

movement along the whole Prussian line. The battle in its course

resembled that of _Waterloo_. The defeat of the Austrians

virtually decided the whole contest. _Francis Joseph_ asked France

to mediate, but Prussia and Italy refused to consent to the

proposal. The Austrian emperor ceded _Venice_ by telegraph to

_Louis Napoleon_. The Austrians had defeated the Italians at

_Custozza_ (June 24), and in a naval battle at _Lissa_. But a

great part of the Austrian army it was necessary to transfer to the

North.

THE PEACE OF PRAGUE: THE PEACE OF VIENNA.--The Peace of Prague was

concluded between Prussia and Austria (Aug. 23, 1866). Austria was

excluded from Germany, and gave up her rights in

_Schleswig-Holstein_ to Prussia. At the request of Prussia,

_Venice_ was ceded to Italy. _Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover,

Hesse-Cassel, Nassau_, and _Frankfort_ were incorporated in

Prussia. The population of Prussia from about nineteen millions was

increased to twenty-three millions five hundred thousand. In the Peace

of Vienna (Oct. 3), Austria recognized the kingdom of Italy, to which

_Venice_ had been ceded.

NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION.--The South German states remained

independent; but the _North German Confederation_ was formed,

under the leadership of Prussia, which was to have control of the

military forces of its members. In the council of the Confederation,

Prussia was to have seventeen votes, and the other states together

twenty-six votes. An imperial Diet was established, the members of

which were to be elected by general suffrage. _Bismarck_ was made

chancelor of the Confederation.

THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE.--The war with Prussia was followed by the

political reorganization of the Austro-Hungarian empire on a more

liberal basis. _Von Beust_, who had been a Saxon minister, became

minister of foreign affairs (1866), and afterwards president of the

ministry and chancellor of the empire. The Hungarian constitution of

1848 was restored, and a separate ministry was constituted for

_Hungary_; while, as regards the army and foreign affairs of both

divisions of the empire, an imperial ministry was established. The

_Cisleithan_ division, composed of the German and Slavonic

provinces, was to have its own ministry and constitution. This

conferred on the people and their representatives "rights and

privileges of the greatest importance,--equality of all citizens before

the law, freedom of the press, right of association and meeting,

complete liberty of faith and conscience, the unrestricted right to

impose taxes and levy recruits, etc." The reconciliation with Hungary

having been effected, _Francis Joseph_ was crowned as King of

Hungary at _Pesth. Transylvania_ and _Croatia_ were united

with Hungary. Great legal improvements in Austria ensued. The army was

re-constituted after the example of the Prussian military system. There

was an improvement in financial administration. Marriage by civil

contract was authorized; and on subjects connected with marriage, the

clergy were deprived of jurisdiction. The control of education, except

religious education, was assumed by the state. In case of marriage

between Catholics and Protestants, the male children were to be

educated according to the faith of the father; the female children,

according to that of the mother.

