of wax, some years back, was about sixteen rupees per maund, (equal to
6_d._ per lb.,) but, of late years, it has more than trebled, in
consequence of the encreased demand. Here we see that want of system
which too often tends to annihilate what might, under due regulation, be
made a most advantageous concern. It is necessary to be understood, that
honey is of little value in India, the natives considering it
unwholesome, and the Hindus being particularly averse to destroying so
many lives, for the purpose of robbing their combs. These circumstances
tend to diminish the collection of wax, which, in some districts, hangs
for years neglected upon the briars in the jungles; and, added to the
jealousy of the _zemindars_, (or land-holders,) who rarely omit to exact
a very smart duty upon whatever is taken from their soil, deters those
who possess a spirit of enterprize from becoming dealers in wax. I have
not a doubt but that half a million of maunds might be annually
collected, if proper encouragement were held out, and a sale insured to
the adventurers, at any particular towns in the several districts where
bees are abundant. Within the last twenty years, a few Europeans have
established manufactories of wax-candles, which often sell for eighty
rupees per maund (82lb). This, though an excessive price, compared with
that formerly prevalent, comes to rather less than 2_s._ 6_d._ per lb.;
and, as the wax is always pure, it should seem, that, as an article of
commerce, much profit might be derived from importation. At present,
wax-candles are prohibited, although the price of raw bees’-wax is here
up to near 4_s._, and tallow at a very exorbitant height. I am greatly
mistaken, if the benefits this branch of business is capable of
yielding, both to the nation, and to individuals, are properly
understood.
To place this in a proper point of view will require but little detail;
for, if we say that wax candles, of the first quality, can be offered
for sale at Calcutta for £13. per cwt., and that raw wax sells with us
at 3_s._ 6_d._ per lb., or £19. 12_s._ per cwt., it is obvious that the
manufactured article might be imported to us at full 50 per cent.
cheaper than the raw material can be obtained on our own soil. Let us
compute this on the large scale; comparing the manufactured articles,
and making allowances for the fair value of the raw materials in either
country.
£
A ton of wax candles of Indian manufacture, even
at the high price of 80 rupees (_i.e._ £10.) per
maund of 82lb. would be 260
Freight, shipping, charges, and insurance, per ton 25
Wharfage, &c., on landing, per ton 5
——
Total 290
A ton of wax candles of European manufacture, at
£28. per cwt., equal to 5s. per lb. 560
——
Difference in favor of the Indian candles, per ton £270
——
Raw wax may be had at Calcutta for about forty
rupees per maund, or rather under £7. per cwt.
which brings the ton to 140
Freight, &c., as above 30
——
170
Whereas, the raw wax produced, in England,
generally sells for about 3s. 6d. per lb. or
£19. 12s. per cwt., or, per ton 392
——
Giving a balance in favor of Indian wax, of, per
ton £222
I have not made any allowance for duties; but it will be seen from the
above very simple calculation, that a very heavy impost might be laid on
either the raw material, or the manufactured article, without reducing
the profit so low as to leave no encouragement to the speculator. Let
us, however, set it down at £60. per ton, which is an enormous sum, and
say, that, in consequence of the great importation, wax should fall
one-third in price. This fall would reduce the ton of candles to £380.,
from which deduct the £60. duty, and there would be left £320.; so that,
after paying the £290. of cost and incidental charges, no less than £30.
would remain as the net profit on each ton. If we, in like manner, take
one third, say £132. from the £392. to result from the sale of the raw
material, and £40. more for duties, we reduce the net profits from £222.
to £50. In either way the speculation is highly interesting, and
requires only to be thoroughly examined to insure attention. I am not,
at this moment, prepared to say what may be the amount of duties
collected on wax, or of the excise on the manufacture of candles, but
apprehend that it must fall very short of what might be realized if wax
candles were more generally used in the houses of opulent persons. Some
forty years ago, when wax candles sold for three shillings per pound,
they were in great request. If, however, we calculate for the
importation of 3,000 tons of wax annually, in its raw state, paying a
duty of £40. per ton, we should find a result of no less than £120,000.
