walls, side by side, but not quite in contact, each resting on its
mouth, which consists generally of a rim, projecting about three or four
inches from the body of the vessel, which is nearly spherical. The
loosest sand that can be had, or, in its absence, any dry rubbish, is
then thrown in, so as to fill up all the intervals, and to cover the
pots, about four inches in depth. This surface being levelled, another
stratum of pots is added, if judged necessary; the whole process of
filling up is similar in both, and the tarras is laid in the usual
manner on the levelled surface.
By far the greater portion of the subsoil throughout Bengal, at least,
in that wide expanse reaching from Gogra to Dacca, on the north-east,
and from the Soane, along the plains at the foot of the hills, to the
debouchure of the Hoogly, (which, together, form the limits of our
richest, and most populous, _purgunnahs_, or districts,) is a loose,
gritty sand, very like what farmers term a _lush_; which, in a few
places, receives a strong red tint from the ferruginous mountains, every
where to be seen along either boundary. This extreme looseness of the
subsoil creates a most peremptory necessity for securing the foundations
of weighty buildings, by every possible means; and, in the sinking of
wells, is often found to present the most formidable obstacles.
Under such circumstances, it must appear self-evident, that those large
mansions forming the bulk of Calcutta, by which I mean that portion
raised, and inhabited, by Europeans; together with the several
garden-houses, and the numerous edifices on a large scale erected by the
natives, especially their places of worship, which are most ponderously
constructed; all these necessarily require to be very firmly founded:
nor can too much attention be paid to carrying off the water, which
pours down from the tops of the houses; lest the bases should be sapped,
and very serious injury be entailed.
With this intention, almost every _compound_, or enclosed area, is
either laid with pan-tiles, or is well coated with _soorky_, in the same
manner as the roads; while, in many instances, the junction of the wall
with the level of the area is concealed, and secured, by a _talus_,
blending with the building, at about a foot or more above that level.
With respect to _bungalows_, or any other buildings coming under the
designation of ‘temporary,’ their foundations are usually very shallow.
These are, for the most part, raised a foot or two from the surrounding
level; and, as their inner walls, that often run from sixteen to twenty
feet in height, are well secured by the _verandas_, which likewise
preserve the precinct, for full twelve or fourteen feet, from being
softened by the rains, very shallow foundations are deemed sufficient.
The surrounding parapet which limits, while it raises, the _veranda_, is
usually of burnt-brick, cemented with good mortar, and plastered over
with the same; but the whole of the residue of bricklayers’ work is such
as has been already explained. The _verandas_ of _bungalows_ are
sustained either by strong wooden posts, or by pillars of masonry; their
intervals are filled up with _jaumps_, before described, which may be
raised at pleasure, to any angle, including about 10°, or 15°, above the
horizontal; or they may be suffered to hang perpendicularly against the
exterior faces of the pillars. In tempestuous weather, and especially
during those violent squalls called ‘_north-westers_,’ in consequence of
their usually either commencing on, or veering round to, that quarter,
it will be found necessary to place the bamboo props, whereby the
_jaumps_ are usually elevated, against their exterior sides; by which
means the _jaump_ is pressed to the pillar, and becomes greatly exempted
from the danger of being blown away; which, nevertheless, frequently is
its fate, although its weight may be full a cwt. and a half, or even two
cwt.
The force of these _north-westers_ is next to incredible! I recollect
one in particular, which, in November 1787, tore up an immense tree,
called the ‘Barrackpore Beacon,’ on account of its being situated at a
point where it could be seen from Duckansore, along a beautiful reach of
the Hoogly river. This fine piece of timber measured nearly twenty feet
in girth, and branched out in the most luxuriant manner, reaching to
full seventy or eighty feet in height: it was torn up by its roots,
though some of the ramifications were much thicker than my own body,
leaving an excavation of not less than 15,000 cubic feet.
When stationed at _Hazary-Bang_, in the Ramghur district, my _bungalow_
was, I firmly believe, saved from falling by mere accident. It had
become fashionable to construct fire places in our halls, running up the
chimnies, so as to pierce the thatches immediately below the summit of
that wall in which the fire-place was made, and which served as the
front face of the chimney. Cutting through the wall, to make a proper
opening wherein to set the grate, I found that, in lieu of being firm,
as it should have been, the whole cut like so much butter. In
consequence of this discovery, I hastened the finishing of the stove,
which, in a short time, aired the room, and completely dried the walls;
but, not before they began to display very unequivocal tokens of what
would have taken place, but for my very fortunate adoption of the whim
then in vogue.
