THE NITRATE WAR
The early Spaniards were very little interested in geography, and the
boundaries between the provinces were often very vaguely described. Since
the independence of the various provinces these boundary lines have been
the cause of many disputes, and, in many instances, have nearly plunged
neighbouring republics into bloody war. The most serious dispute still
unsettled is between Peru and Ecuador, which involves a large part of the
territory of the latter republic.
The older readers will remember that, when they studied geography,
Bolivia had a stretch of sea coast along the desert of Atacama. For a
considerable time after independence was secured little attention was
paid to Atacama, since it was regarded as worthless for colonization.
Chile claimed sovereignty, and its jurisdiction was generally recognized.
The year 1840 brought a change. In that year the wealth of fertilizer
along that coast began to be exploited. Disputes soon arose between Chile
and Bolivia as to the boundary line. The various claims made by Bolivia
were inconsistent. War threatened, and diplomatic relations between the
two countries were broken off. The outbreak of hostilities between Spain
and Peru united the two countries against what they considered a common
enemy. A treaty was drawn up in 1866 by which the 24th degree of south
latitude was agreed upon as the actual boundary, although the Chileans
were allowed to continue their operations in the nitrate regions beyond
that line. Furthermore, Chile was to pay over to Bolivia half the customs
received between the 24th and 25th degrees, and Bolivia was to hand over
to Chile half the customs received between the 23rd and 24th degrees,
south latitude. It was also provided that neither party to the treaty
could alienate its rights to a foreign government.
[Illustration: DIGGING NITRATE.]
This treaty gave rise to continual disputes. Chile regarded this
settlement as a final solution of the dispute, but Bolivia refused or
neglected to live up to her part of the agreement. By a later treaty
Chile renounced her claims between these two degrees, with the agreement
on the part of Bolivia that the export duties on mineral products from
that zone should not be increased, and that Chilean industries and
citizens should not be subjected to higher taxes than then prevailed.
This treaty was to remain in force for twenty-five years. The capital
invested in that zone was almost exclusively Chilean, and the labourers
employed were also of that nationality. Peru had large interests in the
nitrate industry and began to intrigue with Bolivia, in order to prevent
a ruinous competition in the market. So long as Chilean enterprise was
left free this monopoly was impossible. As the interests of Peru and
Bolivia were opposed to those of Chile, these two republics, in 1872,
entered into a secret treaty of alliance. Like many state secrets this
one became public, and Chile began to prepare for a conflict, which
seemed impending, by purchasing ironclads and in other ways strengthening
her navy.
In 1870 a revolution occurred in Bolivia, and a new government came
into power which refused to carry out the provisions of the last treaty
entered into with Chile. It, furthermore, at the alleged suggestion
of Peru, attempted to increase the taxes upon all nitrate exports,
in absolute violation of its treaty obligations. The manager of a
Chilean company was imprisoned, and the property was confiscated on his
refusal to pay the enhanced tax. Chile issued an ultimatum through her
diplomatic representative. Upon the refusal of the Bolivian government
to recede, Chile landed troops at Antofagasta and took possession of
that city. Bolivia declared war against Chile on the 1st of March, 1879,
and, because Peru refused to abrogate the secret treaty between it and
Bolivia, Chile declared war against Peru the following month. Most
writers lay the blame for the war entirely upon the aggressiveness and
covetousness of Chile, but a careful study of the situation shows great
moderation on the part of Chile for a long period of time.
It was generally believed that the Peruvian navy was far superior to that
of Chile, but, as a matter of fact, they were pretty evenly matched. For
several years Chile had steadily strengthened her naval forces. Peru
had suffered from internal dissensions and corrupt administrations, and
was ill prepared for war. Bolivia was in still worse condition. At the
time of the outbreak of hostilities the only available arms were fifteen
hundred Remington rifles, and the stock of ammunition was small; the rest
of the army was equipped with old flint-lock muskets. The bulk of both
the Peruvian and Bolivian armies were Indians. The Chilean army was not
large at the time of the declaration of war, but its personnel, man for
man, was far superior to either of its adversaries. The Chileans were
likewise prompt and energetic in their preparations for war. The land
forces were increased, and both naval and army supplies were accumulated
at strategic points. Because of the long stretch of sea coast it was
inevitable that the navies of the two countries would bear the brunt of
the fighting, as subsequent events proved.