LOUIS NAPOLEON BAFFLED.--The Austro-Prussian war hastened the downfall

of _Louis Napoleon_. The only consolation which the French had for

the loss of freedom at home was power and reputation abroad. The

astonishing rapidity of the Prussians, and the overwhelming success of

their arms, had disconcerted the schemes of the French emperor. The

defeat of Austria was so quick and so complete that he could not come

in as mediator between the belligerents, and manage to secure the

extension of France to its "natural frontiers" on the Rhine. He was

baffled by _Bismarck's_ diplomacy, as before he had been outwitted

by _Cavour_; for Napoleon had wished, not a united Italy, but

simply a Northern Kingdom. The French felt humiliated at the sight of

military achievements parallel to those by which in other days they had

disposed of the fate of Prussia herself. The opposing factions grew

bolder in their attitude towards the Napoleonic government. The emperor

made cautious attempts to secure cessions of territory from Prussia on

the Rhine, but was met with a blunt refusal from _Bismarck_. He

then sought to purchase from the king of Holland, _Luxemburg_,

which had formerly belonged to the German Confederation. This attempt

was resisted by _Prussia_, and war seemed imminent; but it was

finally settled at the _London Conference_, that the duchy should

be neutral territory, and that the fortress, which had been occupied by

the Prussians, should be demolished. Germany was making progress

towards a more complete union. A customs parliament, representing all

the states, met at _Berlin_ in May, 1868. Before that time,

treaties of offensive and defensive alliance had been made between the

_North German Confederation_ and _Würtemberg_, _Baden_,

and _Bavaria_. They were published on March 17, 1867.

BEGINNING OF THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR.--As _Louis Napoleon_, or

those who held sway in his counsels, were bent on war with Prussia, a

pretext was easily found. The bad administration of _Queen

Isabella_ of Spain, and her personal misconduct, caused

insurrections to break out in 1868; and she was obliged to fly to

France. A provisional government was established under

Gens. _Serrano_ and _Prim_, and Señor _Olozaga_. Later

(1869) _Serrano_ was made regent. The Cortes in 1870 offered the

Spanish crown to Prince _Leopold_ of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who

belonged to a younger branch of King _William's_ family. The

proposal was regarded in France with indignation, as a new step in the

upbuilding of Prussian power. King _William_ was required to

forbid his relative's candidacy, which he declined to do. The prince,

however, of his own accord withdrew. Not satisfied with this issue of

the affair, _Napoleon_ insisted that the Prussian king should

engage never to support the candidacy of a Hohenzollern prince for the

Spanish crown. _William_, who was at _Ems_, told the French

ambassador, _Benedetti_, that he could not give a promise of this

sort. When the question was again raised he sent an aide-de-camp,

declining to discuss the matter further. This act was represented at

Paris as an insult to France, and orders were issued to mobilize the

army. The king, on his way to Berlin, was met at the Brandenburg

station by the crown prince, _Von Moltke_, _Von Roon_, the

able war minister, and _Bismarck_. The Confederate Diet assembled

July 19, and placed its resources at the disposal of the king. The

French declaration of war was received on the same day. _Bavaria_,

_Würtemberg_, and the _South German States_, contrary to the

unreasonable expectation of _Napoleon_, allied themselves with

Prussia. In a moment all Germany was ablaze. The recollection of the

days of the first _Napoleon_, and of the war of liberation, filled

the whole land with patriotic enthusiasm. More than a million of men

took the field in defense of the fatherland.