The foregoing estimate stands entirely on the present high prices of wax
in India, but which might, by proper regulations, be reduced to
one-third. Thus, if it were stipulated that the rents of certain
districts should be payable, to a particular extent, in crude wax, at a
fixed valuation, the quantity brought to market might, I am fully
confident, be equal to what I have already stated, viz. 500,000 maunds,
or 18,750 tons, which, taken at £200. only per ton, when landed, would
give a national benefit equal to £3,750,000! and a revenue of £650,000.
arising from the duty, at £40. per ton on the raw material!
When it is recollected how dependent we have been on other nations for a
supply of tallow; and that, on an average of peace and war, we pay
nearly £80. per ton for foreign tallow; also, that one wax candle of
equal weight will burn out two of tallow; it should seem evident, that
the importation of wax from our settlements abroad, as well as from
various Indian islands, in which it is abundantly produced, should
become an object of national consideration. The very unpleasant scent
attendant upon the use of tallow, and its great aptitude to gutter in so
hot a climate, occasion its use to be confined to those Europeans whose
circumstances may not permit them to use wax. This occasions all who
return from India, after long residence there, to be extremely
incommoded by the smell of mould candles; the smoke of which is, to
them, peculiarly offensive, and strongly calls to mind the _cheraugs_,
or oil-lamps, in common employ among the natives, and in the _zenanahs_
of Europeans.
The whole of the doors and windows being thrown open, during the
evenings especially, it would be impossible to prevent the current of
air, passing through every part of the interior, from extinguishing the
several lights, were it not that large glass covers, called shades, were
applied by way of preventives. Some of these shades are made to stand on
pillars, or pedestals, generally of wood, with brass ferules, and having
broad plinths, either square or circular, to prevent their being easily
overset.
The other kind of table-shade is by no means so convenient as that just
described, it being an irregular tube, standing on its base, or broader
extremity; and, though spreading in the centre, drawing narrower toward
the upper part. This kind requires to be much longer, so as to shelter
the flame of a candle standing on a candlestick, which should not,
properly, be more than six inches in height. The inconveniences by which
this shade is attended are self-evident; as it cannot be carried about,
or lifted, _in toto_, as the pedestal shade may be. Those lights which
are affixed to the walls, either on sconces, or brackets, or that are
suspended from hooks, are generally on the same principle; with this
necessary difference, that oil is chiefly burnt in such, by means of a
small glass tumbler half filled with water, on which the oil floats, and
supports a very slight tin tube with four tin wings, to each of which a
piece of cork is affixed. During the rainy season, when insects of every
description are beyond credibility numerous, it is often absolutely
necessary to remove all lights from the supper table; otherwise moths,
flies, bugs, &c., would be attracted in such numbers as to extinguish
them altogether, but, at all events, to prove extremely obnoxious. When
the lights are retained on the table, it is customary to place the
candlesticks in soup plates, &c., filled with water: by this means, such
insects, especially the stinking-bugs, which fly with great force, are
often precipitated and drowned: it is not unusual to catch whole
platefuls in this manner, which would otherwise continue to torment the
company. Nothing can exceed the irritation produced by these bugs when
they get into the hair, or between the linen and the body! Nor are they
in themselves innocent; for, though they neither bite nor sting, such is
the acrimony they possess, that, if bruised in such manner as to leave
any moisture on the skin, great heat, and sometimes blisters, followed
by excoriations that do not quickly heal, may take place. The same
effect is produced by the urine of lizards, which frequent the interior
of houses, and may often be seen in great numbers crawling about the
walls, or on the ceiling, (if we may so term the roofs already
described,) in pursuit of the smaller and more delicate insects, which
they snap up with great dexterity and greediness. It is really amusing
to observe with what sagacity and care they approach their prey, and
with what rapidity they dart forth their long tongues armed with gluten.