The naval war was opened with the blockade of Iquique by the Chileans.
With Iquique as a rendezvous the Chilean navy visited various ports, and
inflicted serious damage to commercial interests. The aim was to deprive
Peru of her main source of revenue. Peru had an intrepid and doughty
admiral by the name of Grau, who commanded the Peruvian fleet, of which
the _Huascar_ was the flagship. While the main part of the Chilean navy
was away from Iquique, two Peruvian boats appeared in that harbour. The
_Huascar_ rammed and sank the _Esmeralda_, one of the best of the Chilean
ships, after four hours of heavy firing. It was at this fight that Arturo
Prat, who was in command of the _Esmeralda_, made a hero of himself by
leaping upon the deck of the _Huascar_. “Follow me,” said this brave
officer, as he boarded the _Huascar_, sword in hand. The ships, however,
separated so quickly that only one man was able to follow him. Prat
rushed along the deck of the ship as though he himself had captured it.
“Surrender, Captain,” said Admiral Grau, “we wish to save the life of a
hero.” Prat refused, and was soon cut down while still fighting with his
sword. The _Esmeralda_ sank with colours flying, and only fifty out of a
crew of two hundred were saved. Before the conflict ended, however, Peru
also lost one vessel, the _Independencia_, which ran upon the rocks while
pursuing the Chilean _Covadonga_.
For four months Admiral Grau traversed the Pacific coast from Arica to
Valparaiso. He prevented the transport of the Chilean army northward.
Discontent grew rapidly. The Chileans decided that they could do nothing
until they rid themselves of this doughty seaman. Their navy was divided
into two squadrons, both of which began patrolling the coast. The
_Huascar_ was accompanied by the Bolivian _Union_. These two vessels
were cruising together near Antofagasta on October 8th, 1879. When the
mist, which had been thick, lifted, they made out three distinct clouds
of smoke toward the northeast. These were soon recognized as one of
the Chilean squadrons. Admiral Grau fled, but soon ran into the other
squadron approaching him from the direction in which he was fleeing. The
Admiral at once decided that the only thing to do was to close with the
_Cochrane_ before the other boats could come up, and steamed straight
for that boat. None of the shots of either boat were effective until
they were in close quarters, when a chance shot disabled the _Huascar’s_
turret. Grau tried to ram the _Cochrane_, but the latter was too quick
for her. By this time the Chilean _Blanco_ had come up and added her
shots to those of her sister boat. A shot struck the conning-tower, in
which the Admiral was stationed, and blew that commander into atoms. A
little later the second officer, and then the next one in seniority, were
killed, which demoralized the Peruvian crew. One-third of the officers
and men had been either killed or wounded when the vessel was finally
surrendered. This fight is interesting not only because it was one of the
deciding events of the war, but it was the first fight between modern
ironclads. The entire engagement lasted but little over an hour. After
repairs the _Huascar_ was incorporated into the Chilean navy.
The capture of the _Huascar_ gave the Chileans the absolute command of
the sea, and enabled them to land an army wherever they pleased along
the coast. Nor did the Chileans delay their onward march. A Chilean army
of ten thousand men, well-equipped, had been landed at Antofagasta, and
other regiments were in Valparaiso ready to embark as occasion arose. On
the 28th of October this army was embarked on fifteen transports convoyed
by four men-of-war. The destination was kept a profound secret, but a
few days later they steamed into the harbour of Pisagua. A small force
of Bolivians defended this port, but they were unable to prevent the
landing of the Chilean troops. A brief skirmish ensued but the Bolivians
were soon in retreat. The allied forces of Peruvians and Bolivians had an
army of some nineteen thousand men at Iquique. These men were marched
out to meet the invaders. The march of these forces across the desert
regions was difficult because of the lack of provisions, and especially
the scant supply of water, from which the troops greatly suffered in many
instances. The Chileans had established themselves at Dolores and San
Francisco, where there was an abundant supply of fresh water.
