the circle of which extends daily more and more, for the projected
Canal will be the triumph of steam; it will greatly increase the use of
the screw, and give a new stimulus to British navigation, which will
be charged with the delivery of English coal throughout the whole line
from London to Australia. We will therefore only examine the case of
navigation by sailing vessels. Now, we learn from history, that from
the most distant ages, this navigation has flourished in the Red Sea,
and that after the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope (in 1497), the
Portuguese considered it necessary to have a fleet, which, in 1538,
destroyed all the merchant vessels of the Turks and Venetians. If in
later times commerce took the way of the Cape, we have only to thank the
Turkish sovereignty of the period, which allowed the arts, sciences,
and industry to perish, at the same time that it forbade the navigation
of the Red Sea to the European nations. How can this navigation be
considered full of danger at the present day, when nautical science
and the art of ship-building have made such great progress, and when
everything relating to the winds, the currents, and the coasts of the Red
Sea, is perfectly well known?
To leave no doubt on the subject, we will repeat the most important
observations which have been made on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.
This is what the English traveller, Bruce, says in 1769:—
“Those who are at all acquainted with the history of Egypt, are aware
that the north wind, there called the Etesian wind, prevails during
the six hottest months of the year. The two chains of mountains, which
confine Egypt to the east and west, compel this wind to follow precisely
this northerly direction. It is reasonable to suppose that it would be
the same for the Arabian Gulf, if the course of that narrow sea were
parallel to the land of Egypt. But the Red Sea extends nearly from
north-west to south-east, from Suez to Mocha; there it alters its course,
and proceeds nearly from east to west, as far as its junction with the
Indian Ocean at the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.
“Thus the Etesian wind, which is due north in Egypt, follows the course
of the gulf, and blows with force in that direction all the summer; that
is to say, that from the month of April till the month of October, the
north-east wind prevails over the whole extent of the Red Sea, descending
as far as the straits; and that from November to March, the wind has
quite a contrary direction, and ascends the gulf from the straits of
Bab-el-Mandeb, up to the Isthmus of Suez.
“It is observed, then, that a vessel starting from Suez, in any of the
summer months encounters a very violent north-west wind, which will carry
it direct from the gulf to Mocha. At Mocha the coast goes from east to
west, as far as the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Thus a vessel sailing from
Mocha will, in a short space of time, experience variable winds but
mostly blowing from the west, and these winds will soon carry it to the
straits. It therefore no longer wants the monsoon of the gulf, which blew
from the north; and when it has passed into the Indian Ocean, it meets
with another monsoon blowing in an opposite direction, during the six
summer months, to the one which had favoured its progress in the Red Sea.
This monsoon is no less favourable; it blows from the south-west, and
carries the ship full sail, without delay or obstacle, into any required
port of India.
“Returning, the same advantages may be secured by setting sail during
the winter months with the monsoon peculiar to that sea, which then
blows from the north-east, and will carry the ship to the straits of
Bab-el-Mandeb. When the straits are passed it will meet with a south-east
wind in the gulf, exactly contrary to the one in the ocean, but the
course of the ship is also contrary, and this south-east wind, following
the direction of the gulf, will bring it to Suez. All this is clear,
simple, and easily understood, and thus it is, that in the earliest ages
the commerce of India was carried on without any difficulty.
“Thus the philosophy, the observation and the indefatigable perseverance
of man, who endeavours to carry out every project which his interest
suggests, triumphing over difficulties, have taught the navigators of
the Arabian Gulf, that those periodical winds which they had, at first,
regarded as insuperable obstacles to the trade of the Indian Ocean, are,
when understood, the safest and the quickest means of performing the
voyage.”
Mr. Rooke, an English officer, speaks in these terms, of the navigation
of the Red Sea in a letter dated April 25, 1782.
