the northern part of the Isthmus could be fixed by the same process.
Now, we have ascertained, 1st. That the greater part of these downs are
naturally fixed by a multitude of different plants, which have found
sufficient moisture for their support; 2nd. That the moveable downs of
the basin of Lake Timsah conceal moisture at a very little depth below
their surface; they may, therefore, be fixed by seed plots, and to do it
there is the immense quantity of bushes and shrubs which grow in the low
parts surrounding the lake, and which give to that region the appearance
of a copse.
Not only will sufficient branches be found on the spot for the tufted
seed plots, but moreover, all the combustibles for the lime, and for the
wants of the workmen, will be furnished abundantly.
It is true, that at the time we made our observations (January, 1855),
tolerably abundant rains had recently moistened the soil; the success of
the seed-plots, which would be destitute of moisture for the rest of the
year, might therefore be doubted; but what is there to prevent the moist
season being chosen for making these plots? and the seed once risen,
the abundant moisture which is felt in this region, especially during
the summer nights, will suffice to support vegetation, as is seen by
the downs fixed naturally. Finally, to remove all objections, the fresh
water canal which will end at Lake Timsah, will supply, if required, the
means of affording, during the early days of the seed-plots, sufficient
moisture for the success of the undertaking.
There is no possible doubt then as to the success which will be obtained
in the fixing of the moveable downs, nor as to the pecuniary advantages
which result from it, for the maritime pine answers well in Egypt,
and other kinds of trees may be found still more productive. The cost
of sowing will be less than in France, on account of the low price of
labour, and the profits will be more considerable and more quickly
obtained, on account of the hotter climate, and the consumption on the
spot of all produce now wanting, and which is obliged to be procured from
a distance.
We estimate the superfice of the downs to be fixed in this part of the
Isthmus at about 2000 _hectares_, but if seed-plots and replantations
were made upon all the downs naturally fixed, 100,000 _hectares_ of
forest might thus be formed. It is for the Company to decide what
extent of country it will be suitable to cultivate in this way. A final
objection has been made to the Canal by assuming that steam navigation,
by the agitation of the water which it produces, would quickly destroy
the banks of the Canal,—banks formed in a moveable soil which would fill
up the trough.
To guard against this inconvenience, which might, in fact, be
apprehended, we have adopted very gentle slopes (two on the base line
to one in height); then we have covered these slopes with stones for
the whole height on which the agitation caused by the passage of
steam-vessels could be felt. We have in our favour the example of the
Caledonian Canal, thus furnished with a covering of stones formed of
simple materials. This is what M. Flachat says, in the description that
he gives of this Canal, according to the reports of the Commissioners of
the House of Commons: “Steam navigation especially demands attention.
Difficult, perhaps even impossible, upon ordinary canals, where it causes
an agitation which rapidly destroys the banks, it is organized on the
Caledonian Canal, and presents nothing but advantages. With a speed
of 11,000 to 12,000 _met._ per hour, all that has been observed is _a
general plashing, which is not more than that produced by a moderately
gentle wind_. The only precaution taken was, to collect on the banks and
made ground all the large pebbles with which the land is filled, and to
cover with them for a foot in height below the line of the water, the
banks which, from the coarse composition of the soil, were too easily
disturbed by the agitation of the waves. But wherever the ground had
a good proportion of sand, there was nothing to be done.” Finally, it
has been assumed, that the Government of Great Britain, yielding to a
national prejudice, would put obstacles in the way of the project of
cutting through the Isthmus, if it should be ascertained to be feasible,
and that the English capitalists would not be disposed to concur in
the undertaking. The future alone can show what truth there is in this
assumption; we cannot at all conceive the opposition of the Government
of a great nation to a project to which the English have especially, in
these latter times, drawn the attention of the commercial world and their
own Government on account of the special advantages which it offers to
England. We have already referred to the writings of the traveller Bruce
and those of Captain Rooke. We will now cite other names.
Captain James Vetch, of the corps of Royal Engineers, author of a very
remarkable pamphlet published in London in 1843, and Mr. Clarkson, Civil
Engineer, propose to trace the Canal in a single straight line from Suez
to Tineh.