It is remarkable, that the _bungalow_ stood on a gentle declivity, from
which the superficial water was well drained; but, the soil was
proverbially spongy, and retained every shower, much the same as chalk,
but without its good qualities: thus, notwithstanding the floors, (or
tarrases,) were full two feet above the surrounding level, my habitation
would, I am well convinced, have subsided; burying every inhabitant
under its ruins! Probably, that fatal moment would have accorded with
the height of some _north-wester_; to whose fury the catastrophe would,
though erroneously, have been imputed.
The _verandas_ of _bungalows_ are generally allotted to the
accommodation of servants of all descriptions; and, except where, as in
Calcutta, a separate lodging-room is provided, serve for the home of
whatever _cahars_, or bearers, may be employed. These have each their
mat, on which they sleep, forming a pillow of any _g’hettry_, or bundle
of cloaths, and covering themselves with their quilts, &c.: blankets
being but very little in use among domestics of any description. When a
gentleman has company, the side-board is usually set out in the
_veranda_, where also the several guests’ _hookahs_ are prepared; and,
in rainy weather, their water cooled. All servants come upon being
called only; there being no bells hung in any part of the country, and
very, very few even of hand-bells to be seen. The common call, _Qui hi_?
(meaning ‘who is there?’) often rouzes a dozen of the slumbering crew,
though it is occasionally repeated, with some vociferation too, before
one will stir. Although to many _bungalows_ there are abundance of
out-offices, some of which may have been built for the reception of
palanquins, and especially of a gig, (there called a _buggy_,) few
persons allow either their _mahanahs_, or their _boçhahs_, to be kept in
such places, as they would be subject to various unpleasant purposes,
whereby their interior especially would often be soiled: this objection
acts likewise in some measure towards the common practice of retaining
the gig, as well as the palanquin, within the _veranda_; the latter is
easily lifted in and out by the bearers, but the former requires that a
_ramp_, or slope, should be made, up and down which the _syce_ (or
groom) draws it with facility. All conveyances, when housed, are covered
with a double cloth, usually made of _karwah_.
Throughout Calcutta the doors are pannelled, and have, generally,
handsome brass mountings, with mortice locks; the windows are well
glazed; and, in many instances, the rooms are laid with superb carpets,
either of European, Persian, or Mirzapore manufacture: the two latter
are generally made of silk; exhibiting not only rich patterns, but the
most brilliant colors, at least equal to any made at our manufactories.
The floors, or, more properly speaking, the tarrases, are almost
invariably covered with a matting made of a species of rush, which
possesses considerable firmness and pliancy. This, after being duly
cleansed from fibres, &c. is made up into bundles, about a cubit in
length, and nearly the same in girth, in which state it is well soaked:
from these bundles the mat-makers, who are usually of the _Cunjoor_
tribe, weave the mats upon a kind of woof made of twine, but perfectly
concealed by the rushes. Some of these mats are made plain; while others
are in various stripes, or in chequers. With this manufacture a room of
any size may be fitted; the work being either done on the spot, or at
the houses of the persons employed; the color is generally that of faded
straw; though, sometimes, red or black rushes, dyed for the purpose, are
introduced. For the accommodation of persons residing in parts where
they cannot have floors fitted with entire mats, long strips, of about a
yard wide, and four or five yards long, are sold in almost every great
_bazar_ (or market). These require to be sewed side by side, the same as
our Scotch carpeting; but, exclusive of that disadvantage, are not so
eligible; both because they are less carefully made, and that, in almost
every instance, they are manufactured from refuse materials.
In the upper provinces, where the _kudjoor_ (or date-tree) abounds, a
very passable kind of matting is made of its leaves; it is true, this is
not so durable, nor so handsome, nor so even, as that sort just
described; owing to the coarseness of the materials, it is rather
subject to catch the feet of chairs; add to this, the danger of fire
from _hookahs_, &c.: all these circumstances limit the use of the
_kudjoor_ mats to very ordinary purposes; or, at the least, to laying
down in such rooms as are to be wholly or partially carpeted.
Mats are likewise made, in every part of the country, from green
bamboos; which, being split into very thin laths, of about half an inch,
or less, in width, answer the same purpose as the foregoing; these are,
however, very uncomfortable, and harbour centipedes by the hundred: the
_kudjoor_ mats partake of that objection, but not to the same extent.