“The construction and management of the vessels are equally singular,
and I fear any description will fall infinitely short of the original;
they were, I believe, designed by those who built them, to bear some
resemblance to ships, but, having few of the properties of those
machines, proceed on a principle totally different from any I before
beheld; that _primum mobile_ to which ships of other countries are
indebted for their voyages is here of little use, and calms are more
favourable than wind to forward their progress; ... they ... seem
equally averse to a fair as to a contrary wind, remaining at anchor
until it subsides into a calm, their busy scene then commences, the
anchor is weighed and the vessel put in motion by means of the boat with
about twenty oars in it, towing till a breeze springs up; when this
begins to be more than what our seamen call a light air, they hurry to
the shore and let go their anchor, and for this purpose always choose a
berth the most environed by rocks and shoals, never thinking themselves
secure but when in the midst of danger; their common time of anchoring
was about two o’clock in the afternoon, for about that time the breeze
generally freshened, and in proportion as that increases they put out
anchors, till they have six in the water, and two or three hawsers
besides, to tie them to the surrounding rocks: ... in what they called
good weather, we had not above two anchors out, and if it fell calm after
sunset they ventured to get one of them up, that they might be ready for
the land breeze in the morning, which generally sprung up at two o’clock
and blew till nine or ten.... I believe, without these land breezes we
should never have arrived at Suez; a circumstance that very frequently
happens to many vessels of this annual fleet, for if they do not make
good their passage before the latter end of May, the northerly winds blow
so constantly as to render it impossible, for vessels that cannot work to
windward, to get up the narrow channel from Tor to Suez.
“When it is remembered that the journey from London to Madras has been
performed in sixty-three days, it is surprising to see the English
neglect so great an advantage when they have the power of securing it.”
Vice Admiral Rosily, who navigated the Red Sea in 1789, on board the
frigate Venus, and who was consulted by M. Lepère, was far from admitting
the dangers and difficulties of the Red Sea to be as great as is usually
supposed. In fact, these dangers, conjured up solely by the ignorance of
ancient and modern navigators, have been accredited by general opinion,
or rather by general mistake. The frigate Venus traversed the Red Sea
in all directions without experiencing either damage or difficulty.
We may therefore rest assured, that no merchant vessel will encounter
any difficulties but those which are inseparable from all narrow seas;
the Adriatic, which is still narrower than the Red Sea, has never been
considered impassable.
The coasts alone of the Red Sea are dangerous, but the number of
anchorages is so great that the sailors of the country never navigate at
night, but anchor every evening. In rough weather they remain at anchor
sometimes for a week or a fortnight at the same place, without daring to
gain the open sea or take advantage of any wind that would be favourable
to an European ship.
The excellent work of Commander Moresby and Captain Rogers on the Red
Sea, written by command of the East India Company, to resolve the
question of its navigation, and in consequence of which the steam service
of the Red Sea was established; this excellent work, we say, if it does
not represent the monsoons to be as regular as is stated by Bruce, does
not contradict the generality of the facts given by that traveller, as
may be judged from the following extracts:—
OF THE WINDS AND CURRENTS BETWEEN SUEZ AND GEDDAH, BY CAPTAIN
MORESBY.
“From Suez to Geddah, during the whole course of the year,
the wind is generally north, and blows, at times, with great
violence; but it abates usually at the change of the moon.
During the winter months, from December to April, the south
wind prevails, sometimes for a few days, and occasionally blows
fresh, more particularly in the Sea of Suez, where it sometimes
attains the force of a moderate gust. At this season gusts from
the west are not uncommon in the Sea of Suez, and are much
dreaded by the inhabitants in consequence of their violence. On
the Arabian coast, near Geddah, to the south and north of that
port, the north and north-west winds sometimes blow with great
violence during the winter months, and bring with them clouds
of dust from the land.
“The south wind, which blows sometimes from October to May,
generally occasions a current of twenty or thirty miles a day.
After a gust from the north-west, when there is a light breeze,
there is generally a current towards the north. It is then
better to beat along the Arabian side than the Egyptian, as was
the practice of ancient navigators, who considered the latter
coast more healthy.
“The average length of the passage from Geddah to Cosseir
depends so much on circumstances, that it is impossible to
assign any fixed term for it. It is, however, rarely more than
twenty or less than ten days. With the boats of the country it
takes from twenty-five to thirty days, and sometimes more.”
