whom you are so anxious to have suitably maintained, and to whose
charge the youth of our country is to be committed? Surely that
charge is great, and if he is to discharge it well, he must be well
qualified for it, and ought to be very well requited for doing it
so well. Besides his manner and behaviour, which must be beyond
cavil, and his skill in exercising the body, he must be able to
teach the three learned tongues, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, if
these are required. And in these a mediocrity of knowledge is not
enough, for he who means to plant even a little well, must himself
far exceed mediocrity. He must be able to understand his author,
to correct misprints, the mistakes of unskilful dictionaries,
and the foolish comments of superficial writers on the matter he
is teaching, and he must be so well furnished before he begins
to teach that he can express himself readily, and not have to
be learning as he goes along, distracting his scholars by his
hesitations. Time and experience will do much to polish the manner
of teaching, but there must be knowledge of the matter from the
first. He must be acquainted with all the best grammars, so that
he can always add notes by the way, though not of course to the
burdening of the children’s memory. Besides these and other points
of learning, he must have determination to take pains, perseverance
to continue in his work without shrinking, discretion to judge
of circumstances, cheerfulness to delight in the success of his
labour, sympathy to encourage a promising youth, hopefulness to
think every child an Alexander, and courteous lowliness in his
opinion of himself. For even the smallest thing in learning will be
well done only by him who knows most, and by reason of his store of
knowledge is able to perform his task with pleasure and ease. These
qualities deserve much, and are not often found in our schools,
because the rewards of labour are so insufficient, but they would
soon be had if the maintenance were adequate.
The Training of Teachers.
If the rewards of the teaching profession were sufficient to
attract good students, the way to make them well fitted to deserve
these rewards would be to arrange for their being trained at the
Universities. I touch upon this matter with some hesitation, for
it would involve some changes that might not be easily compassed,
but if the very name of change is to be avoided, no improvements
could ever take place, and though my proposals may raise
objections at first, I believe that the more they are considered
the more they will commend themselves, as well to the University
authorities as to all others concerned. By the means I am about
to suggest, not only schoolmasters, but all other members of
the learned professions, would be better fitted on leaving the
University to perform what is expected of them in the service of
the commonwealth. I would have it understood that I have no great
fault to find with the present constitution of the Universities,
but granting that things are well done there already, there is
no discourtesy in wishing that they might be managed a good deal
better.
University Reform.
My idea rests on four points;
1st. What if the Colleges were divided into faculties according
to the professions for which they prepare?
2nd. What if students of similar age, who were studying for the
same profession, were all bestowed in one house?
3d. What if the College livings were made more valuable by
combination, and the Colleges strengthened by being lessened in
number?
4th. What if in every house there were valuable fellowships
for learned scholars who would remain their whole lives in the
position?
Would not the country benefit by these measures? And hath not the
State authority to carry them out, seeing that it hath already
given its sanction to the making of foundations, with a reservation
of the right to alter them if sufficient cause should be shown? Is
it not as admissible to discuss the improvement of the Universities
by planting sound learning, as to decide upon taking away lands
from colleges, and boarding out the students, because they cannot
agree among themselves about the use of the endowments? Would there
be any better means of giving a new and fairer aspect to the work
of the Universities, and of bringing them into greater favour with
the public? In the first erection of schools and colleges, private
zeal inflamed good founders; in altering these for the better, the
State, for considerations of public interest, may increase the
advantage, without departing from the intention of the founders,
who would have gladly welcomed any improvement. It is for each age
under the spur of necessity to point out what is best for its own
circumstances, and the State must exercise its wisdom and policy
in bringing this about. I will now take up more fully the four
points I have named, in the hope of offering reasons that may prove
convincing.
A College for Languages.
Would it not be convenient and profitable if there were one college
where nothing was professed but languages, to be thoroughly
acquired as a means to further study within the university, and
to public service outside? That being the professed end, and
nothing else being dealt with there, would not a high standard
of sufficiency be the better reached through general agreement?
