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THE
_EAST INDIA_
VADE-MECUM.
THE
_EAST INDIA_
VADE-MECUM;
OR,
=Complete Guide=
TO
GENTLEMEN INTENDED FOR THE
_CIVIL, MILITARY, OR NAVAL SERVICE_
OF THE
HON. EAST INDIA COMPANY.
-------
BY
CAPTAIN THOMAS WILLIAMSON,
_Author of ‘The Wild Sports of the East.’_
IN TWO VOLUMES.
_VOL. II._
------------------------------------
_LONDON_:
PRINTED FOR BLACK, PARRY, AND KINGSBURY,
Booksellers to the Honorable East India Company,
7,
LEADENHALL-STREET.
---
1810.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONTENTS
OF
VOL. II.
PAGES
_Great Heats, modes of refrigeration, general plan 1 - 16
of building, various kinds of lime and cement,
tarras floors_
Pucka _and_ Cutcha _houses, ancient buildings, 17 - 53
white-ants, sleeping in the open air, floors on
pots, north-westers, bungalows and out-offices,
mats of sorts, satrinjes, cheeks, glass windows,
talc as a substitute, Chalk-Hills, purdahs_
_Various kinds of timber, modes of floating them, 54 - 84
prices, and uses, mango-fruit, and plantations_
_Bamboos, mode of fitting-out trading-boats, 84 - 106
toddy-tree, coir rigging, cocoa-nuts, oil from
them,_ meemii-ke-tale, _writing on cocoa-tree
leaves, hot winds_
_State of society among Europeans, sitting-up, 107 - 149
meals, wines, malt liquors. Invalid
Establishment, levees, sugar-candy, bread,
camp-ovens, milk, ghee-butter, meats, buffaloes_
_Spirits, wines, fish, poultry, table apparatus, 150 - 198
furniture, china-bazar, Europe-shops, wax and
candles, insects, snakes of sorts, antidotes to
their poison, musquitoes, and curtains to repel
them, cock-roaches, scorpions, centipedes,
wasps, hornets_
_Shampoing, amusements, theatres, races, gaming, 198 - 223
music, balls,—Churches, schools, Fort-William,
military establishments_
_False ideas of Indian prosperity, anecdote, 223 - 267
depreciation of specie, the bore, brackish
waters, preservation of rain-water. The several
great rivers, physical properties, fossile
alkali, streams impregnated with minerals,
inundations, Hindu corpses, plague not known in
India_
_Tanks and jeels, eleemosynary alligators, 268 - 325
seraies, gunjes, durgaws, Hill people, bunds,
quicksands, wells on great roads, hot-wells,
sol-lunar influence on fevers, huckeems, state
of medicine, refrigerating principle, state of
learning, Koits, Láláhs, Gooroos, good books_
_Posts, and conveyance of parcels, &c., travelling 325 - 366
in a palanquin, rice, mode of expelling weevils,
meal from barley, wheat, &c., travelling by
water, the Soonderbund Passage, water in jars,
fire-wood, New Harbour, entrances of the Hoogly
River. Opinions regarding_ Gour, _and the great
Delta of the Ganges_
_Salt manufacture_ 366 - 368
_Hire of budjrows, rates and distances, 368 - 420
precautions, contraband trade, trading and
baggage-boats, tracking, Decoits, or pirates,
guards requisite, Coolies, Chokeydars, and
Dowraws, expert thieves, anecdotes, leger de
main, puppet-shows, gymnastic feats, Nuts, or
Indian gypsies, curious comparison of their
language_
_Slavery, how far tolerated, Indian 420 - 429
Lock-Hospitals, summary punishment of adultery,
curious incident, dancing-girls_
_Elephants, their points, qualities, prices, &c., 430 - 467
camels, the appropriate soils, conveying them
over rivers, bullocks, the Company’s
regulations, tattoos, or indigenous breed of
horses, tanians, tazees, serissahs, horses
imported from Persia, the Punjab, &c., stables_
_Tanning, artificers, great improvements made in 468 - 473
most professions, newspapers, Persian Akbars,
paper_
_The Mocurrery (or perpetual) System of Revenue. 474 - 497
The periods for collection, stations of
collectors, judges, commercial residents, custom
masters, and diplomatic characters_
_Security afforded to private property, inland 498 - 506
traders, agency-houses, rates of commission and
remittance, trade and situation of Calcutta.
Conclusion_
------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE
EAST INDIA
VADE-MECUM.
For some months, generally during the latter part of the rains, the
weather is so close and sultry, that universal exudation takes place,
even while sitting quiet. The natives, as I remarked in the outset of
this subject, have, from experience, adopted a very different mode from
that we should have expected to find in use, under such a latitude. We
should, no doubt, have been prepared to see airy habitations, through
which the wind could pass freely in every direction. But it is far
otherwise; and Europeans have, at length, become convinced, that the
most insupportable heats are derived from the glare of light objects;
or, in other words, from the reflection of surfaces intensely acted upon
by a vertical sun.