EVENTS TO SEDAN.--At the outset _Napoleon_ tried to modify the

plans _Marshal Niel_ had drawn up in 1867 for such an emergency,

and which called for three armies. He unwisely attempted to unite all

the troops under his own command. Had he been able by a bold initiative

to have gained a foothold in South Germany, _Italy_ and

_Austria_ would probably have come to his support. But the French

army was not in the state of full readiness which had been alleged to

exist. The masterly dispositions of _Von Moltke_, and the swift

movements of the Germans, broke up the French programme. The three

great divisions of the German army were led by _Steinmetz_, Prince

_Frederick Charles_, the king's nephew, and the crown prince,

_Frederick William_. They advanced towards the boundary from

_Treves_ to _Landau_. Three victories of the Germans--at

_Weissenburg_ (Aug. 4), over Marshal _MacMahon_ at

_Wörth_ (Aug. 6), and at _Spicheren_ on the same

day--compelled the French army to retreat towards the Moselle. The

Baden division was left to besiege _Strasburg_. The next great

battles, of which _Gravelotte_ (Aug. 18) was the most hotly

contested, were fought for the purpose of preventing Marshal

_Bazaine_ from joining with the main army the forces of

_MacMahon_. _Bazaine_ was defeated, and confined with his

immense body of troops in and about the fortress of _Metz_; and

his efforts to break through the German lines were baffled. The

Prussian crown prince and the crown prince of Saxony, with their

combined armies, proceeded against _MacMahon_. The defeats of the

French had occasioned such wrath at Paris, that the ministry of

_M. Ollivier_ was compelled to retire (Aug. 10), and it was not

safe for the emperor, who was with _MacMahon_, to return to the

capital. The French general concentrated his forces at _Sedan_. On

Sept. 1 the decisive battle was fought. The French were worsted and

surrounded. The Emperor _Napoleon_ yielded his sword to King

_William_. The terms of capitulation were agreed upon by _Von

Moltke_ and Gen. _Wimpffen_ (_MacMahon_ being disabled by

a wound), while other matters of a civil nature were arranged between

_Napoleon_ and _Bismarck_. The army that was surrendered

numbered eighty-two thousand men, with fifty generals and five thousand

other officers.

SIEGE OF PARIS: SURRENDER OF METZ.--As soon as the news of _Sedan_

reached Paris, the imperial government fell to pieces. The Empress

_Eugénie_ escaped to England. A republic was proclaimed; and a new

government was improvised, composed of enemies of the Empire, who

belonged to different parties. _Trochu_ was president, and

governor of Paris; _Jules Favre_, a moderate republican, was

minister of foreign affairs; and _Gambetta_, an extreme

republican, was minister of the interior. The wish was for peace; but

the inexorable demand of the Germans for the cession of _Alsace_

and _Lorraine_, once parts of Germany, and now asserted to be

necessary for its defense against future attack from France, called out

a united and indignant spirit of resistance. The defense of

_Paris_ was undertaken with extraordinary energy: a large army was

collected there, and a great supply of provisions was gathered. The

siege of Paris was prosecuted by the Germans with an equally

unflinching determination, from Sept. 19, 1870, to Jan. 28,

1871. Repeated sallies of the French troops, although made with much

spirit, failed of success. The efforts to break the Prussian lines of

connection with Paris, and to compel them by movements from without to

raise the siege, were likewise baffled. _Gambetta_ escaped from

Paris in a balloon, and at _Tours_ directed in the formation of

two armies,--the army of the _Loire_, and the northern army, both

of which were defeated. _Strasburg_ capitulated (Sept. 27); and a

month later (Oct. 27) _Bazaine_ surrendered _Metz_, with

three marshals, three thousand officers, and one hundred and

seventy-three thousand soldiers. The main army of France was thus lost.

WILLIAM MADE EMPEROR: SURRENDER OF PARIS.--While the siege of Paris was

in progress, all the princes of Germany, and the senates of the three

free towns, united in the resolution to offer to the President of the

Confederation the title of Emperor. Accordingly, on Jan. 18, 1871, King

_William_, in the Hall of Mirrors at _Versailles_, was

formally proclaimed Emperor of Germany. On the next day _Trochu_

led the final sortie from Paris, of a hundred thousand men, which was

repulsed after a severe contest. The provisions in the city were nearly

exhausted, and on Jan. 23 an armistice for twenty-one days was

signed. Paris surrendered on the 28th; and on the first day of March a

national convention at Bordeaux accepted the preliminaries of peace,

which included the cession of _Alsace_ and the German part of

_Lorraine_ with _Metz_, and the payment of an indemnity of

five thousand million francs. _Thiers_, who was elected chief of

the executive department (Feb. 17), had managed the negotiations with

_Bismarck_ at _Versailles_, and urged the acceptance of them

on the convention.

THE GERMAN IMPERIAL CONSTITUTION.--The first Diet of the new German

Empire was opened at _Berlin_ on March 21. The constitution of it

left to each state the management of its domestic affairs. To the

imperial government, with the Federal Council or _Bundesrath_, the

_Reichstag_, and the emperor were relegated the affairs of common

interest. The president of the Council was the imperial chancellor:

_Bismarck_ was appointed to that office. The _Reichstag_ was

composed of deputies chosen by general suffrage. The chancellor is not

responsible to the Reichstag, but to the emperor. Power has not passed

from the monarch to the representatives of the people.