And would not daily conference and continuous application in the
same subject be likely to secure efficiency? As it is now, when
everyone deals confessedly with everything, no one can say with
certainty, “Thus much can such a one do in this particular thing,”
but he either speaks by conjecture that may often deceive even the
speaker, or else out of courtesy which as often beguiles those
who hear and believe. For where all exercises, conferences, and
conversations, both public and private, are on the same subject,
because the soil bringeth forth no other stuff, there must needs
follow great perfection. When the tongues are thus separated from
other learning, it will soon appear what a difference there is
between him who can only speak and him who can do more. No subject
can be more necessary than languages in university training. For
the tongues being the receptacles of matter, without a perfect
understanding of them what hope is there of understanding
matter? And seeing words are the names of things, applied and
given according to their properties, how can things be properly
understood by us, who make use of words to know them by, unless the
force of speech is thoroughly understood? I do see in writers and
hear in speakers great defects in the mistaking of meanings, and
evident errors through insufficiency in the study of language. Such
study should be well advanced by the Grammar School, but it needs
to be brought to greater perfection than it can be there. And it
may be that some, wishing only a general culture, will be content
to rest in this literary faculty, taking delight in the writings of
the poets and historians, and not passing on to any professional
study.
A College for Mathematics.
I would have another college devoted to the Mathematical Sciences,
though I shall be opposed by some of good intelligence, who not
knowing the force of these faculties because they considered them
unworthy of study, as not leading to preferment, are accustomed to
mock at mathematical heads. Such studies require concentration, and
demand a type of mind that does not seek to make public display
until after mature contemplation in solitude. It is this silent
meditation on the part of the true students, or the appearance
of it in those that are but counterfeits, that layeth them open
to the mockery of some, who should rather forbear if they will
remember in what high esteem those sciences were held by Socrates,
and by Plato, who forbad anyone to enter his Academy that was
ignorant of Geometry. For the men who profess these sciences and
bring them into disrepute are either quite ignorant and maintain
their credit by the use of certain terms and technical expressions
without ever getting at the kernel, or they are such as having some
knowledge occupy themselves with the trivial and sophistical and
illusive parts of the subject, rather than with its true uses in
the advancement of the arts. But in spite of the contempt which is
thus often brought on the Mathematical Sciences, I will venture to
give my opinion in defence of their value. In time all learning may
be brought into one tongue, and that naturally understood by all,
so that schooling for tongues may prove needless, just as once they
were not needed; but it can never fall out that arts and sciences
in their essential nature shall be anything but most necessary for
every commonwealth that is not utterly barbarous. We attribute too
much to tongues, in paying more heed to them than we do to matter,
and esteem it more honourable to speak finely than to reason
wisely. After all, words are praised only for the time, but wisdom
wins in the end.
The Mathematical Sciences show themselves in many professions and
trades which do not bear the titles of learning, whereby it is
well seen that they are really profitable; they do not make much
outward show, but our daily life benefits greatly by them. It is no
just objection to ask, “What should merchants, carpenters, masons,
shipmasters, mariners, surveyors, architects, and other such do
with learning? Do they not serve the country’s needs well enough
without it?” Though they may do well without it, might they not
do better with it? The speaking of Latin is no necessary proof of
deeper learning, but Mathematics are the first rudiments for young
children, and the sure means of direction for all skilled workmen,
who without such knowledge can only go by rote, but with it might
reach genuine skill. The sciences that we term ‘mathematical’ from
their very nature always achieve something good, intelligible
even to the unlearned, by number, figure, sound, or motion. In
the manner of their teaching also they plant in the mind of the
learner a habit of resisting the influence of bare probabilities,
of refusing to believe in light conjectures, of being moved only
by infallible demonstrations. Mathematics had its place before the
tongues were taught, which though they are now necessary helps,
because we use foreign languages for the conveyance of knowledge,
yet push us one degree further off from knowledge.
A College for Philosophy.
The third college should be devoted to Philosophy in all its
three kinds, each of which forms a preparation for a particular
profession--Natural Philosophy for Medicine, Political Philosophy
for Law, and Moral Philosophy for Divinity. But in this
distribution some will ask, “Where do Logic and Rhetoric come
in?” I would ask in reply, “What is the place of Grammar?” It is
the preparative to language. In the same way, Logic on the side
of demonstration takes the part of Grammar for the Mathematical
Sciences and Natural Philosophy, and in its consideration of
probabilities fills the same place for Moral and Political
Philosophy. Rhetoric helps the writer to attain purity of style
without emotion, and the speaker to use persuasion with an appeal
to the feelings, though sometimes, indeed, the latter deals only
in argument, while the former may wax hot over his writing. As to
the proper order of these studies, we are accustomed to set young
students to Moral and Political Philosophy first, but we should
rather follow Aristotle in placing Natural Philosophy next to the
Mathematical Sciences, because it is more intelligible for young
heads on account of its deductive reasoning, whereas Moral and
Political Philosophy, being subject to particular circumstances in
life, should be reserved for riper years.
Professional Colleges.