Some conception may be formed of that intensity, from the fact of meat
having been broiled on the cannon mounted upon the ramparts of
Fort-William! We, therefore, must coincide with the habits of the
natives, to a certain extent, if we mean to retain health, or to acquire
comfort. Such, indeed, should, in every country, be held in view: for,
however absurd many practices may at first appear, it will ordinarily
result that necessity was their parent. I do not mean to say that we
should imitate, much less adopt, without discrimination, all we see; but
it may be considered an axiom, that, by taking the general outline of
indigenous customs for our guide, if we err, it will be on the safe
side. Nothing can be more preposterous than the significant sneers of
gentlemen on their first arrival in India; meaning, thereby, to
ridicule, or to despise, what they consider effeminacy, or luxury. Thus,
several may be seen annually walking about without _chattahs_, (_i.e._
umbrellas,) during the greatest heats; they affect to be ashamed of
requiring aid, and endeavor to uphold, by such a display of
indifference, the great reliance placed on strength of constitution.
This unhappy infatuation rarely exceeds a few days; at the end of that
time, sometimes only of a week, (nay, I have known the period to be much
shorter,) we too often are called upon to attend the funeral of the
self-deluded victim! The first attack is generally announced by cold
shiverings, and bilious vomiting; delirium speedily ensues, when
putrefaction advances with such hasty strides, as often to render
interment necessary so soon as can possibly be effected.
The glare is certainly far more distressing than exposure to the sun, at
some seasons: but nothing can equal the effects of both glare and
sun-shine, acting upon the human frame, during a Midsummer’s day; when,
perhaps, not a breath of air is moving, when every leaf seems to repose,
and every bird, saving the vulture, the adjutant, (or argeelah,) and the
kite, retires to some shady spot, to avoid the solar ray. At such times,
the peaceful Hindu confines himself to an apartment, from which light is
generally excluded: there he sits among his family, enjoying his pipe,
refreshing himself occasionally by bathing, drinking the pure beverage
afforded by some adjacent spring or well; and, in general, avoiding to
eat, except of ripe fruits, especially the _turbooz_, or water-melon,
until the cool of the evening. In the meanwhile, however, he perspires
copiously, even though in a state of inactivity, unless when refreshed
by a _punkah_, or fan, moved either by his own hand, or by that of some
menial.
The instinct of the birds above named, to wit, the argeelah, the
vulture, and the kite, all of which are extremely numerous throughout
India, and contribute greatly to the salubrity of the air, by carrying
off astonishing quantities of putrefactive offal, &c., is wonderful!
About mid-day, when the sun’s beams strike with incredible force upon
the earth’s surface, these feathered scavengers ascend, perhaps to the
height of seven or eight hundred yards, so that the largest of them,
(the argeelah) is scarcely discernible: there they soar beyond the reach
of reflection from the heated soil, enjoying the freshness of a cooler
atmosphere, and descending only when allured by the scent of prey. Their
sense of smelling must, indeed, be acute; for we see them, especially
the vultures, flying for miles, and from all quarters, towards some
carcase, usually that of a Hindu, floating down the stream, or stranded
upon some shelving bank; but so situated as to render it perfectly
certain that the visual faculties could have no concern in the
discovery.
Few of the natives have _tatties_ applied to their doors, or windows;
though by no means insensible to the gratification they afford; but
penury, or, to say the least, close and parsimonious economy, prompt to
the denial of such a comfort; a comfort without which any constitution,
not inured to the climate, would speedily give way. It is really curious
to observe what may be effected by habit! When we understand how fatally
the sun’s rays act upon our European frames, even while under the shade
of a thick painted umbrella, and although our diet may be nearly similar
to that of the most abstemious Hindu, it certainly must appear
wonderful, that children, of whatever age, whose rapid circulation, and
sable color, should, according to the estimates we form of temperament,
be highly unfavorable to such exposure, run about at all seasons,
bare-headed, and perfectly nude; seeming to set the sun, the wind, and
the rain, alike at defiance. We see the same individuals making long
journies, in the most torrid seasons, under nearly similar
circumstances; nay, they even carry _bangies_, containing, on an
average, full a _maund_, (82lb. avoirdupoise,) sixteen, eighteen, twenty
miles, or even more, under such an oppressive heat as would kill an
European outright; and this, too, for a few pence. If, in considering
this point, we urge the benefits of extreme temperance, we urge that
which often does not exist; since many, who practise the above, may be
ranked among the most arduous votaries of Bacchus, devouring fish,
flesh, and fowl, highly spiced, whenever their purses, or the bounty of
others, may afford them so welcome a regale. When we see the several
shop-keepers, in every city and town, serving their customers, or, in
their absence, smoking like Vesuvius, in their little _boutiques_,
exposed to the glare, and to the burning winds; when we see these
persons, with parched skins, and their eyes violently irritated, and
clogged, by the clouds of dust which range along the streets, and which,
occasionally taking a whirl, nearly suffocate all within their reach; we
may then fairly admire the force of habit, and congratulate ourselves on
the blessings of a more temperate climate!