With respect to frogs, toads, and, occasionally, snakes, patrolling
about the skirts of the apartments, even of the best houses in the
country, they must be put up with as matters of course; as must also the
alighting of cock-roaches on the face while at table, or at cards, &c.:
nor, indeed, must the resident in India be very squeamish in regard to
bats, which freely indulge in aëriel circuits over the heads of the
company, on which, too, they now and then find it convenient to halt
awhile, without undergoing the previous ceremony of obtaining
permission. These all appear terrible drawbacks, but are scarcely
noticed after awhile: so strong is the power of habit. Certainly a very
considerable portion of the enjoyments, which might otherwise be
indulged in, are, in a manner, proscribed by these nuisances; but,
whether it be owing to that _ennui_ generally prevalent, or to that kind
of reconciliation which takes place between the pest and its sufferer,
may be difficult to determine; we, however, see all the old residents
treat insects, frogs, toads, &c., with great indifference; though, to be
sure, when a snake, of whatever class, makes his entrée, an astonishing
degree of activity, far beyond what the former lethargic symptoms could
indicate, suddenly prevails.
I have several times seen large snakes coiled, or rather twined, among
the Venetians of _bungalow_ windows, and have observed that the
grass-snake, which is of a beautiful green, with a reddish head, is
partial to secreting itself under the leaves of tables, and, in
situations of that description, where it may be easily dislodged, or
touched, by accident. Such a propensity is peculiarly obnoxious in a
serpent whose bite is generally fatal. This snake may occasionally be
seen twisted round the smaller boughs of trees, whence, if disturbed, it
drops with great readiness, and proceeds along the tops of the grass
with admirable celerity, and, owing to the similarity of its color,
scarcely allowing the dazzled eye to follow its course.
The _Cunjoors_ carry a great variety of serpents about the country,
which they are in the habit of exhibiting to families for a mere trifle.
Some, such as the _adjghur_ or _boa-constrictor_, which has been known
to reach the immense length of thirty feet, destroy by the extent of
their bite, or by compression; while the lesser species seem to be
provided with poison to make up for their deficiency of bulk. The
skeleton of an _adjghur_ was found near Chittagong, about forty years
ago, having in its fauces the skeleton of a full-grown deer; the horns
of which, it was supposed, had occasioned the suffocation of its
unwieldy devourer. I have seen one of this kind that required eight men
to lift him into his basket! An operation to which, either from habit,
or fatigue, it submitted with great resignation. The _covra capella_, is
the same as the hooded-snake of America, thus designated from a peculiar
spreading of the throat when in a state of irritation, so as to give it
much resemblance to a flounder, but with a curious figure extremely
similar to a pair of spectacles, which, being under the throat, is fully
exhibited as the snake rises, as he is wont to do, nearly half his
length, before he darts upon the object of resentment. These snakes are
peculiarly venomous, and, though averaging from three to five feet, are
seen to attain a larger size. I have shot four in one day, namely, two
males, of a black, or deep bottle green; and two females, ordinarily of
a clay color; which measured from six to nine feet. A few years ago, I
saw one exhibited by the _Cunjoors_, or _Saumpareahs_, (_i.e._
snake-men,) which actually measured about thirteen feet! The _daumeen_
grows to a large size, perhaps eight to twelve feet, but has no venomous
teeth, or fangs. He lashes with his tail, coiling into a bow, and
awaiting the approach of dogs, men, &c., before he lashes; which he does
with such severity as often to cut the integuments very deeply. The
natives entertain an opinion that the tail of this snake is venomous;
and it might be supposed, from the almost certainly fatal effects
produced by its operation, that it were so; but I have always attributed
the mischief occasioned thereby, to that laceration produced by a very
rough scaly body, such as the tail is, proceeding with great force over
parts well known to be peculiarly irritable; occasioning a strong
tendency to that most horrible affection the _tetanus_, or locked-jaw,
from which not one in a thousand recovers. The _covra manilla_ rarely
grows to more than fifteen or eighteen inches, and is of a mottled
appearance, very indicative of its deleterious property: if I err not,
its bite is invariably fatal. The double-headed snake receives that name
from its body being nearly cylindrical, the tail terminating in a short
cone, resembling a second head. This snake is chiefly seen in hilly
countries, but is occasionally washed down by the annual floods, to the
plains, where it is found in drains and hollows, from which it does not
appear to be over-well qualified to escape. Its average length may be
from two to three feet, and its thickness, or circumference, from four
to six inches.