CONTEST WITH THE COMMUNISTS: REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION.--After the

conditions of peace with the Germans were settled, _Paris_ had to

pass through a terrible period of disorder. The communists were bent on

establishing municipal independence, or the self-government of the

_Commune_, and a democratic republic. They demanded a federation

of the townships, or _communes_, and distrusted the republicanism

of the officials who were in the exercise of power. They are not to be

confounded with _communists_ in the socialistic sense: only a

small fraction of the communal government, or central committee, were

socialists. The party comprised a multitude of fanatical democrats of

the lower classes, who were ready for the most violent measures. They

had risen several times during the siege of Paris, and had tried to

seize on power, but had been put down by the troops. After the

surrender of Paris, they gained possession of the northern part of the

city, and fortified it. The attempt to get back the cannon which they

had seized caused a great communist uprising (March 18, 1871). A new

reign of terror began. _Darboy_, the Archbishop of Paris, and many

others, were murdered. _MacMahon_, acting for the Assembly,

besieged Paris anew; the Germans being neutral in the forts that were

still left, according to the treaty, in their hands. In the fierce

struggle for the possession of the city, the principal buildings of

Paris were set on fire by the savage communistic mob. The Tuileries,

the Hôtel de Ville, and a part of the Palais Royal, with other public

edifices, were destroyed. The insurrection was at length suppressed,

and severe punishments were inflicted. A large number of the

ringleaders were either shot or transported.

CHAPTER V. EUROPE, THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC, AND THE UNION OF ITALY

(1871-).

COMPLETED UNION OF ITALY.--When the war between Prussia and France

broke out, the republicans in Italy were disposed to take possession of

_Rome_ at once. _Mazzini_ urged them to this step. The king,

however, was bound by the agreement with France to prevent this action;

which, moreover, might have divided, instead of uniting,

Italy. _Mazzini_ was arrested, and sent to _Gaeta_. But with

the fall of Napoleon, on the declaration of _Jules Favre_ that the

"September Convention" (p. 574) was at an end, _Victor Emmanuel_,

professing that he was bound to maintain order in the peninsula, sent

his troops into _Rome_. The Pope lost his temporal dominions, and

was limited to the title and prerogatives of the spiritual head of the

Catholic Church. The seat of the Italian government was removed to the

ancient capital (July 1, 1871). The present king, _Umberto I._,

ascended the throne 1878.

PIUS IX.: THE COUNCIL OF THE VATICAN.--The long pontificate of _Pius

IX_. was distinguished by important acts having relation to the

doctrine and discipline of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1854 he

promulgated the declaration of the _Immaculate Conception of the

Virgin Mary_. He thus determined authoritatively a question which

had long been debated in the schools of theology. Ten years later

(1864) he issued an _Encyclical_, together with a _Syllabus_

of Errors, in which, besides the condemnation of opinions in matters of

faith which were adjudged heterodox, various alleged encroachments of

the civil authority and heretical views respecting the control of the

state in reference to marriage, education, etc., were denounced. The

views thus condemned are such as the kingdom of Belgium had recognized,

and France and some other Roman Catholic countries have shown

themselves willing to accept. In 1869 the Oecumenical _Council of the

Vatican_ assembled, and after long debate sanctioned the doctrine of

papal infallibility; that is, they promulgated the dogma that the Pope,

when addressing the whole Church on a subject of morals or theology, is

kept by the Spirit of God from enunciating error.

"OLD CATHOLICS."--Most of those who had strenuously endeavored to

prevent this action, either because they considered it inexpedient, or

disbelieved in the doctrine which it established, acquiesced in the

decision of the council. There were some persevering dissentients,

however, in Germany especially, of whom Dr. _Döllinger_ was the

most distinguished. They organized themselves as a distinct body, under

the name of "Old Catholics." They were mostly educated persons; the

party had no root among the common people. In France, the most

distinguished of them was Père _Hyacinthe_, a preacher of much

popularity and eloquence.