In the same situations, we see two classes of persons, both natives of
the soil, acting in diametric opposition to each other; and exhibiting
that powerful resistance capable of being made by long residence, or
rather by aboriginal habitude, against that which never fails to consign
our countrymen to the grave. The former class confine themselves, as
much as their avocations may permit, within gloomy, but cool, chambers;
living most abstemiously, yet, at certain times, exposing themselves in
the most unequivocal manner to the severest heats: the other, perfectly
inattentive to the dictates of prudence, yet performing what we may
fairly term wonders, in opposition to their destructive locality. When
the English first visited India, they adopted a mode of building by no
means consistent with common sense, and displaying a total ignorance of
the most simple of nature’s laws. We accordingly find, that all the old
buildings, such as may lay claim to a duration of from forty to sixty
years, were, like the celebrated Black-Hole, constructed more like
ovens, than like the habitations of enlightened beings. The doors were
very small, the windows still less, in proportion, while the roofs were
carried up many feet above both. Those roofs were in themselves
calculated to retain heat to an extreme, being built of solid tarras, at
least a foot thick, lying horizontally upon immense timbers, chiefly of
teak, or of saul wood. Again, when they built _bungalows_, (_i.e._
thatched houses,) of one (ground) floor only, the utmost care was taken
to close up all the intervals between the thatch, and the walls, on
which it rested; so as to exclude the external air, as well as the dust:
a practice religiously observed even to the present date. The obvious
consequence of this latter construction is, that, whatever air is
retained between the thatch, (which, in the course of the day, becomes
very, very warm,) and the upper lines of the windows must be highly
rarefied.
Thus, we invariably observe, that, towards sun-set, when the inhabitants
quit the inner hall, &c., either to sit out on _chabootahs_, (_i.e._
large terraces,) raised perhaps a foot or two from the level of the
area, and abundantly watered for the occasion; or when they remove to
the windward _veranda_ (or balcony); on either of these occasions, the
interior becomes intolerably hot, on account of the rarefied air being
drawn down by that current inevitably attendant upon the removal of all
the _tatties_; and, by the throwing open of all the doors and windows.
In a preceding page, I have shewn, that the French generally acted upon
more philosophical principles; they making their doors and windows
remarkably high: but, there yet remains a very important improvement to
be made; namely, the introduction of tin ventilators, to be inserted
near the summits of the thatches. It is a fact, that, during many months
in the year, the houses built by most Europeans, and especially their
_bungalows_, are so extremely heated, as to render it absolutely
impossible to sleep in their interior, without the intervention of some
artificial means for keeping the air around the bed at a proper
temperature.
However faulty the first European builders in India might have been, the
moderns have by no means made such improvements as we should suppose
experience would have led them to adopt. Whether from economy, or from
more attention to exterior, than to comfort, scarce a house is now built
with such spacious, lofty, and substantial _verandas_, as are to be seen
on the south side of almost every old mansion. Some of these antiquated
edifices had _verandas_ on several sides, and a few might be quoted
having them all around; as seen in the officers’ quarters at Berhampore,
and Dinapore. It can scarcely be doubted, that such _verandas_ are, in
every respect, admirably suited to the climate; since they prevent the
sun from striking on the main wall; which, in exposed situations, have
been known to give from 8° to 10° difference on the thermometer; under
circumstances in every other respect similar.
It is peculiar, that, until within the last twenty-five years, the
ground floors, that is, the whole of the basements, of those fine large
houses to be seen in all quarters of Calcutta, and in various parts of
the interior, were consigned to the reception of palanquins, gigs,
water-stores, or to be _wine-godowns_, (or cellars,) _butler-connahs_,
(or pantries,) and even, in some instances, stables! In those days, the
whole of the family resided in, and confined themselves to, the first
floor; which was then the summit of the habitation: leaving to their
luggage, cattle, and menials, that part which has lately been discovered
to be, in every respect, most suitable to the accommodation of the
European population. In houses of agency, &c., we now see the basement
converted partly into offices, and but rarely any portion of it
appropriated as above described; while, the generality of new houses are
built upon a scale such as favors this salutary change, by giving
sufficient height to the lower apartments; thereby adapting them to
every purpose, and occasioning a considerable reduction of the ground
plan, in consequence of the accommodations thus gained.
The practice of building houses without _verandas_, certainly cannot be
approved; whereas, the old mode of building them on pillars, was highly
ornamental, and, at some seasons, not less appropriate: but, the great
art of keeping a house cool during the prevalence of the hot-winds,
rests entirely on shutting them out, except at some few apertures
supplied with _tatties_; which, being kept constantly moist, or, indeed,
dripping wet, produce such an immense evaporation, as to cool the
interior completely: of course, a suitable draught must be preserved, by
opening some window, &c. on the lee-side. This is commonly effected by
means of Venetians; which allow the air to pass, but debar the access of
glare. Without adverting to the expence, it should seem that a
_close-veranda_ is by far preferable to an open one; and, were it not
for the immense additional charges, we can hardly doubt that the
European inhabitants of Calcutta would, in imitation of the generality
of _bungalow_-residents, have their apartments surrounded by a
_veranda_, of full fourteen feet in width; with apertures, of a good
size, in the exterior wall, corresponding with those of the interior.