It may be acceptable to my readers, while upon this subject, to be
informed of the antidote; viz. the volatile alkali, or eau de luce. A
few drops of this diluted sufficiently in a wine glass full of water, if
taken in time, and repeated every two or three hours, or even more
frequently, has been known to counteract the venom after its effects had
been so fully ascertained as to leave but little chance of recovery. I
never went out shooting without a small bottle of this, closed by a
ground stopper, in my tin box of apparatus. Fortunately, although I have
been repeatedly in imminent danger, and had snakes dancing the hayes all
around me, no occasion ever presented itself for having recourse to my
precautionary bottle!
The following extracts, from a very interesting communication made by W.
Boag, Esq. to the Asiatic Society, will set this matter in a proper
form, and qualify any person to judge of the danger, from the several
symptoms prevalent, in ordinary cases, when the venom takes effect. It
may be proper to premise, that many who have been bitten by snakes of
the worst description have not been affected; merely owing to the
thickness of their cloathing, by which the noxious fluid has been
absorbed.
Mr. Boag informs us, that ‘The symptoms which arise from the bite of a
serpent, are, commonly, pain, swelling, and redness in the part bitten;
great faintness, with sickness at stomach, and sometimes vomiting,
succeed; the breath becomes short and laborious; the pulse low, quick,
and interrupted: the wound, which was at first red, becomes livid,
black, and gangrenous; the skin of the wounded limb, and sometimes of
the whole body, assumes a yellowish hue; cold sweats and convulsions
come on, and the patient sinks, sometimes in a few hours, but commonly
at the end of two, three, or four days.
‘This is the usual progress when the disease terminates fatally; but,
happily, the patient will most commonly recover; a reflection which
should moderate the fears of those who happen to be bitten by snakes,
and which, at any rate, should, as much as possible, be resisted; as the
depressing passion of fear will, in all cases, assist the operation of
the poison.
‘The volatile alkali is the remedy mostly employed by physicians, both
in India and in Europe; but the belief which formerly prevailed, that it
possessed some specific power, which corrected the poison, seems to be
now very generally relinquished; and it is now acknowledged to have no
other action than that ascribed to it by Mr. Williams, (of Benares,) of
stimulating the vascular system to a more vigorous exertion.
‘The calces, or, as they are more properly called, the oxyds of some
metals, as arsenic, mercury, and silver, have been made use of; the
efficacy of which, as remedies in this disease, merit a more attentive
consideration.
‘We are indebted to FONTAUA for any knowledge we possess regarding the
use of the lunar-caustic; which is a preparation of silver in the
nitrous acid; and, considering the length of time that has elapsed since
his publication, and the advantages resulting from its use, it is
wonderful it has not excited more general attention.
‘He first mixed the venom with the lunar-caustic, applied this mixture
to a wound, and found that the venom was rendered entirely innocent,
while the corroding power of the caustic was diminished. He next wounded
a variety of animals, with venomous teeth, scarified the wounds, and
washed them with a solution of lunar-caustic in water: by this means,
the lives of the greatest number of the animals were saved, though they
were such as he knew to be most easily killed by the poison, and the
death of others was retarded. He also tried a weak solution, of the same
remedy, internally, with remarkable success, and, upon the whole, he
congratulates himself in seeing his labors at length rewarded, by the
discovery of a true specific remedy for the bites of serpents.
‘A ligature should, as soon as possible, be made above the part bitten,
so as to impede, but not entirely to stop, the circulation of the blood;
for the bite of a serpent is, for the most part, superficial, and the
poison is carried into circulation by the smaller vessels on the
surface; the wound should then be scarified, and washed in a solution
(rather weak) of the lunar-caustic in water.’
Mr. Boag recommends a warm bath for the limb bitten, and thinks the
addition of a small quantity of nitrous acid would produce excellent
effects. He speaks of it only as a suggestion, and, where time may
admit, and the means be at hand, there certainly ought to be a fair
trial made of so promising a theory: the misfortune is, that, owing to
the great heat of the climate, and the dread ever entertained of the
result, all the symptoms proceed with rapidity. That gentleman speaks of
several hours elapsing between the accident, and the fatal termination;
but my own experience satisfies me, that not one in ten of those bitten
during the hot months, and especially when at work, or heated with
travelling, &c., survive more than one hour: I have, indeed, seen
various cases, in which half that time was the utmost; and could adduce
some instances of persons dying within the _quarter_ of an hour.