The majority of the allied armies were Inca and Aymara Indians. They had
generally been recruited by force. Villages would be surrounded, and
all the men that could be caught were impressed into the ranks. They
were generally obedient and brave, and were capable of enduring hunger,
thirst and fatigue such as would have overwhelmed white troops. They were
unequalled in their capacity to make long marches with scant supplies of
food and water. In no other way could the Chileans have been withstood.
The wives of many accompanied them. These women are called _rabonas_,
and were regularly recognized. As soon as a halt was made these women
immediately busied themselves in preparing the food. After the battles
they ministered to the wounded. Callous to all danger hundreds of these
faithful helpmates met death on the field of carnage.
The first battle occurred at San Francisco and Porvenir. The vanguard
of the allies was made up of Indians from the Lake Titicaca district.
They were led by the brave Colonel Espinar. As these forces led a charge
against the Chilean guns a bullet pierced his forehead, and he fell
mortally wounded. A cry of grief and horror fell from his countrymen and
their courage failed. Disputing every inch of ground they fell back to
the main body of troops. The battle so gallantly fought resulted in a
decisive victory for the Chileans.
General Buendia, commander of the allied forces, retreated to the village
of Tarapacá, which was a collection of mud huts. It is situated in a
narrow but fertile valley not to exceed six hundred yards in width,
and he there awaited the attack which he knew was soon to follow. With
practically no cavalry and a dozen antiquated field-guns the prospect
was not alluring. The odds seemed hopeless. He was not kept long in
suspense. A force under Colonel Arteaga consisting of picked men, cavalry
and artillery soon appeared. The aim was the complete destruction of
the allied army. For this purpose the force had been divided into three
divisions.
A mist hung over the little valley while the Peruvian army rested with
stacked arms. Suddenly a muleteer galloped up to the commander and
reported the enemy approaching. Then two others reported the other
divisions. It looked as though they were being surrounded and caught in a
trap. Then came the call to arms. The men responded and advanced up the
bluffs against a withering fire. The stoical Indians saw their leaders
fall, but they set their teeth and continued the advance. The Chileans at
last found their equals. The allied forces were embarrassed by a lack of
artillery, but fought desperately. Many were the deeds of heroism of that
day. After a few hours of fighting they captured some guns from the enemy
and used them to good advantage. The result of the battle was a decided
victory for the allies, their only real victory of the war on land. San
Francisco was atoned for, and the loss of the _Huascar_ avenged. The
total loss was twelve hundred men, about equally divided. The allies
nevertheless retreated across the desert to Tacna, as it was impossible
to maintain an army in the interior and they were not strong enough to
recapture Iquique. In this way General Buendia saved the flower of his
army. In several battles of this campaign several thousand troops were
lost on each side, but, as a result, the Chileans came into control of
all of the nitrate country. Several months later Tacna was captured, and,
with the battle of Arica, which has heretofore been described, all of
present-day Chile was in control of the victors.
The disasters to the armies of the allies caused revolutions in both
Peru and Bolivia, and the President of each of those countries fled to
Europe. Armed revolts arose and fighting took place in the streets of
Lima. The position of Peru was desperate. With her navy destroyed Peru
could no longer defend herself against the aggressions of the enemy on
the sea. The Chileans blockaded Callao, and a marauding expedition under
Captain Lynch bombarded a number of coast towns. Captain Lynch had been
ordered to ravage the whole coast north of Callao, and he executed his
instructions to the letter, destroying government and private property
in every direction. Several Chilean boats were sunk in the harbour of
Callao through ingenious schemes of the Peruvians. On one occasion the
Chileans saw a boat loaded with fresh provisions. They began to transfer
these supplies to the _Loa_. As the last of the cargo was being hoisted
aboard, a terrific explosion occurred that sank the _Loa_. It was no
doubt due to an infernal machine that had been placed in the bottom. The
_Covadonga_ was destroyed by a similar explosion on a small boat captured
in the harbour by the Chileans.