This arrangement renders the generality of _bungalows_ remarkably
pleasant; but, it must be noticed, that there is a very wide difference
in the expence incurred in rendering them so: their roofs being of
thatch, and their walls of sun-burnt bricks, plastered with mud and
chaff, offer a great contrast in the out-lay, both as relating to the
labor, and to the materials, in a house constructed of burnt bricks, and
good lime, whose roof is of masonry, and in which timbers of great price
are every where used. Accordingly, we find, that, in almost every part
of India, an excellent _bungalow_ may be built for about five thousand
rupees, completely fitted with glass doors, and windows, and with all
the necessary out-offices duly tiled, or thatched, according to their
purposes; while, a house suited to the accommodation of the same family,
in Calcutta, could not be finished for less than ten times that sum.
The bricks form a very, very small portion of the disbursements incident
to building in India: so cheap, indeed, are they, that most of the
made-roads about Calcutta, and in other parts, are formed by laying
broken, or even whole, bricks regularly; giving the centre two or three
layers, gradually tapered off to the sides, and then covering them with
a coat of rubbish, or, which is far better, coarse sand. Such roads are
extremely firm, and far more durable, than those we make with gravel,
flint, lime-stone, &c. But great allowance must be made for the heavy
machines used among us, and carrying such tremendous burthens; whereas,
an Indian _hackery_ can rarely weigh five cwt., nor can its load be
averaged at more than fifteen cwt., being altogether only a ton. We well
know, that our common narrow-wheeled waggons weigh from fifteen to
twenty-five cwt.; and, that, except where weigh-bridges limit their
burthens, it is by no means uncommon to see them carrying from two and a
half, up to four, tons. Three chaldron of coals will be found to average
about seventy cwt.; yet, are often drawn by three horses through the
streets of London.
The lime used in Calcutta, is brought down from the _Morungs_, and their
vicinity, in large boats, being previously slaked; though it is
sometimes imported in its quick state, or as nearly so as accident may
permit. It may readily be concluded, that, after a passage of from three
to four hundred miles, this article is rather deteriorated; especially
as the voyage can rarely be effected under three weeks or a month. The
prices of this kind of lime, made from a very firm stone, called
_gutty_, abundant in some parts, vary much according to the season, and
to the demand: it has been sold as low as six or seven rupees per
hundred maunds, but, at other times, has reached to twenty and
twenty-five.
At Madras, and indeed all along the coast of Coromandel, as well as on
some parts of the Malabar border, an excellent kind of lime is made from
sea shells. This nearly equals what is made in Italy, from the refuse of
marble, and receives an extraordinary fine surface, competiting even
with that of polished glass; at the same time that it is incomparably
firm, and durable. When laid upon a wall, which is done only by way of a
finish, it is carefully freed from grit, and kept working, and rubbing,
until nearly dry; thereby to prevent the surface from cracking, as it
would be subject to do, when acted upon by the hot air at mid-day: when
nearly dry, it is rubbed with coarse calico cloths, until it receives a
beautiful lustre, which causes it to appear semi-diaphanous. A few
houses at Calcutta have been finished with this kind of lime, conveyed
from Madras by shipping; but the expence, being very considerable, has
occasioned the common _Morung_ lime to be generally employed, both for
cement, and for white-washing.
In the ordinary buildings constructed in the upper parts of the country,
a weaker kind of lime is obtained by burning a substance called
_kunkur_, which, at first, might be mistaken for small rugged flints,
slightly coated with soil. The experiments made upon these alkaline
concretions, which abound in most parts above Bengal Proper, and, in
some places, prove extremely troublesome to the farmer, but especially
to the horticulturist, give the following result: calcareous earth, 41,
cilicious earth, 16, calx of iron, 3, and air, 40. _Kunkur_ is not
easily reduced to a calx, it requiring a greater heat than is necessary
to burn the harder kinds of _gutty_; it is, likewise, less durable and
tenacious as a cement; of which the color, viz. commonly what we call
fawn, is a strong indication.
Whether from want of sufficient power in their kilns, or that the
_kunkur_ is so peculiarly hard, we commonly find that, on slaking, a
large portion of the interior of each lump remains unsubdued. These
insoluble masses are often pounded by means of a _dainky_, or
foot-break, and mixed with the perfect calx: nor is the lime burner very
scrupulous in regard to keeping out the wood ashes, &c., remaining at
the bottom of the kiln, after the _kunkur_ has been taken out; on the
contrary, he will, if not very narrowly watched, mix as much as he can
with the calx; thereby causing the lime to be very considerably
deteriorated. This kind of lime, commonly called _cutcha_, (_i.e._
weak,) sells for about six or seven rupees per hundred maunds.