Mats, if we may so call them, are likewise made by laying down rattans,
and stringing them together with strips of their own bark, the same as
is done in making the _seerky_ used in thatching; but this species is
very rare: indeed, I believe only a few were ever seen in Calcutta, and
they were said to have been brought by the Dutch from Malacca, whence
great numbers of rattans are yearly imported. The price of the best
rush-mats may be taken at about a rupee per square yard; that of the
mats in strips at from four annas (8½ _d._) to eight annas (17_d._); but
the _kudjoor_, and bamboo kinds, can only be computed by the demand for
materials, and the prices of labor, locally: probably, taking all things
into consideration, we may estimate a square yard of either at two
annas, or about 4¼_d._ A very beautiful species of mat is made in some
parts of the country, but especially in the south-eastern districts,
about Dacca and Luckypore, from a kind of reedy grass, of which the
rind, being pared off very thin, and trimmed to about the eighth of an
inch in width, is wove into mats, rarely exceeding seven or eight feet
in length, by about four feet in width. These are peculiarly slippery,
whence they are designated ‘_seekul-putty_,’ (_i.e._ polished sheets);
their color resembles that of common horn, and their prices are
generally from two to six rupees per piece; according to their fineness,
and to the state of the markets. The principal uses of the
_seekul-putty_, are, to be laid under the lower sheet of a bed, thereby
to keep the body cool; which is certainly effected to a great degree by
this device, by its remarkably slippery surface: some few pillows for
couches are likewise covered therewith, and I have seen it employed in
making covers for mahogany tables; to which it is well adapted, on
account of its repelling dust: in such case, it ought to have all the
joinings well taped, and to be lined with blanket, or with _karwah_, &c.
properly quilted.
Exclusive of the carpets before mentioned, and which are very high
priced, a manufacture of _satrinjes_ is carried on at Mirzapore, and in
many other parts. These serve all the purposes of carpets, but have no
plush; being in that particular very similar to our Scotch carpeting,
but, at the same time, very dissimilar in respect to pattern. The
_satrinje_ is nothing more than a very large colored sheet, in which,
except for about a cubit’s breadth all around, the whole is divided into
bars, or stripes, usually from two to six inches wide, proportioned to
the extent of the fabric. The principal colors in these carpets are
crimson for a ground, with bars of deep, or light red; or blue grounds,
with white, yellow, or tawny bars; or green grounds, with deeper, or
lighter green, or crimson, or orange bars; or any of these, _vice
versâ_. The common price of a woollen _satrinje_, may be from twelve
annas (_i.e._ 3/4 of a rupee) to three rupees per square yard; according
to fineness, substance, color, demand, &c.
Of cotton _satrinjes_, the price rarely exceeds a rupee, or a rupee and
a quarter, for the same extent; these, however, wash admirably. It is no
uncommon thing to see a _satrinje_ of full twenty by thirty feet; and
this, too, made upon nothing more than a bamboo roller, round which the
work gradually collects, as the threads are crossed, by passing the
warp-lines, alternately over and under the woof-lines, in regular
changes!
_Cheeks_, or screens, to keep out the glare, are made in a similar
manner. These simple, yet most comfortable, addenda to our Indian
habitations, are formed of bamboo wires, (if I may use the term,) from
four to six feet in length, and about the thickness of a very large
knitting-needle, or, perhaps, of a crow-quill. A thin, clean-worked
lath, of the same material, is put at the top and bottom.
Many _cheeks_ are made of bamboo wires, previously painted either green,
or reddish brown, but generally the former. These require no particular
care, further than keeping them separate, as they dry; which is usually
effected by laying them upon two rows of bricks, or against a wall, or
upon scattered straw, when the weather is calm. When _cheeks_ are
intended to represent any pattern, such as birds on branches, or Indian
deities, &c., the whole of the wires are laid with their respective ends
on two boards, over which two others are placed perfectly parallel, and
even, so as to press the ends of the wires, and to prevent their being
easily displaced. A pattern, being cut out on paper of the required
size, is fastened down upon the wires, and its outline every where
distinctly marked upon them; after which it is worked in on the former
ground, say a green, with brown for branches, a deeper green for the
leaves, and red, yellow, &c., for the birds: the whole is then left to
dry. When ready for use, the _cheek-wallah_ (or maker) fixes his
apparatus close to the top, and, taking each wire in succession, fastens
it down in its proper place, being guided by two lateral lines, as they
are handed to him by an urchin, perhaps not more than three or four
years of age! In this way the representation is preserved.
The neatest patterned _cheeks_ come from China; but the Bengallee artist
is getting fast forward, and bids fair to put a stop to the importation:
it is usual to have the whole _cheek_ bound, all around, either with a
light cotton tape, of about three or four inches broad, or with red, or
blue, _karwah_. At the top of each _cheek_, generally, a piece of
circular leather is attached, two being sewed together, though on
different sides of the wires; to these the cotton cords, usually white,
or red and white, or blue and white, about an inch in circumference, and
each a full yard in length, are sewed: their use is, to tie up the
_cheek_, when rolled towards the door-plate, at such times as it is not
wanted. Each end of the top lath has similar pieces of leather sewed on,
for the cords by which the _cheek_ is to be suspended.