The editor of the Engineers’ and Architects’ journal (1844) in giving an
account of the labours of these engineers, adopts in starting from Suez,
the line of the ancient canal as far as the Bitter Lakes, and from the
head of these lakes at Katieh he takes the direction of the Mediterranean
in passing by the great lake Sulak el Bardoil.
The author adds, “It is hardly reasonable to reckon upon a union of the
European powers to effect an undertaking in which England has such a
preponderating interest, in the point of view of our domination in India.
It is true that all the Nations bordering on the Mediterranean would find
large profit therein, but much inferior however to ours.”
The Foreign Quarterly Review, one of the most esteemed periodicals of
England, in an article where it treats of the cutting of the Isthmus,
says that—“the expense compared with the grandeur of the result is so
trivial, that it is astonishing that the thing has not yet been done,
either by a company or by the Viceroy. The advantages of this undertaking
would be immense; for, independently of the great commerce which would be
done there, independently of the opening of Abyssinia and of the interior
of Africa to the arts and civilization, the Red Sea abounds in natural
riches, and the fishermen of the Mediterranean would transport themselves
thither in crowds in pursuit of pearls, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell,
sponges (the finest in the world), coral, fish oils, &c. &c.”
Mr. Anderson in his pamphlet already quoted, says: “In a political point
of view, the advantages which the English Government will derive from the
Canal are almost incalculable. From Malta troops could be transported
to Bombay in three weeks, to Ceylon and Madras in four weeks, and to
Calcutta in thirty-five days at most, instead of the four or five months
now required by a sailing vessel. Under such circumstances it would
require scarcely half the number of English troops for the efficient
government of India. The facility for despatching ships of war with
munitions and men would thus increase the stability of the British power,
while the cost would be considerably diminished.”
“In a commercial point of view, the advantages would be still more
considerable: British India contains a population of 150,000,000,
including, with the subjects of the British Crown, its allies and
tributaries. China does not contain less than 350,000,000 of inhabitants:
to say nothing of the other rich and populous countries of the East.
Let us suppose that in consequence of the progress and developement
of commerce, each Indian and Chinese should augment his outlay in the
purchase of English produce by one shilling; this modification alone,
insignificant as it appears, would augment the amount of exports by
25,000,000. Now is it not evident that the opening of the Maritime
Canal will greatly facilitate commercial relations, and tend to lower
the price of all merchandize? the 500,000,000 of human beings peopling
India and China are still sunk in ignorance and superstition. With
steam navigation, which will be developed beyond all conception by the
opening of the Canal, these people, brought into daily communication with
European ideas, will enter by degrees into the current of science and
civilization.”
We will terminate these quotations by an extract from a very remarkable
work published in the “Papers for the People,” inserted in the _Revue
Britannique_ (for 1852), and in which the cutting through the Isthmus
is regarded as a practical solution of the maintenance of the British
power in India. We read there:—“If in spite of the concourse of several
adverse circumstances, we firmly believe that our country will be able
to effect the union of the two Seas, it is because this measure will
soon become imperiously necessary for the maintenance of our empire
... all nations would find immense advantage in the creation of a new
route opened to navigation; this evident advantage, offered to the
European states nearer to Africa, has even been seriously adduced as a
fit argument to divert England from an enterprise, the result of which
might be problematical. We encounter here one of the old distrusts of
that worn-out theory, that miserable tissue of mistakes that took upon
itself to teach, that a people is only rich and flourishing in proportion
as its neighbours are indigent and unfortunate. Doubtless the countries
of Europe nearest to the East will derive a considerable profit from the
opening of the Isthmus of Suez, but our egotism ought to find therein a
motive for satisfaction; for we cannot be ignorant of the fact, that the
developement of commerce, whatever the means employed, always ends by
bringing the better part of the profits to the most intelligent and most
numerous firms. For our own part, such is our belief. England, and more
than one other nation by its example, appear to us called to great works
which will throw into shade the most striking deeds of history. Among
these works of the future, it appears to us that the cutting through
the Isthmuses of Panama and Suez stand in the first rank, and which
multiplying and strengthening the ties by which people of all climates,
of all races, of all beliefs are united to Great Britain, will connect
for ever the general prosperity of nations with the happiness of our
country, their security with its power, their independence with its
liberty.”
