occasionally sent to India, notwithstanding some of the hills at the
back of Raje Mahal abound therewith. I understood, many years ago, from
an old friend, who was quarter-master of a regiment stationed at
Monghyr, distant about forty miles from the former place, that, in
consequence of a scarcity of musquet flints, he had sent people to the
Chalk Hills of Raje Mahal, whence he had obtained a boat-load that
answered admirably. In reply to my questions regarding the chalk, he
informed me it was very coarse. But he forgot, that, by dissolving it in
a large quantity of water, and allowing the rubbish to sink, the finer
particles would be for a while suspended; and, on being poured off,
would, after repeated washings in this manner, yield the purest whiting.
It really appears surprizing, that those chalk hills should remain
unnoticed; and, that even the lime-burners should neglect to take
advantage of their being so advantageously situated among wildernesses
of fuel, and within a mile of the great channel of the Ganges! That the
Company should ever send out whiting, or put themselves to the expence
of millions upon millions of gun and pistol flints, when they possess
such a quarry, (of which the extent is not known,) appears highly
inconsistent with that economy so much and so properly studied. If it be
argued, that some impolicy might exist in shewing the natives how to
provide themselves with flints; the answer is very easy; for the
gun-smiths of _Monghyr_ are fully apprized of the whole process. But,
surely the chalk cannot be accused of the same dangerous tendency! To
say the least, government might, with great advantage, cause all the
lime required for their own works to be made from it; imposing a price
upon all that might be dug by merchants, or others; as they do at their
stone quarries, near _Chunar-Ghur_, &c. My readers will, at all events,
discover that a very useful glass might be made in India, the duty on
which would produce a much larger sum than the whole amount of profits
accruing to our exporters. It is, indeed, a well-known fact, that the
captains of Indiamen take out window glass more with the view to making
up a general assortment, than from any great advantage arising from its
sale to the European shop-keepers, &c. In time of peace they are
invariably undersold by foreign traders; who carry out glass of an
inferior quality, which sells to a certain extent; and is often rather
sought, than rejected, on account of its greenish hue, which is found to
soften the light considerably; especially in exposed situations.
The natives do, occasionally, make a weak, greenish, and blistered glass
into _caraboys_, or great bottles for rose-water, and into lesser ones,
such as the _gundies_, or itinerant perfumers, use; but this is on a
very small scale, and chiefly supplied from broken tumblers, shades,
&c., of European manufacture. There are persons at Patna, who have men
constantly employed in purchasing broken glass, of every description,
from the servants of Europeans, and in collecting such fragments as may
be thrown out among the ordinary rubbish.
It must occasionally happen, that neither glass, nor _talc_, can be
readily obtained; in which case, the best mode is to make light frames,
and to pannel, or fill them up with wax-cloth, neatly nailed on. This is
an admirable substitute, not only keeping out wind, rain, and dust, but,
in the cold season, preserving the warmth of rooms, yet admitting
sufficient light for ordinary purposes: I have very frequently resorted
to this expedient, and even to frames of oiled paper; all I had to
regret was, that they debarred my seeing what passed abroad. To a person
just arrived from Europe, such would appear a most distressing
privation; but, after experiencing a few seasons behind _tatties_,
without being able to enjoy the light during the whole day, and that for
months together, such recluseness would scarcely be considered worthy of
notice: so true it is, that we gradually become habituated to the loss
of ordinary enjoyments, of faculties, and even of civil and religious
liberty!!!
Although _bungalows_ have not any ceilings of plaster, they are rendered
inconceivably neat within, by means of a double sheet, made of very
coarse cotton cloth, called _guzzy_; of which tents are usually
constructed. These sheets are fitted to the several apartments
respectively, are bound with strong tape around, and have, besides,
various tapes forming an union cross of eight limbs, or rays, all
meeting in the centre. As the cornices commonly project near a foot,
abundance of space is left for lacing the sheet (called the _chandny_,)
to battens, nailed to pegs built in the wall: these battens being firmly
secured all the way round, about an inch above the cornice, admit the
sheet to be strained very tight, so as to bag very little, if at all, in
the centre. Some white-wash their _chandnies_, and take so much pains in
establishing a firm appearance, as to render them very similar to well
made ceilings. Without this last mode of preparation, music has no
effect in a _bungalow_; indeed, at the best, the most powerful
instrument is heard under very great disadvantages, owing to the number
of apertures, the _satringes_, mats, couch and table covers, &c., all
which deaden the tones considerably.