In all parts of India, the lime-burners proceed on the most expensive
plan; their kilns being rarely more than four feet in diameter, nor
above that much in height: consequently, they have not sufficient
accumulation, concentration, or reverberation of heat, to burn the
stones properly; neither do they, in general, break them sufficiently
small, but bundle them in, with very little attention to regularity or
economy. It is the same with the brick and tile-kilns; which are, for
the most part, of a pyramidal form; the raw bricks being laid
intermediately with the fuel, and the exterior being plastered over,
perhaps half a foot in thickness, with mud. The best bricks I ever saw
in India were made by an engineer officer, who had some extensive public
works to carry on. He first built the whole of the walls of a _bungalow_
he required, with sun-burnt bricks, properly cemented with mud well
filled in; taking care to arch over the door and window openings in such
way, that the frames could be afterwards introduced. The whole interior
was then laid with bricks and fuel, while the exterior of the veranda
walls were also closed in with sufficient to heat them thoroughly; and a
complete coating was given, in the ordinary way. The bricks baked
uncommonly well, while the walls became a solid mass, capable of
resisting all the elements, should they unite for its destruction. The
_bungalow_ proved remarkably dry, and the plaster was found to adhere in
a surprizing manner, while rats, snakes, &c., were all set at defiance;
it being impossible for them to burrow in so hard a substance: the
greater part of the cement, which happened to contain cilicious
particles, was nearly vitrified.
Thirty years ago, the generality of houses were coated with the same
kind of tarras as is employed for laying the floors, and the roofs: this
was made of _chunam_, (_i.e._ white-lime,) one third; _soorky_, (_i.e._
brick-dust,) one third; and sand, one third; these, being mixed duly
with a large portion of cut hemp, (wool being very scarce, and short
hair not to be procured on any terms,) together with some _jaggery_, or
refuse molasses, made a tolerably strong cement. The surface, after a
house had been duly plastered, was washed, while yet moist, with a
strong solution of lime in water. This would have been enough to blind
every man, woman, or child, in the place, had it not been partially
remedied, by the admixture of some coloring matter with the finishing
wash: but, whether red, yellow, or blue, which were the prevailing
colors, it was found that the alkali generally destroyed their
appearance, and left a motley kind of work.
The good taste of a few individuals, chiefly gentlemen in the corps of
engineers, gradually overcame this vile imitation of Dutch and
Portugueze finery, they substituting, in their public works, a plaster
composed of river sand, saturated with a solution of white lime, of the
consistency of cream. The addition of the usual allowance of cut hemp,
gave this simple compound, (if I may so blend the terms,) not only much
additional durability, but a remarkably neat appearance; especially when
the body of the building was of that fine grey, thus obtained, and the
cornices, &c. were finished of a pure white. Houses thus exteriorly
finished became yet further neat, by the contrast of their Venetian
windows, invariably painted green: some prefer all verdigris; others, a
deep clear green for the frame-work, with verdigris for the several
leaves, or valves.
Almost every house has folding Venetians to each window, or outward
door; these are sustained by very strong hinges, which allow each fold,
or shutter, to open outwards, and to lie back flat upon the exterior
wall: in that position the Venetians are kept from blowing about, by
means of hooks; in the same manner as we see practised in England, where
this kind of shutter is in use. Sash-windows are never made upon the
European construction, but move invariably in two folds, one to the
right, the other to the left; each opening inwardly, and lying within
the thickness of the wall, or nearly so.
In no part of the world is more attention paid to the foundation of a
house than in India; and that not without necessity, the rains being so
very heavy as to sap all weak buildings exposed to their action, either
above, below, or laterally. When houses are built with what is termed
_cutcha_, that is, with sun-dried bricks cemented with mud, and either
plastered with the same, or with mortar, the least crack in the roof, or
the smallest hollow near the foundation, will teem with danger. The rain
which, often for a whole day, descends in streams, soon gets into the
walls, where it does incalculable mischief: many of these houses, whose
substance and general appearance should indicate a better fate, may
annually be seen in ruins after a continued fall of heavy, or of
drizzling, but oblique, rain: the latter is peculiarly unfavorable to
such buildings as are insecurely coated; it drifts in under the plaster,
damps the mud cement, and brings down the heavy roofs with a most
sonorous crash. Few of these _cutcha_ houses are now to be seen with
tarras roofs; such as are so built for the sake of cheapness, being,
almost without exception, intended for thatches, and thus becoming what
we term _bungalows_. The natives build sometimes on that kind of half
and half plan, which commonly, in the end, cheats the contriver. Thus, I
have seen some, of a small description, built with _cutcha_ (or
sun-dried) bricks for the interior, while the exterior of the wall was
made of _pucka_ (or burnt) bricks; from whose interstices the mortar was
carefully picked out, as though about to be pointed; for the purpose of
causing the exterior plastering to get into the joints, and thus to
retain its position firmly. Admitting, and even admiring, the ingenuity
of such a system, when properly conducted, I lament, that, in almost
every case which came within my knowledge, the whole system was
disgraced, by the house either falling _in toto_, or by shedding its
coat of mail.