We believe we have abundantly proved the possibility of constructing the
Maritime Canal with its two entrances, one from the Mediterranean, the
other from the Red Sea, and its interior harbour at Lake Timsah. The
facilities and advantages which it offers to commerce and navigation as
well as to Egypt can no longer be a matter of doubt, and let us say with
the illustrious author of the memorial upon the Nicaragua Canal:—“Think
of the almost miraculous effects which will be produced by the annual
passage across this fine country of 2 to 3000 vessels, which would
exchange their productions for those of the East, and cause life and
riches to circulate everywhere. We may picture to ourselves those shores,
now so solitary, peopled with towns and villages; those lakes now gloomy
and silent, furrowed by ships; those rugged lands fertilised, and the
interior canal carrying the benefits of civilization into the heart of
the country.”
It only now remains to enter upon the financial and economical
considerations of the undertaking; but before approaching this part of
the question, it is necessary to complete the exposition of the scheme by
describing the canal of communication and irrigation which will connect
the interior of Egypt with the Maritime Canal.
This Canal must fulfil three conditions.
It should be of a section sufficiently large to admit the craft and
steam boats that navigate the Nile, in order to allow access to the
interior harbour from all points of Egypt without the inconvenience of
trans-shipment. The volume of water to be supplied to the Canal should be
sufficient, after allowing for all losses by evaporation, infiltration,
and the passage of the locks, for the irrigation of 100,000 _feddans_
(40,000 _hectares_) during the winter, and 60,000 _feddans_ (24,000
_hectares_) during the summer. Lastly, the level of the water ought to
be maintained at the most favourable height for the natural irrigation
of the immense tracts of land in the Isthmus which now remain barren for
want of water.
To fulfil these conditions, the receipt of water for the alimentary and
irrigating Canal may be established a little above Boulak at Kusr el Nil
where the mouth of the Kalidj Zafranieh is, which loses itself to the
north of Cairo in the Kalidj Manjeh, the ancient canal of Trajan and
Amrou; this canal was partly re-excavated by Mehemet Ali to nearly the
same dimensions as those required for the new Canal, and as far as Tell
el Zoudieh. By following this track a great economy is already obtained.
The Canal also exists farther on as far as Belbeïs, but of smaller
dimensions; from Belbeïs, in order to maintain the water at a suitable
height, the Canal is made to pass a little more to the East outside
the cultivated lands, which will give the Company an opportunity of
irrigating and fertilising the bordering tracts at present uncultivated.
The canal then proceeds northward as far as _Ras el Wady_ (head of the
valley), the Pitoum of the Bible. This course exists of small dimensions,
but in several parts of its route it may be turned to account. There
will not be great expense in completing the line as far as Lake Timsah;
life would thus be given to Cairo by traversing it with a navigable
passage, of which it is destitute at present. It would then be necessary,
during the time of the low water, to raise the waters of the Nile to a
height of three _metres_ by means of steam pumps of 500 horse power;
and when the barrage, for which His Highness Mohammed Saïd Pacha has a
project, is completed, the reflux will facilitate, with the assistance of
steam power, the introduction of the waters of the Nile into the Canal
during the six months of the low waters.
The width of the Canal has been fixed at 25 _met._, measured on the water
line at the time of the inundation. This width is sufficient to allow
two steam boats to pass each other without inconvenience. Moreover,
precautionary measures may be adopted at the entrances of the locks, to
prevent collisions, if it should become necessary hereafter.
The depth of the bed of the Canal below the natural surface of the
ground in the first part or first dam, as far as the north of Tell el
Zondieh, is 7 _metres_, that is to say, at the level of the low waters
of the river, and at 14 _metres_ above the level of low water in the
Mediterranean, the fall of the Canal has been fixed at 0,03 in a 1000
_metres_, in order to secure a speed that shall not exceed O _m._, 65
per second, and that shall not destroy the banks of the Canal. This
arrangement will enable us to supply, during the high waters of the
increase, a volume of water for inundating the lands, of 40 to 50 _cubic
metres_ per second, or 3,500,000 to 4,000,000 _cubic metres per diem_.