The United States offered its mediation in October, 1880, and
commissioners of the three countries met on board the corvette
_Lackawanna_ of the United States navy, in the harbour of Arica. The
first meeting took place on the 22nd of October, when the American
minister took the chair and announced the purpose of the convention.
He added that the American representatives would take no part in the
discussion, but would be glad to help with friendly suggestions. The
Chilean commissioners presented a memorandum of their demands, which
was in substance what was eventually granted, but the Peruvians refused
such hard terms, thinking that foreign intervention would save them.
Chile absolutely refused arbitration or a full war indemnity, and the
convention broke up without any progress having been made towards peace.
The delay of a few months in the progress of the war had enraged the
volatile Chileans, and those in charge of the war finally decided that
it would be necessary to capture Lima. An expeditionary force of thirty
thousand men of all arms was organized, transports were purchased and
the resources of the country were taxed to the utmost to carry on this
expedition. The army was formed into three divisions, one of which, under
Captain Patrick Lynch, was ordered to land at Pisco. A second division
was instructed to disembark at Curayaco Bay, which was one hundred miles
nearer the capital than Pisco. The first division was ordered to march by
land northward to join the second division in the final attack upon the
capital.
At Lima all was confusion as the news of the actual advance of the
Chileans towards the capital reached that city. “The City of the Kings,”
as Pizarro had named it, the wealthy and prosperous capital of modern
Peru, was now threatened with all the horrors of war. The population
of the city at that time has been estimated at one hundred thousand
souls, of whom at least fifteen thousand were foreigners. The inhabitants
were pleasure-loving, and there was a very large irresponsible element,
composed in part of negroes and Indians, that meant trouble in those
dark days. The flower of the Peruvian army had been destroyed. Thousands
rested on the deserts of Tarapacá, and the sand hills of Tacna and Arica.
Those seasoned troops that were in the city had become more or less
disorganized. A decree was issued ordering every male resident in Lima
between the ages of sixteen and sixty, of whatever trade, profession and
calling, to join the army. Gay and thoughtless youths, students, idlers
and the vicious were all brought together in the ranks under this order.
It is easy to make such decrees, but a decree does not make an army. It
takes months to create an efficient fighting force. However brave these
Peruvians might be, they were not trained in military service, and they
lacked the qualities of the seasoned soldiers of the Chilean army. From
three to six in the afternoon all business was suspended by Presidential
decree, and these drafted troops were drilled. The call to arms was made
by the tolling of the bell in the great cathedral. The artillery was
inferior, and it could not compete with the Krupp and Armstrong guns with
which the invaders were provided.
Nicolas de Pierola, who was at the head of the army, with the title of
Supreme Chief, realized the danger, and strove in the best way possible
to prepare for it. At a meeting of all the generals and naval officers,
plans were evolved to protect the city. As soon as it became known that
the invading army had landed to the south of Lima the preparations were
devoted to protecting the city from that direction. As the time was short
it was not possible to prepare extensive fortifications. A chain of
sandhills, which ran through Chorrillos, about ten miles from the city to
the south, was chosen as the first line of defense. These hills formed
a sort of natural barrier, and breastworks were thrown up at various
places along them, and these newly-recruited and hastily-drilled troops
were stationed along this first line of defense, which was at least six
miles long. A second line of defense just outside Miraflores, and four
miles nearer the capital, was established, and thousands of these troops
were stationed there. The time was too short to create very formidable
fortifications.
The first division of the Chilean army landed at Pisco on the 13th
of December, and immediately began its march overland. Villages and
plantations were destroyed along the route, and the record of Captain
Lynch is a rather cruel one. On the 25th a junction of the two divisions
was made at Curayaco. These two bodies proceeded to Lurin, a small
village lying in a beautiful little valley, and remained there about
three weeks, while making their final preparations for the capture of the
capital. This time was spent in reconnoitering and collecting provisions
for the final campaign. The Chilean army at this time consisted of an
effective force of twenty-six thousand men, with seventy long range field
guns, and a considerable body of cavalry. Most of these troops were
thoroughly disciplined men, who had had experience in previous campaigns.