ON THE WINDS AND CURRENTS OF THE RED SEA THROUGHOUT THE YEAR,
BY CAPT. ROGERS.
“From the beginning of October to the end of April, during
what we may call the winter months, between the straits of
Bab-el-Mandeb and Gebel Tor, in about latitude 15° 30´ north,
the wind may be said to blow continually from the south, with
the exception of a day or two at the time of the new or full
moon, when it sometimes blows from the north. But frequently,
for two months at a time, there is no change.
“From Gebel Tor to latitude 19° or 20° the winds are variable
at the same period, and blow as much from the north as from the
south. One or other of these winds respectively prevails as you
approach one or the other of these limits.
“From 21° to 27° the north wind prevails during the same
season, but half a lunation seldom passes without there being
one or two days of south wind, especially from the end of
November to the beginning of March.
“From 27° to Suez, the wind is, almost constantly, north, and
seldom interrupted by any wind from the south, unless it be in
the months of December, January, and February.
“In June, July, August, and September the north wind prevails
without interruption, throughout the whole extent of the Red
Sea, from Suez to Bab-el-Mandeb. Occasionally a change takes
place, from the land side, principally in August and September,
and during these months a fast sailer can make thirty-five
miles a-day, beating from Mocha to Suez. In December, January,
and February, a vessel will sometimes meet with a good wind
from Mocha to Cosseir, and accomplish the run in six or seven
days, whereas it is impossible to do the same from Cosseir to
Mocha except in summer.”
It appears from these extracts that the Red Sea is easily navigable, at
all seasons, by sailing vessels, and that it is always possible so to
arrange the periods of departure as to traverse it in both directions.
We ought also to take into account the inconveniences experienced in
the voyage round the Cape, resulting from the settled calms succeeding
the continued tempests, the diseases which decimate the crews, and the
disasters which are so frequent on passing the equator. We should also
take into consideration that, if the difficulties are greater during a
good part of the year for vessels going up the Red Sea, vessels coming
down are, for that very reason, sure to meet with favourable winds.
To leave no doubt on so important a question, and on which depends, in
part, the success of the enterprise in contemplation, we will give a
passage from a paper communicated to the _Société de Géographie_, by
Count d’Escayrac de Lauture, the motto of which is,
“Aperire terram gentibus.”
“If the _minimum_ distances which separate the ports of Europe
from those of India, on the one part by the Cape of Good Hope,
and on the other by the Canal of the two Seas, be compared with
each other, enormous differences in favour of the latter route
will be made manifest. These differences become still greater,
when it is recollected that, in navigation, a straight line is
far from being the shortest way from one point to another, and
that navigators only reach their destination by successively
following a certain number of courses, which form greater or
lesser angles with each other.
“So that instead of steering directly for the Cape of Good
Hope, mariners starting from Europe or the Atlantic ports of
North America to go to India, must make the Canaries or the
Azores; get into the track of the trade winds of the northern
hemisphere, reach the coast of Brazil, and make Cape Frio, or
put in at Rio Janeiro. It is only then that they can make for
the Cape of Good Hope, better named, perhaps, Cape Tempestuous.
They clear at length the Agulhas Bank, reach Bourbon or the
Mauritius, and thence proceed to India in the track of the
monsoon.
“Vessels from the Mediterranean have still greater
disadvantages to contend against. It frequently takes them a
fortnight to pass the straits of Gibraltar, in consequence
of the west wind which prevails in those straits, and the
rapid current which pours the waters of the ocean into the
Mediterranean.
“The consequence is, that the passage to India takes at least
from five months to five months and a half. The passage back
is rather more direct, without being to any perceptible degree
shorter. The coast of Africa may then be followed more closely,
thanks to the trade winds of the southern hemisphere. The place
to put in at, in this case, is St. Helena.