Those who are very particular in whatever relates to their furniture,
&c., have their _verandas_ lined in the same manner as their apartments,
giving them a finished appearance; but, in such exposed situations the
cloths are apt to collect considerable quantities of dust, which is
perpetually set in motion by the shaking of the cloths when acted upon
by the wind: on this account _seerky_ appears to me far preferable as a
lining for _verandas_.
The usual expedient, when doors of any description are not made, is to
provide _purdahs_, made of _karwah_, (or _guzzy_,) or both mixed in
perpendicular stripes of eight or ten inches wide each: some, especially
those who are stationary, make their _purdahs_ of shalloon, perpet, or
very coarse broad-cloth, in the following manner. The cloth is made into
two sheets of equal dimensions, say nine feet by six, and having strong
tapes, perhaps five or seven in number, inserted cross-wise between
them: these tapes are double. The whole circumference of the _purdah_ is
then sewed very neatly, and bound with tape, corresponding with the
color of the cloth, and the ends of the tapes are also bound by means of
leather, covered with the same materials. Between every pair of tapes, a
bamboo, of a small kind, but very tough, is introduced; or, perhaps, a
stout lath made from a bamboo of the large sort. These sticks, or laths,
serve to keep the cloth stretched out, and when the _purdah_ is
suspended, much in the same manner as has been explained for the
mounting of a _cheek_, lie horizontally; thus preventing the wind from
blowing in the _purdah_.
It is observed as a general rule, always to make a _purdah_ full a foot
wider on each side than the door way it is to conceal; also to carry it
a foot above the door plate, and to have a portion, about a foot in
depth, without any lath, at the bottom, so as to trail a little on the
ground. Those _purdahs_ which are made of _karwah_, or other cotton
stuff, are generally quilted with cotton, or are composed of many folds,
or have coarse blankets inlaid between their outer coatings. The last is
by far the most effectual, most neat, and most durable mode of
construction; but, at the best, _purdahs_ are a very indifferent
make-shift; and, though often, from necessity, applied to windows, are
by no means answerable to their intention. Their best use is certainly
to deaden sounds; hence, they are advantageously suspended outside the
doors of sleeping, or other retired apartments; when, by closing the
doors, privacy and quiet may usually be effected. The presence of a
_purdah_ usually indicates the exclusion of males; and that the
apartments, within that entrance, are devoted to the accommodation of
ladies; except when rolled up, and tied, as has been explained in regard
to _cheeks_.
The best timber for building, in whatever branch, is the _sygwam_, or
_teak_; but its dearness prevents its general use, especially since
naval architecture has been so much an object of speculation at
Calcutta. However, it can generally be purchased at about a rupee, or a
rupee and a quarter, per foot: making its utmost price about three
shillings and three-pence. Those who build houses of the first class,
rarely fail to lay all their tarrases upon _teak_ joists; both because
they possess superior strength, and that they are far less likely to be
attacked by the white-ants. This has been attributed to the quantity of
tannin contained in _teak_-wood, which some have asserted to be a
perfect preventive, or antidote; but, after having seen those noxious
insects devouring shoes and boots by wholesale, I can never bring myself
to accord with such an opinion. There is, in _teak_-wood, evidently some
property, hitherto occult, that repels the white-ant, at least for some
years, but which is doubtless diminished by exposure to the air; as we
find that very old _teak_-timbers become rather more subject to
depredation, than new ones. The greater part of the _teak_ used in
Bengal, and at Madras, is imported from the Pegu coast, in immense
beams, and in spars, planks, &c., of all sizes. It is by no means
unusual to see the squared timbers measuring from forty, to fifty, feet
in length, and averaging from fifteen to twenty inches in diameter. Here
is food for our dock-yards!
It would certainly be attended with considerable benefit to the public,
if that occult principle, or matter, which apparently exists in the
_teak_-wood, enabling it to resist both the white-ant, and the
river-worm, could be ascertained; it might be possible to impregnate, or
to saturate, other timber in a similar manner. This is the more
essential, because we have abundant proofs that mere hardness does not
deter those voracious insects, which are found at times even upon the
lignum vitæ! But the principal object, so far as relates to naval
purposes, is, that the _teak_-wood certainly is, in a great measure,
devoid of the gallic, or any other, acid; or, if such is present, it
assuredly must be in a very limitted portion; since the nails driven
into _teak_-wood are never corroded so as to decay the surrounding wood,
and to liberate it from confinement. To this decay, called
‘iron-sickness,’ are attributed many losses of ships, supposed to have
foundered at sea, in consequence of planks starting; which must often
happen when the wood embracing a nail is destroyed by the acid, or by
the action of salt water upon the iron. In repairing ships built of oak,
many nails are found perfectly insulated, by the wood having been
rotted, and fallen away; which has never been the case with vessels
built of _teak_.