They were under the command of General Baquedano, who had made a record
for himself in this war.
The battle of Chorrillos began at dawn on the morning of the 13th of
January, 1881. The Peruvians were taken by surprise, but resisted
bravely. It was not long, however, until their right flank was driven
back, and then various other points of defense were carried at the point
of the bayonet. The Chilean cavalry completed the victory by pursuing and
cutting down fugitives in every direction, until the plains for several
miles were covered with the dead bodies of the Peruvians. The Peruvians
fell back in more or less disorder to the second line of defense,
which was only six miles distant from the city itself. An armistice
was arranged by the diplomatic corps at Lima on the 15th, in the hope
of preventing any more bloodshed and averting the horrors of a battle
just outside the capital. This was done at the request of the Peruvian
commander-in-chief, and the Chilean general agreed that it should last
until midnight of the 15th. Through some misunderstanding some shots
were exchanged, and each party believed that the other had violated its
agreement, so that the battle of Miraflores was fought on that date.
The defense of the Peruvians was brave, as they were fighting for their
homes and the city which all of them loved. The battle extended over the
entire line of the second defense, which was not less than four miles.
The battle began early in the afternoon, and a number of warships in the
harbour near there assisted in the assault by firing their long range
guns. The ammunition of the defenders ran low and the defense began to
weaken. The Chileans made a bayonet charge, and one breastwork after
another was captured. For almost four hours the defense was maintained,
but at the end of that time the Chileans were victors. The village of
Miraflores was burned; the pleasant country homes surrounding it were
sacked, the crops destroyed and the work of devastation was terrible. On
the 16th, Lima was surrendered to the Chilean general by the Municipal
Alcalde, and possession was to be given on the following day. The
intervening night was a night of terror, and, had it not been for the
voluntary service of the foreign colony, the whole city might have been
sacked by the disorderly elements in it.
The Chilean commander entered Lima on the 16th and established himself in
the palace. He immediately took possession of the revenues, policed the
city, and endeavoured to restore peaceful conditions to such an extent
as they could be under a military government by a hated foe. A million
pesos a month was levied upon the citizens, and they were required to
meet it. The conduct of the Chileans was reprehensible in that they
became vandals. A great part of the valuable library, filled with almost
priceless volumes, was looted and some of it sold as junk on the streets.
Pictures and statues were removed and taken to Chile, where they may
still be seen. The Chileans, coming from the same stock and claiming
allegiance to the same church, did not seem to have any consideration for
a fallen foe.
Before a treaty could be entered into it was necessary to have a
government established with which to treat. Several attempts were made,
but no one could be found who dared sign a treaty that would permanently
alienate a portion of the country. The Chileans refused to treat with
Pierola, so that he resigned. Calderon assumed the presidency, but
the congress refused him authority to alienate any territory. Admiral
Montero next attempted the seemingly impossible and failed. At length
General Iglesias called a convention of his compatriots in the northern
districts, and it was decided to adopt measures that would secure
the speedy retirement of the Chileans, no matter at what sacrifice.
He declared himself President, and his pretensions were supported
by the Chileans. A treaty was arranged with Chile, which was signed
provisionally on the 23rd of October, 1883, and is known as the Treaty of
Ancon. Five days later the Peruvian flag was again hoisted in Lima, and
the Chileans left the country. It was a number of years later before a
treaty of peace was arranged with Bolivia, although no further fighting
took place.
It is quite possible that the last word has not yet been spoken in the
nitrate controversy between Chile and Peru. The feeling of Peruvians
toward their late foe is intensely bitter. They all look forward to
another day of war, and predict that Peru will retake from Chile all that
she has lost. If some ambitious leader should arise in Peru and secure
the presidency, another war might easily follow. At the present time
Peru’s finances would not warrant such a step. It is to be hoped that
both nations will seriously consider the ultimate consequences of war,
and make unnecessary the reference of mooted questions to the arbitrament
of the field of battle.