“If we now examine the conditions to which navigation is
subjected in the three seas nearest to Suez, that is to say,
the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Oman, we shall
find that in the Mediterranean the winds blow from the north
during the greater part of the year, change to the south by
east towards the spring, and return to the north, passing by
the west and north-west. The case is nearly the same with
regard to the Red Sea, where the north wind, which is the most
frequent, drives the waters in the direction of Bab-el-Mandeb,
so that when the calm succeeds, a current is observed running
north. This is evidently produced by the waters which had been
raised in the south endeavouring to regain their level. The
south wind usually succeeds the calm.
“The Gulf of Oman has two monsoons, that from the north-east,
which prevails with more constancy in the winter, and that from
the south-west, which blows with force in summer. The change
from one monsoon to the other is effected, there as elsewhere,
by a series of calms and gusts of wind.
“From these circumstances it would appear most advantageous to
sail to India by the canal in summer and autumn, and to return
towards the spring.
“The great shortening of the distance between the ports of
Europe, and those of India, is not the only advantage which
commerce will derive by frequenting the canal of the two Seas.
In fact, vessels will not only reach their destination in a
shorter time, but will meet on their route with numerous ports
to put in at, and, what is more important still, considerable
markets. The voyager, after having followed the easy track of
the Mediterranean, will sell a part of his cargo in the Canal
of Suez, or at Geddah; will buy ivory at Massaoux, Souken and
Berbera, which he will either exchange in India, for opium, or
carry on to China to obtain silk or tea.
“He will complete his homeward cargo with the colonial produce
of Manilla, the Sunda Islands, and Ceylon, with cotton from
India, or Egypt, with coffee from Abyssinia, or Yemen, with
gum from Soudan or Hedjaz, with corn from Lower Egypt, or with
rice from Damietta. And these multifarious operations, which
now require years, will be safely and rapidly accomplished with
little capital and small ships.
“In fact, by reducing the time required for commercial
operations we also reduce the general costs, make a much
greater number of these operations possible in a given time,
and, by that means, give facilities to small traders, by far
the most numerous class.
“By opening to navigation an easier and safer route, we bring
into use ships of less tonnage, and more economically equipped;
in one word, we throw open the road to India to the coasting
trade—WE DEMOCRATISE COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.”
To these details, we will add our own personal observations. We may say
that the navigation of the Red Sea is always easy, from the straits to
Raz Mohammed, because there are no rocks in the middle of the gulf, and
it being always possible to beat when the monsoon is not favourable, and
if some danger is to be feared at Raz Mohammed, from whirlwinds, currents
and rocks, they will disappear as soon as a good lighthouse is erected,
and a station of steam tugs established to assist vessels against the
contrary winds.
Sailing may then be said to have attained the limit of its advantages,
for it will profit by favourable winds to perform the transport service
with economy; and in those parts of the passage where difficulties are to
be encountered, steam will come in aid, by which danger and loss of time
will be avoided.
Another objection which has been raised against the direct canal is, that
being cut through moving downs, it will soon be encumbered by them, and
that the expense of keeping it in order, will consequently be so great,
that it will be necessary to abandon it, if it ever be undertaken.
To refute this objection we will recapitulate the facts in their actual
integrity.
From Suez to the extremity of the Bitter Lakes, the soil is, it is true,
sandy at the surface, but however sandy it may be, the winds do not
produce any modification in the superficial state of this part of the
Isthmus.
This is to be accounted for by the fine sand being kept moist by the sea
water, which reaches the surface by percolation and capillary attraction;
the sand, which is out of reach of the moisture, is coarse sand, or
rather small gravel, bound together by magnesian earth, in such a manner
that the wind has no effect upon it. So true is this, that at several
places in this desert we found, in December, 1854, the traces left by the
tents of the engineers who were employed there in 1847.
The best proof that can be given of the stability of the soil in this
part of the desert is the situation of the banks of the ancient canal,
which still remain all along, as far as the Bitter Lakes. The torrents of
rain which sometimes fall in this locality, may well, in 1200 years, have
worn ravines in these banks, and partly filled the canal. In some parts
even, the banks have been carried away by sudden torrents, but nowhere
are they buried by the sand. Vestiges of antiquity, two or three thousand
years old, may still be seen at the surface of the soil on the very line
through which the canal is to pass. It is only on approaching Lake Timsah
that moveable downs are met with, which surround and cut it in several
places, changing their shape rather than their position; all the other
downs which are met with in the form of chains of hillocks, and which
occupy the space comprised between the bar of El Guisr and Pelusium, have
long been naturally fixed by various plants, which have sprung up there
under the influence of heat and moisture. It is, then, only the downs
in the vicinity of Lake Timsah which require to be fixed artificially.