There certainly did formerly exist some mode of mixing the ingredients,
or some particular recipe giving better proportions, or better
materials, which, after a time, formed a very capital cement: of this,
many very well known edifices furnish ample proof. The old fort, situate
within the town of Calcutta, may be an apt quotation. The impressions
made by shots, of 24 and 32lb. fired by Admiral Watson against its
western face, when his fleet lay within three hundred yards of it, in
the year 1755, were absolutely insignificant; the brave admiral might
have battered for a century, without bringing down the wall. In the year
1779, when the Company’s cloth _godown_ took fire, the third regiment of
European infantry, then in garrison at Fort-William, marched out with
engines, &c. to aid towards its extinction; yet were they utterly unable
to get the iron bars loose from the masonry; though provided with
tackles, crows, axes, &c. This _godown_, which occupied a large part of
the northerly face of the old fort, was afterwards converted into
offices; but with incredible labor! The masonry was as hard as rock!
When this occurrence took place, the old fort had been built about forty
years; whereas, we find that all the Company’s, or any other, buildings
which now claim that age, are of a very different complexion! The
greater part of them, though not in a state of absolute ruin, are kept
up at an inordinate expence; while such of them as have given up the
ghost, display a crude mass of loose, friable, and mouldering rubbish.
Nor are the ancient terraces less obdurate than the old walls: many of
these may be seen among the ruins of cities, and towns, of which we have
scarcely any information, absolutely retaining their places, although
the beams on which they formerly rested have been, God only knows how
many years, removed. If these roofs had possessed any convexity, or been
constructed according to the Syrian principle, we should have had less
cause to admire their solidity, and toughness; but, such has never been
the case with any I have seen; and which, though certainly of no
considerable dimensions, appeared firm enough to sustain cannon of small
calibre. I have often been one of a party to walk on such. It may,
perhaps, be in place here to describe the manner in which roofs are
constructed in India: I mean such as are now under consideration. The
beams are rarely more than two feet apart; and, speaking generally, may
have a scantling of ten or eleven inches depth, by five, or six, in
width; sometimes, though but rarely, and then only when under the eye of
science, cambered to the extent of three or four inches; according to
the length of the timber. These joists are laid upon the bare wall,
having their ends previously well charred; and, in some cases, smeared
with _petroleum_; called by the natives, ‘earth-oil.’ This is done to
deter the white-ants from making an attack upon the wood; which, in
time, they would certainly do, but for the above precaution. The ends of
the timbers are cased in with masonry, so as to leave about four inches
all the way round, and at their bases: in order that the timber may be
removed, in case of decay, without damaging the wall; the interval is,
however, filled up afterwards with _cutcha_ work; which, not being
liable to adhere firmly to the _pucka_ wall, may be easily removed when
the joist is to be changed. When plastered over, the whole appears
uniform.
In some parts of the country, but especially in the upper provinces, the
natives cover in their houses with flat roofs, made of clay, beat very
firm, and about a foot in thickness. This mode of construction requires
some care, but is found to be extremely efficient. The walls ought to be
substantial, as should also the joists; and the surface of the clay
should be rather convex, so as to direct the water falling on it into
proper gutters, or drains, and to prevent the building from being
damped.
Without this precaution, the heavy falls of rain, which may be
constantly expected during three months in the year, would speedily
dissolve such tenements, with nearly as much facility as though they
were made of lump-sugar. But when due care is taken, both to prevent,
and to stop, leaks, clay roofs are rather eligible, than objectionable;
especially in the vicinity of _bazars_, (or markets,) and lines, in
which fires are frequent. Many gentlemen have adopted the plan, some
wholly, others partially, in their _bungalows_, and find little or no
cause to regret their having done so.
It is, however, expedient to send up a man now and then, to lute any
cracks that may appear in consequence of excessive heats; but, after a
season or two, the clay becomes extremely firm, nearly equal to
mortar-tarras, resisting the various changes of temperature, and
appearing to be consolidated into a very firm mass. The greatest
inconvenience it produces, is the harbor afforded to that inconceivably
obnoxious insect, the _white-ant_.
This little depredator rarely fails to take advantage of whatever
opportunity is offered for the exhibition of its powers. Assembling by
the ten thousand, in a few hours they will eat out the bottom of a deal
box, perhaps an inch in thickness, or render it a mere honeycomb. Of
fir, they are remarkably fond, as also of mango-wood.
It seems rather peculiar that they should be so partial to woods
abounding so highly, as these both do, in turpentine; while the presence
of a few drops of _petroleum_, which is imported from Pegu, Ava, and the
Arvean coast, under the name of _mutty ke tale_, (earth-oil,) seems to
be a perfect preventive. Few things come amiss to these obnoxious
visitants, which every where abound, and destroy wood, leather, cottons,
woollens, &c. Nay, a story is current, that, some years back, they were
absolutely accused of having devoured some thousands of dollars!
Fortunately, _on deeper research_, it was discovered, that they had only
ate away the bottom of the treasure-chest; and, like misers, had buried
the hard cash some feet under ground.