The generality of apartments being large, the halls measuring perhaps
from thirty to forty feet in length, and from sixteen to twenty-four in
width, and other rooms in proportion, it is evident that very
substantial, as well as long, timbers must be requisite to support their
flat roofs; for, with a few exceptions, truss-roofs are not in use. The
mode introduced by Mr. Lyon, the Company’s architect, at Berhampore,
certainly contributed greatly to reduce the quantity of timber in a
roof, but it rendered it absolutely necessary that every timber should
be perfectly sound. That gentleman, whose professional skill, and
excellent social qualities, demand an ample tribute, exploded _burgahs_,
(or smaller battens,) from the roofs he constructed; and, in their
stead, threw arches from the centre of one to the centre of the other
timber; so that the intervals between the timbers were to appearance
grooved, or fluted, longitudinally. This, however, was barely
distinguishable, the arches being very elliptic; rarely, indeed,
including more than an angle of six degrees, on a circle having full ten
feet of radius.
Hence, it will be seen, that the joists were tolerably close, but their
diameters admitted of considerable reduction, on account of the
continuity of such a series of arches, which gave great solidity; and,
by their mutual pressure, admitted that a joist should be freely
removed, without in the least affecting the roof.
The houses built and inhabited by the natives, invariably have flat
roofs. In these the apartments are, for the most part, extremely narrow,
and dark. The _verandas_, where any are made, consist of arcaded fronts,
invariably indented gothic; and have pillars, either of an hexagonal, or
of an octagonal, form, resting on short pedestals, while the arch may be
seen to break off rather too suddenly from the shaft, which continues up
to _baisez-mur_, (or _bassimere_, as our architects vulgarly call it,)
and divides the upper part into various compartments, all of which are
ornamented with a profusion of carved work. In almost every Hindostanee
building, of this description, there will be seen an odd number of
arches, to which others in the main part of the edifice generally
correspond. The chambers, if so we may call them, are taken off from the
ends of the halls, by similar arcades; each of which, as well as those
of the exterior, is furnished with a _purdah_. These narrow slips have
no windows, or, at the best, only small loop holes. The intention of
such oven-like recesses would perplex an European unacquainted with
Asiatic customs, but he would soon find that, in the cold season, such
are peculiarly warm, and that, during those months in which the glare is
obnoxious, they remain cooler than such as admit more light. Almost
every house is furnished with some means of ascending to the _chut_, (or
flat tarras-roof,) whereon the natives often pass the evening, causing
the heat to be first abated, by means of several pots of water, which
throw up a steam fully indicating the temperature at which the tarras
had arrived. The natives are not partial to upper-roomed houses in
general; though they affect to pride themselves greatly in the
possession of _doomaulahs_, that is, of houses having a second floor: it
seems that ostentation is the reason of this predilection in favor of
ground floors, whereon all their attendants, &c., may be seen from the
level of their _compounds_ (or enclosed areas). The stairs, where any
exist, (for sometimes a very mean boarded ladder is made to answer that
intention,) are narrow, steep, and unsafe: these are almost always built
of solid masonry, as far up as the first turn, (or landing place,) after
which they commonly consist of small bricks laid edgeways in lime
mortar, supported by stout timbers, placed at a proper angle, and
resting on the proximate joist of the upper floor. In every Hindostanee
house, the doors are very low, and often are made to open into a long
arcaded _veranda_, running the whole length of the interior, much the
same as in our inns; while, in the front, or towards the road, a hanging
balcony is sometimes made, supported on continuations of the joists, of
which the extremities are carved into grotesque forms; such as the heads
of alligators, or of tigers, or of serpents, and not infrequently of
little human figures, whose size and squat position strongly put us in
mind of a _f[oe]tus in utero_.