As the inundation has to be continued during 100 days at the most, and
each _feddan_ of land ought to have a quantity of 8,400 _cubic metres_ of
water, that is to say, two _cubic metres_ of water to each _square metre_
of land, 47,600 _feddans_ might thus be inundated during the 100 days.
This quantity of water is given to irrigate the lands and leave upon them
the deposits of the river, or the mud which is the manure of the Egyptian
soil; but when the lands which the Company will bring into cultivation
have been thus improved by two or three complete inundations, there will
be a greater disposable quantity of water, and the number of _feddans_ to
be brought into cultivation may be augmented.
The lands being thus fertilised and cultivated in two ways; first by
inundations as we have just said, afterwards by irrigation during the
second part of the year, that is to say, during the low waters; then in
order to secure sufficient water for the Canal of which the receipt of
water is above the actual low water, steam machines will be employed at
the backwater of the barrage.
In order to have during the heats of summer a volume of water that shall
be sufficient for the irrigation of 60,000 _feddans_ (24,000 _hectares_),
for the loss by evaporation, and the waste at the last locks of Lake
Timsah, there will be required—
_met. cub._
_per diem_ 1,200,000
For the passage of the locks, the dimensions
of which are:—length 54 _met._
breadth 12 _met._
mean fall 3 _met._
Taking forty passages _per diem_, the
amount will be 80,000
For evaporation, infiltration and other losses,
say 15 _per cent._ of the serviceable quantity,
viz. 192,000
---------
Total quantity of water to be supplied
_per diem_ 1,472,000
=========
The height that the water has to be raised being 2 _metres_, and a pump
of one horse power, raising 60 _litres_ per second for one _metre_, pumps
of five and six horse power will give the required quantity.
We establish therefore steam pumps of five and six horse power at the
head of the Canal, as well as a barrage lock with gates both ways, in
order to guard against the great risings of the Nile, and to retain the
waters of the Canal when the river has subsided.
The Company will thus be able to fertilise 100,000 _feddans_, of which
60,000 will be by irrigation, and which will give the richest produce.
The Canal follows the course of the Zafranieh as far as Tell el Yaoudieh,
where there is a lock of 2 _met._, 50 fall; it then leaves this ancient
water-course to the left as far as _Ras-el-Wady_: in this interval there
are three other locks.
Leaving _Ras-el-Wady_, the track of the Canal is directed so as to keep
it as high as possible, and to avoid the downs which occupy the whole
of the valley, and are constantly moving from south to north: all these
downs should therefore be fixed by seed-plots, and their superfice
may perhaps be approximately estimated at 50,000 _hectares_. The
valley called _Wady-Tomilat_ comprises two quite distinct parts; the
first, from _Abasseh-Mollaut_ to the east as far as _Ras-el-Wady_, is
well cultivated; the other from this point, as far as Lake Timsah, is
uncultivated and covered with shrubs, which will furnish an excellent
combustible for the manufacture of lime and bricks, as well as for the
requirements of the workmen, until it is cultivated. At present the
waters of the Nile spread naturally during the inundation for half the
distance from _Ras-el-Wady_ to Lake Timsah. The _Ras-el-Wady_ channel
extends along the valley with a depth of 7 _metres_, and it opens into
Lake Timsah with a double lock, forming together a fall of 7 metres.
Above this lock there is a water-course for irrigation running towards
Suez, and a conduit of water on the Charmeroi system which goes towards
Pelusium, so that, for the whole extent of the Isthmus, there will be
water in abundance for the use of the workmen; the water-course for
irrigation is 20 _metres_ wide, 8700 _metres_ in length, and has a fall
of ,04 per _kilom._, which gives a difference of 3 _met._, 48 in the
level.
So that at Suez the water-line of the water-course will be 7 _met._,00
- 3,48 = 3,52. The depth of the canal being 1,50, it will be seen that
its bed will be 2,02 above the level of low water, and near about that
of high water. There will consequently be no fear of the infiltration of
salt water.
The section of the water-course thus determined, will rule for one-third
of its length, but its breadth will be reduced to 15 _metres_ for a
second third, and to 10 _metres_ for the remaining third.