Now, the fixing of downs has already become a special branch of industry
presenting great advantages. The hills of sand which devastated the
_Landes_ of Bordeaux, and advanced every year into the interior of the
country, rendering it barren, are now transformed into magnificent pine
forests, which yield turpentine, pitch, various kinds of resin and timber.
This change, or rather this miracle, was effected by the simplest
means. After an attentive examination of the facts, M. Bremontier,
engineer-general, to whom we are indebted for the fixing of the downs,
had observed that, in digging at the summit of the most elevated downs,
the sand was moist at a few _centimetres_ from the surface.
Struck by this circumstance, he saw at once that vegetation would be
possible, if the sand could be prevented from being displaced by the
wind. He consequently imagined various means of obtaining this result,
and his efforts were crowned with complete success. He sowed on several
downs the seeds of the maritime pine, which have now become magnificent
forests.
After being assured, by long experience, of the advantages which might be
derived from the fixing of the downs, M. Bremontier addressed a report
to the Government of the Republic, in which are found the following
valuations:—
“The surface of the downs, which form the _Landes_ of Bordeaux,” says
he, “being equal to 337,000 _Bordeaux journaux_, of 840 _square toises_,
the amount required to fix the whole of these downs would be 8,000,000
_livres_. Now, a _journal_ (0 _hect._, 33) of sand planted with pines,
gives an annual return of fifteen _livres_, that of 337,000 _journaux_
would therefore be of 5,055,000 _livres_. It is supposed here that the
_Journal_ planted with pines only yields three quintals of resin, and
the price may be taken at five francs the quintal; but the plantations,
at the end of seven or eight years, will produce an immense quantity of
combustibles, and afterwards charcoal, boards, timber for building, and
finally tar. It is true that the pines are not of full value until twenty
or twenty-five years after planting; there will be, however, an interest
of twelve and a half per cent. as a deduction from all expenses.”
Much more simple means are employed at present, to fix the downs by
sowing, for it is mostly considered sufficient to plant branches of
broom, furze, or pine in quincunx upon the down to be sown and to scatter
various seeds broadcast, and cover them lightly with a rake. These are
called _tufted seed plots_. The expense of a _hectare_ is 66 _fr._, 80,
which is made up as follows, as appears from the accounts kept by the
engineers entrusted with these works:—
460 faggots at _fr._ 2,50 per C. _fr._ 11,50
16 _Kilos._ pine seeds 0,45 7,20
2 rush 2,50 5,00
2 furze 0,25 0,50
6 hay 0,10 0,60
Labour 1 day, 90. for a gang 22,10 41,99
-----
Cost of 1 hectare _fr._ 66,79
The gang is composed of—
A Foreman _fr._ 2,00 _fr._ 2,00
6 Workmen 1,25 7,50
12 Women 0,75 9,00
6 Children 0,60 3,60
-----
Total _per diem_ _fr._ 22,10
At the eighth year they begin to yield interest on the capital and cost
of keeping up (which is almost nothing), from the combustible that is
obtained by removing the surplus, from making charcoal, &c. &c. At twenty
years they begin to extract resin from the trees, at thirty years the
produce is most abundant, and continues up to eighty years, when the
wood is fit for building purposes. Then new seed plots are formed in
proportion as the old trees are removed.
The annual produce of resin gathered from a _hectare_ of pines is an
average of five _metric quintals_, which, at the rate of twenty-two
_francs_ per quintal, gives a revenue of 110 _francs_, and represents at
least seventy per cent. of the capital employed.
It will be seen by this statement, that the fixing of the downs has
become one of the most productive operations of Silviculture, and that it
offers one of the most advantageous investments for capital.