As ceilings are not in use in India, each joist is neatly finished,
having its lower edges rounded off with a beading-plane. At right angles
with the joists, smaller battens, called _burgahs_, are laid; three or
four inches wide, by about two or three deep, or _vice versâ_; these are
nailed down upon the joists at such parallel distances, in general about
seven or eight inches, as may allow a large kind of tile to be laid on
them. Over the tiles they lay rubbish, rather dry, about four or five
inches deep, patting it down gently, by the continual operation of some
dozens of men, women, and children, who, squatting, like monkies, on
their haunches, and having batons of about a cubit in length, something
of a trowel shape, though not so obtuse, continually beat the materials
until they become perfectly compact. The better method, which is in more
general adoption, is, instead of such rubbish, to put on a coarser kind
of mortar, well worked up, but not very moist; which is beat in the mode
above described. After this has been duly compacted, but before it is
quite dry, another coating of two or three inches, but of finer
materials, is put on, and beat in like manner; then a third, perhaps
only an inch deep, of still finer materials; and, ultimately, the whole
is coated, for about half an inch in depth, with the finest ingredients,
mixed, after being sifted through a coarse cloth, with _jaggree_, and by
some with peas-meal; which the natives consider to be peculiarly
valuable in cement. This last coat is laid on with a trowel, very firmly
pressed, in order to compact it the more, and to prevent cracking; which
will, nevertheless, always take place, more or less, according as more
or less pressure and beating have been used; or, as the great body of
the tarras may be made of good or bad materials.
All the partition-walls, dividing off the several apartments, are
necessarily of masonry; both because the pressure from above is
enormous; and, that wood cannot be trusted, where the white-ants could
honeycomb its interior, without being much, if at all, noticed on its
surface. These partition-walls are carried up about six inches above the
tarras roof; whereby the latter appears to be divided into chequers,
corresponding with the several apartments. Small channels are cut, to
allow the water to pass into the spouts, or drains; from which jars, of
about a hogshead in measurement, are filled with water intended for
table use. Some spouts are made to extend full a yard from the wall,
and, in some instances, have canvas hoses attached, for the purpose of
leading the water into the jars; but the more modern practice is to
build pipes of pottery within the wall, or to clamp them to it with
iron, until their lower ends, which are crooked for the purpose, form a
proper debouchure. The latter mode, however, in very heavy rains,
subjects the walls to be damped, in consequence of the fall of water
being greater than the pipes can instantly carry off. This may give some
idea of those deluges which at times take place, almost instantaneously.
The tops of houses are invariably enclosed with breast-parapets, or with
balustrades; which give a very finished appearance to these superb
buildings. With the exception of those ridges formed by the continuation
of the partition-walls, the roofs afford a pleasant promenade at certain
seasons: some of them command most interesting views. During the very
hot weather, probably from the end of April to the setting in of the
rains in the first or second week of June, many gentlemen have their
cots, (as the bed, with all its apparatus, is usually called,) carried
to the tops of their houses, and sleep there during the night. This may
appear a very hazardous proceeding; but, when it is considered, that no
dew, worthy of notice, falls at that season, and, that the cots have
generally curtains, which would receive, and absorb, what little might
fall, we may, on the whole, pronounce it to be less dangerous than
should at first be supposed. If, indeed, this were to be done more to
the southward, near the mouth of the Hoogly river, where the immense
marshes, the ouze left by the returning tides, and the jungles, which
every where abound, produce the most deleterious exhalations, we should
then be correct in exclaiming against the practice: but few, very few,
instances could be adduced of any serious indisposition having attended
it; while, on the other hand, it is confessed by all who have adopted
it, that the greatest refreshment ever resulted; enabling them to rise
early, divested of that most distressing lassitude attendant upon
sleeping in an apartment absolutely communicating a febrile sensation,
and peculiarly oppressive to the lungs.
I believe all those fatal, or injurious effects, which have been so
often adduced, by way of caution to persons impatient of heat, have been
produced not by sleeping in an open exposure, but in a current of air.
This I cannot recommend; on the contrary, I must vehemently censure such
a custom, as being highly dangerous: I could quote several most
melancholy cases, arising entirely from this most injudicious conduct!
Mr. Johnson, who appears to have been about two years in India, during
which time he was surgeon of a frigate, has published a volume, in which
there are occasionally to be found interesting details, and sensible
observations. I shall offer to my readers some remarks he has made, at
page 269, that bear closely on the subject under discussion. He says;
‘Europeans, in general, on their first arrival in India, are
prepossessed with the idea, that sleeping at night in the open air must
be a very dangerous practice; but, in the course of a short residence on
shore, they get rid of this prejudice, by observing most of the natives,
and many of the Europeans, sleeping on open terraces, and in _verandas_,
not only with impunity, but as a preservative against the debilitating
effects of a hot climate. But on board-ships, where they have not an
opportunity of seeing, or of reflecting on, these circumstances, they
frequently adhere, for a considerable time after their arrival on the
station, to the established regulations, of making every man sleep in
his proper berth: and suffering none to lie about upon the decks; a
system, in my opinion, very prejudicial to the health of ships’
companies in India. At sea, indeed, it is not of so much consequence,
where the watch on deck always gives sufficient room to those below; but
it is in harbours, and road-steds, where the air is much hotter than at
sea, the impolicy of the measure becomes manifest.’—And again, page 270,
‘We will suppose, that every man, when he turns into his hammock, falls
fast asleep in a few minutes; which, by the by, is not always the case.