Though snakes certainly, for the most part, endeavor to avoid the human
race, they have been known to come very fiercely to the attack. No
doubt, when this has happened, some previous irritation has occurred, or
they have been pursued by the ichneumon; (_i.e._ the _benjy_, _bissy_,
or _neoule_,) which is to be seen wild in every part of India, and may,
at times, be found contending with snakes of great bulk. This active
little animal, the natural enemy of all serpents, as well as of the
smaller kinds of vermin, worries his opponent by incessant feints, as
though he were about to seize its throat, and, in time, so fatigues, as
to render it unable to resist with its primary celerity and caution.
When the snake is in that state, the ichneumon rushes forward, and, by
seizing its throat, or the back of its head, soon lays the envenomed
reptile lifeless at its command. It sometimes happens that the ichneumon
receives a bite, when he immediately relinquishes his object, and seeks
among the neighbouring verdure for some root, of which he eats, and,
after rolling himself in the soil, returns to the charge with unabated
keenness. Should the snake have retired, the little quadruped speedily
scents him out, and rarely fails to revenge himself for his past danger.
What it is the animal has recourse to, never has been ascertained; of
course, remains among our other important desiderata. The ichneumon is
not only domesticated with facility, if obtained at an early age, but
becomes extremely affectionate. Neither rats nor snakes will enter a
house in which a tame ichneumon is retained, and allowed, as is usual,
to range about at pleasure. The _Saumpareahs_, or snake-men, keep one,
or more, for the purpose of exhibiting their feats in the attack of
snakes.
It is wonderful how accurately a _Saumpareah_ will ascertain, merely by
smelling at a hole in a wall, &c., whether a snake be within. If such
should be the case, the reptile’s fate may be considered as decided;
for, what with the music of a rude species of oboe, and the allurement
of various drugs, in which _dunneah_, a species of coriander, among
which snakes delight to bask, are prevalent, he soon comes forth, and is
either taken in a bag, or by an assistant snatching hold of his tail
with one hand, and sliding the other with great rapidity up to its
throat; which, being constricted by the grasp, occasions the fangs to be
exposed: these being extracted, the captive is added to the stock of
innocents.
Though diminutive, in regard to corporeal extent, the musquito may be
considered a most formidable enemy to the repose of almost every thing
possessing animation, but especially to Europeans; whose manner of
living generally gives a considerable tendency to general, as well as to
local, inflammation. In this I speak relatively; for, when we compare
the habits of our countrymen with those of the natives, we shall find
that a very great difference prevails, and that, what we might in Europe
call moderation, may, in Asia, very properly be construed into excess.
This difference is so great, that, in ordinary cases, the physicians’
first care is to lower the temperament of his British patient, thereby
to repress the usual tendency towards inflammation; especially in
persons of a plethoric habit, or lately arrived from Europe; while, on
the contrary, it generally requires some effort to keep the frugal
native from sinking under that _typhus_ to which he is most subject.
Musquitoes generally remain inactive during the day, retiring to the
borders of some muddy pool, or stinking drain, where they deposit their
_ova_, which, in a few days, produce a noxious million, that may be seen
in their several stages, at most times of the year, and especially
during the hot season, when such puddles are often both replete with,
and covered by, young musquitoes.
These unpleasant companions not only make a very disagreeable humming,
but thrust their trunks, the same as the common knat does his proboscis,
between the threads of a stocking, &c.; and, while sucking the blood of
their victim, cause a very smarting sensation, which does not
immediately cease; if scratched, a musquito-bite will usually rise into
a small white, hard lump; which, on further provocation, proceeds to
suppurate; frequently degenerating into very obstinate sores. Instances
have occurred of very serious consequences being entailed, by an
unguarded indulgence granted to the nails at the moment of irritation.
Every bed, (commonly called a _cot_,) is furnished with a set of inner
curtains, made of gauze, manufactured for that purpose in several parts
of Bengal, and known by the name of _koppradool_. These curtains, being
very thin, and generally of a green color, serve not only to debar
access to the musquitoes, but, without much obstruction to the air,
offer a pleasant medium between the eye, and any glare which may either
enter directly from the exterior, or be reflected by the walls; which,
in most houses, are white, as already explained in describing the
European architecture of the East.