It is understood, that white _cheeks_ are preferable; both because they
keep out the glare much better, and as they render the interior less
distinguishable to any spectator from without: consequently, they
contribute most to coolness, and to privacy.
I believe it would be impossible to find any house inhabited by an
European of respectability, in any part of Calcutta, which should prove
to be destitute of proper doors, of pannelled wood, or of windows, at
least, furnished with Venetians, if not with glass sashes. Whether for
appearance, convenience, or real utility, certainly there cannot be any
thing equal to glass, the use of which is now become so general, that
almost every _bungalow_ in the upper provinces, unless merely built as a
shelter for a few months, is provided with glass; some, perhaps, only
partially, but a great majority throughout. Were it not that this most
agreeable improvement were attainable on what may be called very
moderate terms, the great number of serious drawbacks it has to
encounter, would assuredly cause its exportation to the East to be very
limitted. The principal objections to its use, are, 1stly, the
difficulty of getting glass cut to fit the sashes; 2dly, the aptness of
even the best seasoned wood to warp, so as to cause the panes to fly;
3dly, the difficulty which frequently exists of getting glass at all;
especially of the larger sizes.
As a balance to this, we find, that this brittle commodity, after
undergoing all the risques attendant upon shipping, and landing,
together with all the dangers of the seas, and much occasional rough
usage after being consigned to the up-country trader, can usually be
sold at Futty-Ghur, or Lucknow, which are each distant about a thousand
miles, by water, from Calcutta, at the following prices: panes of 8 by
11 inches, at about twenty rupees per _coorge_, (or score,); 10 by 14,
at about twenty-six rupees; of 12 by 16, at about thirty-two; of 15 by
20, at about forty; of 18 by 26, at about fifty; and of 20 by 30, at
about sixty rupees. These prices give little more than cent. per cent.
upon the wholesale prices of London. What with the necessity for making
those panes and sashes, which are exposed to the sun, very firm, as well
as from a due attention to economy in so expensive an article, we
generally see, in the upper provinces, the panes laid transversely,
instead of upright; and only one row of such panes in each frame; the
wood-work being made very broad, so as to occupy a large space. The
light thus admitted, is found fully adequate to every common purpose;
the atmosphere being, for full eight months out of the twelve, perfectly
clear; and there being rarely any buildings to debar the full enjoyment
of that blessing: besides, that great exposure to an unclouded sky,
which may in England be deemed highly advantageous, would, in India,
prove objectionable; by admitting so forcible a glare as must give more
uneasiness than pleasure.
When glass either cannot be had; or, that, owing to some speculator
having monopolized, the price is considered too high, it is not uncommon
to see windows furnished with plates of _talc_; which may be obtained,
in almost any quantity, at the several cities, especially towards the
frontiers; very extensive dealings being carried on in this article, by
persons resident chiefly at Lucknow, Benares, and Patna, who import it
from Thibet, and the countries on the north of the Punjab, or Seik
territory, in masses, often as large as a quartern loaf. The principal
intention of such traffic is for the supply of that fine powder, used in
the Hindu holiday, called _hooly_, which may generally be viewed as the
carnival of that sect.
The masses of _talc_ commonly sell for about a rupee and a half, or even
up to two rupees per seer (of about two pounds avoirdupoise): when good,
it is of a pure pearl color, but it has, ordinarily, either a yellowish,
or a faint blue cast: by means of proper tools, this mineral may be
split into very thin leaves, which often present smooth surfaces, but
are apt to have little scaly blisters, that greatly deteriorate their
value. However, a seer of _talc_, that splits well, will sometimes yield
a dozen or more panes, of about 12 inches by 9, or of 10 by 10; and
thus, according to the form of the lump; which can only be split in the
direction of its laminæ. These panes are so far diaphanous as to allow
ordinary objects to be seen at about twenty or thirty yards tolerably
distinct; and, of course, present an excellent substitute for glass.
I am surprized that the very simple process whereby _talc_ may be
vitrified, has not encouraged some ingenious person to establish a
manufactory for that purpose. When combined with alkaline salt, (every
where attainable in India,) it is fusible in a strong heat, and forms a
transparent, handsome, greenish-yellow glass. If equal portions of
_talc_ and of chalk be melted together, with one-fourth part of borax,
(the _soohaugah_, or tincal, so abundant throughout the East,) the
mixture will produce a fine pellucid, greenish glass, of considerable
lustre and hardness; gypsous earths, (which, though not brought into
use, are supposed to abound in some parts of Bahar, and of the upper
provinces,) may be advantageously substituted for chalk, whence the
result will be a rich, pellucid, yellow glass, of equal brightness and
durability.