About eleven o’clock, however, I will venture to say, he wakes in a
deluge of perspiration, panting with the heat and rarefied air; upon
which he turns out, and goes upon deck, for the purpose, as he terms it,
of getting a mouthful of fresh air; anathematizing, as he ascends, the
infernal heat of the climate! Under pretence of going to the head, he
gets upon the forecastle; when the cool breeze from the shore
immediately chills him, and gives a sudden check to his perspiration.’
All this I have personally experienced, both on board-ship and on shore;
and I make no scruple of saying, that, in lieu of being injured by
sleeping out on a _chabootah_, in a well-covered cot, my whole frame has
been braced, my rest has been sound and refreshing, and I have avoided
all the miseries inseparably attendant upon seeking repose in a close,
muggy atmosphere; where thirst and irritation create perpetual
restlessness, banish sleep, and cause that relaxation and debility which
render each subsequent day burthensome as its preceding night has been
distressing!
In a former page, I observed, that boarded floors were almost unknown in
India: various reasons have, doubtless, combined to explode them;
firstly, the depredations of the white-ant; secondly, the perpetual
danger of their warping; and, thirdly, the difficulty of rendering the
sounds of foot-steps less audible. This last may appear trivial; but,
where so many menials, &c., are ever moving about in various parts of a
house, and that, too, with little ceremony, though, it is true, they are
all bare-footed, it would prove extremely inconvenient at those times
when the family might retire to rest during the heat of the day. About
twenty-five or thirty years back, all the stairs were of masonry; but,
of late years, wooden ones have been introduced. These, being made to
rest on strong beams, obvious in every part, save where they enter the
walls, may be considered as tolerably safe from the white-ants;
certainly they are much neater, and more easily kept in order. All the
joists, in every house, are either painted, or tarred; the latter has a
very unpleasant, indeed, a mean appearance; and is not often practised:
for the most part, white, with a very slight cast of blue, to preserve
it from fading, is adopted.
Some paint the beaded, or moulded, edges of the door pannels, also the
rounded corners of the joists, with some delicate color; such as a very
light sky-blue, a very light verdigris-green, or a lilac; and, by way of
conformity, ornament the mouldings of the wall pannels with similar
tints. In the upper provinces, it is a very prevalent fashion to color
the pannels with some native ochres, of beautiful hues, leaving the
mouldings, cornices, &c. white. These mouldings, &c. are all done by
means of trowels shaped for the purpose, and not by moulds, or stamps;
of course, what with want of device, and want of activity, such
ornaments may be reckoned among that variety of tedious labors of which
_Blacky_ is extremely enamoured. Yet, in the execution of such matters,
he will display great ingenuity, consummate patience, and, often, great
delicacy: but, with respect to design, taste, composition, perspective,
consistency, and harmony; in all these, whether in drawing, sculpture,
or in any mode of representation, he will prove himself to be completely
_ignoramus_. Let the former apology be pleaded; namely, that, in every
branch, the Indian mechanic is called upon, after, perhaps, only a few
days of observation, or, at least, with so little practice as would,
among us, be considered rather an objection than a qualification, to
perform that which we judge to be unattainable, except by the
application of several years, closely attached to one individual
intention. Therefore, in lieu of condemning their operations, we should
rather regard them with admiration; for, I will venture to assert, that
we should not fail to wonder at one of our own countrymen, who, perhaps
at rather an advanced age, without previous education, without the
possibility of reference to books, or to public institutions, should
undertake to do that with a hatchet, or any other gross implement, which
persons regularly brought up in the respective profession should assert
to be impracticable, unless duly provided with benches, vices, and
tools, of exquisite formation, out of number. The Asiatic has the bare
soil for his bench, his toes are his vice, and his implements usually
amount to no more than a small adze, a saw, with, perhaps, a chisel, and
a pair of uncouth pincers!
The same operations which I have described to be necessary for the
construction of a tarras roof, are equally so for the floors in every
part of the house; but, unless the basement stands very high, so as to
allow of water houses, &c. underneath the ground-floor, it is usual to
have the latter flued, by means of narrow channels, or air-conduits, of
about four inches deep, and as many wide; so as to be covered with
bricks of an ordinary size: these flues are made in parallel lines, at,
perhaps, a foot or more asunder, and pass entirely under the house, in
both directions, having their several apertures covered by small iron
grates, for the purpose of keeping out rats, snakes, &c.; which would
else find admirable asylums within these intersecting channels. The
lower tarrases are thus kept thoroughly dry by the flues, which, of
course, give ventilation to every part under the floor. Where bricks are
scarce, which is often the case, on account of their never being made
for general sale, except at public stations and great cities, and then
of a very small size, it is common to build the ground tarras upon
inverted pots; each being capable of containing about three pecks, or a
bushel. These pots may be had, in any quantity, all over the country;
generally at the low rate of a farthing, or, at the utmost, a halfpenny,
each.