The three professions above mentioned--Medicine, Law, and
Divinity--should each be endowed with its particular College and
livings, instead of having its students scattered. To have the
physician thus learned is not too much to ask, considering that his
proficiency depends on his knowledge, and with him ignorance is
simply butchery. As for Law, if the whole study were reduced into
one body, would our country have any cause to complain? Would she
not rather have great reason to be very glad? We have now three
several professions in Law, as if we were a three-headed State,
one English and French, another Roman Imperial, and the third
Roman Ecclesiastical, whereas English alone were simply best. The
distraction of temporal, civil, and canon law is in many ways very
injurious to our country. There can be no question that it is good
for the divine to have time to study the sciences that are the
handmaids to his profession.
General Study for Professional Men.
But is it advisable that those wishing to enter the professions
should have to go through all the colleges that offer a general
preparatory training,--the colleges for Languages, Mathematics,
and Philosophy? No one could doubt this, except such as are ready
to think themselves ripe, while they are still raw in the opinion
of other men. He that will be perfect in his profession ought at
least to have a contemplative knowledge of all that goes before.
It will be for the gain of the community that while the student’s
youth is wedded to honest and learned meditation, the heat of that
stirring age is cooled, which might set all on fire to the public
harm; ripe judgment is gained, and all ambitious passions are made
subject to self-control. Till young men who are coming forward to
the professions are made to tarry longer and study more soundly,
learning shall have no credit, and our country cannot but suffer.
It may be asked: “What hath a divine to do with Mathematics?” Well,
was not Moses trained in all the learning of the Egyptians? How can
the divine presume to judge and condemn sciences of which he knows
nothing but the name? And has not the lawyer to deal with many
questions that require a knowledge of the sciences? The physician
more than all should see that his professional skill is supported
by a wide general study.
A Training College for Teachers.
There will be some difficulty in winning a college for those who
will afterwards pass to teach in schools. There is no specialising
for any profession till the student leaves the College of
Philosophy, from which he will go to Medicine, Law, or Divinity.
This is the time also when the intending schoolmaster should begin
his special training. In him there is as much learning necessary
as, with all deference to their subjects, is required by any of
the other three professions, especially if it be considered how
much the teacher hath to do in preparing scholars for all other
careers. Why should not these men have this competence in learning,
to be chosen for the common service? Are children and schools so
small an element in our commonwealth? Is the framing of young minds
and the training of their bodies a matter of so little skill? Are
schoolmasters in this realm so few that they need not be taken
account of? Whoever will not allow of this careful provision for
such a seminary of teachers is most unworthy either to have had
a good master himself, or to have a good one hereafter for his
children. Why should not teachers be well provided for, so that
they can continue their whole life in the school, as divines,
lawyers, and physicians do in their several professions? If this
were the case, judgment, knowledge, and discretion would grow in
them as they get older, whereas now the school, being used but
for a shift, from which they will afterwards pass to some other
profession, though it may send out competent men to other careers,
remains itself far too bare of talent, considering the importance
of the work. I consider therefore that in our universities there
should be a special college for the training of teachers, inasmuch
as they are the instruments to make or mar the growing generation
of the country, and because the material of their studies is
comparable to that of the greatest professions, in respect of
language, judgment, skill in teaching, variety of learning, wherein
the forming of the mind and the exercising of the body require
the most careful consideration, to say nothing of the dignity of
character which should be expected from them.
Use of the Seven Colleges.
Surely there is nothing unreasonable in proposing that these seven
colleges should be set up, and should have the names of the things
they profess--Languages, Mathematics, Philosophy, Education,
Medicine, Law, and Divinity. If it had been so arranged from the
beginning, public opinion would now have commended the policy and
wisdom of those that originated it. And can we not bring about
still what, if it had been done at first, would have met with
such honour, and will deserve everlasting memory, at whatever
time it may be done? Greater changes have been both desired and
accomplished in our time. All that is needful for doing it well is
ready to our hand: the material is there; the lands have neither to
be begged nor purchased; they have already been acquired and given,
and can easily be brought into order, especially as this is a time
of reform. As for putting students of similar age and studies into
the same house, it is desirable on many grounds, but particularly
because it encourages emulation among those who are best fitted to
compete with each other.
Uniting of Colleges.
In saying that colleges should be combined, so as to permit the
bettering of students’ livings, I shall have the support at least
of those who are now willing to change their college for a fatter
living, or even to abandon the university altogether for their own
advantage. At present college livings are certainly too lean, and
force good wits to fly before they are well feathered. A better
maintenance would give more time and opportunity for study, and
thus secure a higher standard of learning, greater ripeness of
judgment, and more solidity of character. Students would be made
more independent, and would not have to come under obligations
by accepting support from other quarters. The restriction in the
number of livings would be no objection, as it would shut out
those less qualified to profit by them, and thus raise the level
of attainment. It were better for the country to have a few well
trained and sufficiently provided for, than an unlearned multitude.