_Saul-wood_ is used to an immense extent, both in buildings, and in the
construction of ships, but is not to be compared, either for toughness,
strength, resistance against insects, or durability, with _teak_. Its
price is much in favor of general service, to which its great size, and
admirable straightness, are considerable, and valuable recommendations;
but it is extremely apt to crack, though not to snap; especially when
exposed to the weather. There is something very peculiar in _saul-wood_;
since it is seen to warp, even after having been employed in bulk for
many years, riving into large fissures longitudinally: the white-ants
also devour it with avidity. Mr. Lyon, already noticed, when he was
building the General Hospital at Berhampore, caused an immense copper
trough to be made, in which he boiled the beams intended for that
edifice: some were boiled in pure water, others with tannin, and some
with arsenic; under the hope both of seasoning the timber, and of giving
it a repellant, or preservative quality. This ingenious, and highly
praise-worthy experiment, was by no means successful; for, although, in
the first instance, the timbers seemed to defy the white-ant, especially
those boiled in the solution of arsenic, still they were not completely
secured from depredation; while, on the other hand, nine in ten rived so
dangerously as to demand immediate props, and ultimate removal.
Many authors have recommended the boiling of timber, planks, &c., with a
view to extract the sap, and thus to season them out of hand; but they
have invariably neglected to furnish us with the results. Now, I have
ever held it necessary, that medical practitioners should keep a
register of the obituary, as well as of the convalescent department, in
order that we may know how to _avoid_ certain systems; which, doubtless,
for want of such a guide, or caution, have been repeatedly resorted to
by various medical characters, who, insensible of those fatal effects
that had attended former experiments, thus consign many patients to
their graves! So should all experiments, such as that above recorded, be
fully laid before the public, and their results be candidly detailed. It
is evident, that where we see only the suggestion, without the proofs of
its failure, we must frequently be induced to adopt hints of a most
pernicious tendency.
_Saul_ timber, when used in buildings, ought always to have its ends
completely open to inspection; both to prevent the white-ant from
preying upon it under cover, and to insure its being duly aerated;
without which, however charred and tarred it may be, rottenness will
speedily take place. This arises from being bedded in masonry, which,
during the rainy season, even under the best roofs, will absord a large
portion of moisture, that will, infallibly, in time, penetrate into the
timber. It must be recollected, that not one in hundreds of the houses
in Calcutta, or that are built on their plan, contains a fire-place:
hence, during some months in the year, the walls will exhibit various
indications of moisture, even to their very cornices; though this will
often depend upon the proper selection of sand for mixing in the
plaster. It is now well known, though not long since discovered, that
all sand, taken up within the flowing of the tides, is strongly
impregnated with salt, which will keep the mortar wherein it is mixed
eternally subject to damps; notwithstanding the tarrases may be flued,
or be founded upon pots. I have known several, otherwise highly
eligible, houses rendered untenable, merely by this incautious use of
river sand; which occasioned whatever mats, or carpets, were laid down,
to be speedily rotted. The fault was at first imputed to the vicinity of
the river, whence it was suspected the damps were received; but it was
ascertained, that such tarrases, and mortar, as were compounded of
pit-sand, remained dry, and free from so obnoxious a defect.
Nevertheless, the greater part of the buildings, in and about Calcutta,
receive a certain portion of river-sand, taken up within the reach of
brackish water: while this practice is allowed, the walls and tarrases
will remain subject to occasional moisture; and, as we daily see in that
city, the plastering will blister, or, indeed, become mottled, and
obviously unsound.
_Saul-timbers_ are found in all the forests, ranging under the hills,
branching our possessions from Assam up to Hurdwar; they are more
abundant in some parts than in others, but no where scarce. Many of
these forests present thousands upon thousands of acres, whereon the
_saul_, _sissoo_, and other useful timbers grow spontaneously; offering
to us an inexhaustible depôt! The only consideration is, that
water-carriage should be at hand. The Indian wood-feller, who pays not
more than sixpence, or a shilling, for each tree he may choose, and
which may, perhaps, contain from sixty to a hundred feet of timber,
considers it a bad speculation, if some river be not within a stone’s
throw of the selected wood: his object is to lop and bark as fast as he
can, and then to launch the tree into the river, there to be fastened to
others, intended to form a raft, or float, which, being secured to a
boat, may glide down with the current to some established market. His
expences are very trifling; for, with the exception of some duties, most
injudiciously imposed, his adventure will not cost more than two-pence
per foot, when arrived at the place of destination; where it may
commonly be sold, without risk or delay, for full three times that sum.
Few _saul-timbers_ measuring a ton, or even a load, (_i.e._ forty, or
fifty, cubic feet,) stand the owner in more than three rupees when
landed at Patna; where such always meet with a very ready sale, in whole
rafts, at nine, ten, and sometimes up to fifteen, rupees per stick, (or
timber;) and this, notwithstanding the number of competitors in the
trade. Those competitors rarely prove injurious to each other, while
they render great service to the public, by preventing the whole trade
from falling into a few hands. Thus, the prices of _saul-timber_ are not
only kept down, but, in general, owing to occasional gluts, seasoned
timbers may be, to any amount, purchased at the several _ghauts_, or
wharfs.