REVOLUTIONS IN SPAIN.--After the revolution attended by the flight of

Queen _Isabella_ from Spain (1868), a majority of the Cortes

decided for a monarchy, although many desired a republic. In 1870

_Amadeus_, the second son of the King of Italy, accepted the

crown. But he found it impossible to restore order and peace, and

Feb. 11, 1873, abdicated the throne. A bloody conflict of factions

ensued. _Don Carlos_, the new Pretender of that name, raised his

standard in the North. The Cortes were for a federal

republic. _Castelar_, who as president was at the head of the

government, and after him Marshal _Serrano_, by whom he was

superseded, made no decisive progress against the

Carlists. _Alfonso_, the youthful son of _Isabella_, was

proclaimed king by General _Martinez Campos_; and the army

pronounced in his favor (Dec. 29, 1874). _Serrano_ laid down his

office. The Carlist revolt was crushed, and _Don Carlos_ driven

out of the country. _Alfonso_ died 1885, and was succeeded by a

regency during the long minority of his posthumous son, _Alfonso

XIII_. Both _Canovas_ and _Sagasta_ loyally supported the

queen-mother, _Maria Christina_, acting as regent.

STATE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE.--In July, 1875, the Turkish provinces of

_Herzegovina_ and _Bosnia_ rebelled against the intolerable

oppression of the Sultan's government. The little mountainous kingdom

of _Montenegro_--which for four centuries had preserved its

independence through numerous struggles with Turkey, and had a quarrel

of its own with that power--lent help to its Slavonian

neighbor. _Servia_ did the same. The Austro-Hungarian Empire, a

composite of distinct provinces and nationalities, was strongly

interested to avert war in that region. The revolt was not put down by

the Turks. The three European emperors moved the Sultan to pledge

himself to an extensive programme of reforms in _Bosnia_ and

_Herzegovina_,--a pledge which there was no intention on his part

to fulfill. England gave no aid to the revolt, but strengthened herself

in the East by obtaining, through a purchase of shares from the Khedive

of Egypt, the control of the _Suez Canal_ (Nov. 25, 1875). Russia,

as kinsman of all the Slavonic peoples, and protector of Greek

Christians, assumed alone the part of a champion of the maltreated

provinces. But England refused to join with Russia, Germany, Austria,

and France, in threatening "more effectual"--that is,

coercive--measures, in case of the Porte's refusal to pacify the

insurgents by carrying out his promises. Great Britain was bent on

keeping the Sultan's empire, as being a barrier in the way of Russian

ambition and essential to the security of India, from being

dismembered, and professed to be swayed by respect for the rights of

Turkey as an independent power. A revolt in Bulgaria was crushed by the

Turks, who were guilty of such terrible atrocities that the "Bulgarian

massacres" shocked all Christendom (1876). In the course of the

difficulties just narrated, two revolutions, by which sultans had been

dethroned, had taken place in the palace at Constantinople. The

ambassadors of the Great Powers, in a conference at Constantinople,

agreed in demanding of Turkey a constitution and guaranties for the

benefit of the oppressed subjects in the provinces of the Ottoman

Empire. This requirement the Porte refused to accept. A subsequent

attempt of the same nature met with no better success (1877). Russia

allowed its subjects to render effective help to the revolted

districts. On the contrary, England was offended by the alleged

ambitious schemes of the Muscovites, and advocated longer forbearance

with the Sultan; but _Lord Derby_ announced (April 19, 1877) that

Turkey had been warned to expect no assistance from

England. Nevertheless, the mission of Mr. _Layard_ to

Constantinople, and all the other circumstances, emboldened the Turks

to refuse compliance with the Czar's demands.