Moreover, it is not consonant with the liberal nature of learning
either that it should be unnecessarily dependent on charity, or
that it should in this way come under the control of those who
may act rather from personal considerations than regard to the
common welfare. Where learning grows up by props it loses its
true character; it is best when the stem can itself bear up the
branches. The outward conditions for the furtherance of learning
are the selection of scholars on grounds of ability and promise,
and sufficient time and maintenance for their due preparation;
the qualities required for the student himself are diligence and
discretion to profit fully by his opportunities.
University Readers.
The last reform which I am ready to contend for is that there
should be University readers appointed, of mature years, accredited
learning and secure position, who should direct and control the
studies of the students. Private study alone can never be compared
with the opportunity of working under one who has read and digested
all the best books in the subject, whose judgment has been formed
by his wide reading, and whose experience and intercourse with many
intellects has given him skill and address. The student who has not
this advantage will gain less with greater pains, since he could
in one lecture have the benefit of his reader’s universal study,
put in such a form that he can use it at once. Such readers would
save their cost in books alone, which would not then be so needful
to the student. They could be appointed with little or no cost to
the universities, and if they carried on their work in convenient
houses of their own, they would undoubtedly draw as many students
to their private establishments as there are now in the public
colleges.
Evils of Overpressure.
Hasty pressing onward is the greatest enemy that anything can
have, whose best is to ripen at leisure. I have appointed in my
elementary teaching--Reading, Writing, Drawing, Singing, Playing.
Now if these are imperfectly acquired when the child is sent to the
Grammar School, what an error is committed! How many small infants
have we sent to Grammar who can scarcely read, and how many to
learn Latin who never wrote a letter! Even though some youngster
could do much better than all his companions, it were no harm for
him to be captain a good while in his elementary school, rather
than to be a common soldier in a school where all are captains.
Many and serious are the evils that are caused by such hasting,
and if deploring them could amend them, I would lament that they
are so numerous and so hard to remedy. How common is the lack of
proper grounding in children, and how great is the foolishness of
their friends in regard to it! This is the chief cause that at
once makes children loth to learn, and schoolmasters seem harsh in
their teaching. For as the master hastens on to the natural aim of
his profession, and the scholar draws back, being unable to bear
the burden, there rises in the master an irritation which can only
be controlled by the wisdom and patience that are the fruits of
experience. And as in the teacher irritation breeds heat, so in the
scholar weakness breeds fear, and so much the more if he finds his
master somewhat too impatient, wherefore neither the one nor the
other can do much good at all. Whereas if the boy had nothing to
fear, how eager he would be, and what a pleasure the teacher would
take in his aptness to learn! But even if the child’s weakness is
felt both by himself and by his teacher, it is difficult to get the
parent to believe in it, owing to the blindness of his affection,
and he will prefer to seek out some other teacher who will adopt
his views, and undertake the task. Thus change feeds his humour
for the time, though he will afterwards repent his folly, when the
defect proves incurable, and the first master is at last admitted
to have been a true prophet. So necessary a thing is it to prevent
ills in time, and when warning is given not to laugh it to scorn
nor blame the watchman.
If the imperfections which come more from haste than from ignorance
did not go beyond the elementary school, the harm done might
be redressed, but as one billow driveth on another, so haste,
beginning there, makes the other successions in learning move on at
too headlong a pace. Is it only to the Grammar School that children
are sent too early? Are there none sent to the University who, when
they come out of it years afterwards, might with advantage return
to the Grammar School again? Do not some of good intelligence find
in the course of their study the evil effects of too great haste at
the beginning, and wish too late that they had been better advised?
And even if they make up what they have missed, do they not find it
true that a process which may be pleasant enough to young boys is
full of pain for older people? The Universities can best judge of
the weaknesses of our Grammar Schools when they find the defects of
those youths whom they receive from us, though they were not sent
by us. We see these defects ourselves, but we cannot remedy them,
for the partiality of parents over-rules all reason, and when the
pupil is removed all conference with the teacher is cut off. In
some places the multitude of schools mars the whole market, giving
too great opportunity for change, generally for the worse, so that
by degrees the elementary scholar enfeebles the Grammar School boy,
and he in turn transporteth his weakness from his schoolmaster to
his university tutor. So important is it to avoid haste at the
first, lest it cause injury to the last.