The mode of floating timber being so very different from that in use
with us, I offer a description of it, under the hope of its affording at
least some variety, if not some useful information. A common _pulwar_,
(or _paunchway_,) of perhaps thirty feet in length, and six or seven in
width, is equipped with two sticks of _saul_, say forty feet long, and
two feet in girth: these are placed across her gunwales, at right angles
with her length, and about six feet from her centre, and very firmly
lashed down. The boat, being in about three feet water, has a tree
brought up to each of her sides, where they are respectively lashed to
the cross timbers, and thus, in succession, until she is judged
incapable of receiving more burthen. In the centre of the boat, a small
cabin is generally made, either of thatch, or of arched bamboo laths,
covered with _durmah_ mats: in this the crew are sheltered at night. It
is highly expedient to avoid launching such rafts when the river is at
the fullest, or the current any way prone to deviate from the deepest
channels, as it must do in great floods, on account of the waters
finding, for a while, passages along hollows among the inland parts;
that is, beyond their limits in ordinary seasons. When a float of timber
once gets over the river’s bank, it must be the result of great good
fortune, if the channel is ever regained. Hence, when the waters are
falling, it is common to see very large pinnaces, _budjrows_, and boats
of burthen, left upon some sand, on which they had struck, but which the
rapid ebbing of the floods prevented them from quitting! In such cases,
some are allowed to remain until the ensuing year, when the floods lift
them; others are unladen, and, by means of the joint efforts of hundreds
of villagers, are pushed along the sands to the deep water; while those
which appear unequal to such a severe operation, are generally broken
up, and sold for various purposes.
When a float of timber becomes thus situated, the best way is to cut the
ropes of at least half the exterior sticks on each side, and so to
lighten the boat, that she may be carried into a depth suited to
receiving them again: but this operation, which, on paper, appears very
simple, requires great exertion, and no less despatch; as the strength
of the current, which often runs six or seven miles within the hour,
renders it extremely difficult to manage such immense logs; especially
as they are very apt to sink into the sands. We commonly see several
floats in company, proceeding, when the reaches are straight, and the
waters deep, with great regularity; the boatmen, in such situations,
having little to do, sit smoking their _nereauls_, with great composure:
sometimes a sail is hoisted, but, for the most part, it is deemed
expedient to check, rather than to accelerate, the progress. Almost
every float, or, at least, every company of floats, has a canoe attached
to it; which, in doubtful waters, precedes, and directs the men in
charge of the respective vessels, who, by means of _luggies_, (or
bamboo-poles, from twenty even to fifty feet in length,) fend off the
floats from banks, or guide them along the deep water: without such
pilotage, they would be in perpetual danger of grounding, the
inconveniences of which are, as above shewn, by no means inconsiderable.
Floats of timber cannot well come to an anchor, except in very still
water; hence, they are usually brought-to under steep banks, where there
is great depth; and where, in case the river should fall during the
night, they would not be left high and dry.
The greatest danger to which a timber float can be exposed, is that of
running upon a sunken tree, which, having been washed away, by the bank
whereon it stood being undermined by the strong currents, is hurled away
into deep water, where it probably lies exposed to view for the first
year. During the hot season, when the waters are low, the boughs are
often cut away by persons in want of fuel; or, perhaps, they are torn
off by the succeeding rains, so far as to cause their being concealed a
foot or two under the surface. When thus situated, they throw up a deal
of water, so that their locality may be ascertained at some distance;
but, owing to heavy mists, and especially to clouds of sand, they
frequently are not discovered by the boatmen, until it becomes
impossible to avoid them.
If the _pulwar_, _i.e._ the supporting boat, strikes upon one of the
branches, her bottom will infallibly be staved in; and, in all
probability, the immense body of water bearing upon the timbers, will
either tear them away from the _pulwar_, or carry off her upper works,
leaving her bottom entangled. In either case, the situation of the
boatmen becomes highly critical; but, as they generally are expert
swimmers, (though, strange to say, some _dandies_, have, like Falstaff,
‘a wonderful alacrity at sinking,’) few are drowned on such occasions.
The timbers, however, rarely fail to find the bottom, so soon as their
buoyant companion is wrecked.