The water-course of Suez follows the direction and even the bed of the
ancient canal, as far as the Serapeum, the culminating point of the bar
of that name; it then leaves the ancient canal to the east, to avoid the
sands, passes into a solid plain, makes the circuit of the grand basin of
the Isthmus, arrives at the narrowest part, and continues in the plain at
a sufficient height not to let the fresh water pass into the low and salt
lands.
If on the Pelusiac side, a conduit of water has been adopted instead of
an open water-course, it is in order to obtain fresh water more quickly
for the whole length of the Maritime Canal, and because the tillage on
the Pelusiac side does not begin until after that of Suez. And the pipes
when they shall be replaced hereafter by a water-course, will serve to
form a good distribution of water in the town which will arise at Port
Timsah.
The advantages of the undertaking are now demonstrated. But it is not
so with regard to the returns which it will give to the shareholders.
Doubt is prevalent in the financial world, in consequence of the widely
different estimates made by the engineers, both as to the cost and the
probable returns. We have therefore directed our investigations more
particularly to this capital point of the question, taking care to guard
against every kind of exaggeration, in order to arrive at accurate and
conscientious results, and at figures as near as possible to the truth.
We are now about to present the result of our investigations in this last
part of our labours.
ESTIMATE OF THE COST.
ARTICLE I.
EARTH-WORKS.
We have adopted in our calculations for the Canal, the depth of 6 _met._
50 below low water, which will give for the _minimum_ 7 _met._ 50, and
for the _maximum_ 8 to 9 _met._ draught of water, by the disposition of
the locks and the elevation of the tides of the Red Sea. If this figure
should not be found sufficient, it would be easy to increase it by the
dredging machines, a certain number of which will always be kept, and
which would not prevent the navigation of the Canal.
_met. cub._
The total quantity of removal required for the excavation
of the Grand Canal, according to the calculations made
from the sections, is 74,679,132
Of which the part to be excavated to the level of low
water in the Mediterranean is 17,473,790
----------
the remainder 57,205,342
is below this level.
EARTH-WORKS IN THE DRY.—For the first part, we have similar
works executed in Egypt; these are the three Canals dug
to receive the waters of the Nile arising from the reflux
caused by the barrage. Two of these canals have a breadth
of 100 _met._ at the bed; 4 _met._ 50 mean depth, with
banks 25 _met._ wide. They are all three dug in clay,
which is very stiff at some points.
The works having been executed by the Government, the
pay of the workmen was very low: 1½ _piast._ (0 _fr._
37½) was given to able workmen; 1 _piast._ (0 _fr._ 25)
to others, and 30 _paras_ (0 _fr._ 20) to children; the
corresponding work done was 1 _met._ 25, cube _per diem_.
If this ratio were adopted, it would evidently be too
low; for the Company could not, and would not, exercise
such an authority over the people of the country.
It is true, that these prices are voluntarily accepted by
the fellahs in the villages; but they are at home with
their families, and are able to cultivate some patches of
land on their own account. They would not willingly leave
their families, unless to obtain higher wages, which
would be at the _maximum_, 2½ _piast._ (0 _fr._ 62½).
An average of 2½ _piast._ (0 _fr._ 62½) _per diem_, must
be reckoned upon, not including the supply of bread and
water, which would cost 1 _piast._ in addition. Say,
therefore, 3½ _piast._ or in round numbers, 0 _fr._ 90.
At these wages, with good superintendence, 1 _met._ 50,
cube _per diem_ might be required; for, in the works
which we have carefully observed, we have adopted the
formula 2 + _n_ = 8 _met. cub._ to fix the task of the
workmen employed. In which formula _n_ indicates the
number of relays of 25 _met._ In the present case,
supposing the average distance from the centre of removal
to the centre of deposit to be two relays, the formula
would give 2 _met. cub._ and moreover the excavation is
to be made in very light ground. We are therefore sure
that the figure 1 _met._ 50 cube, is rather below than
above the mark. The cubic metre will thus come to 0 _fr._
61.—At this rate the first portion of the earth-works
would cost _fr._ 10,484,274
EARTH-WORKS UNDER WATER.—For the second part we assume,
that it will be done entirely by steam dredges, in two
series. The first composed of dredges of twenty horse
power performing the excavations to the depth of four
metres; and the second composed of dredges of thirty-five
horse power, making the excavations to the depth of 7
_met._ 50.