CHAPTER XVIII.

AIR CRAFT AND MOTOR VEHICLES IN WAR.

While other branches of the service have hundreds of years of

precedents back of them, there is very little past experience to guide

us in the use of air craft in war. Portable observation stations,

captive balloons, and man-lifting kites still form part of the

equipment of all modern armies, but the two principal classes of air

craft today are air ships and aeroplanes.

That air craft will play a very important part in future wars is no

longer questioned, but the development of both air ships and aeroplanes

is proceeding so rapidly that it is difficult to say today what they

will be capable of doing tomorrow. There are many possible uses for

this new arm of the service, but a number of these are still largely

matters of speculation. Others, however, are now well determined

and these in themselves are of sufficient importance to require the

adoption of air craft as an indispensable part of the equipment of any

army.

There is a natural tendency on the part of those who are engaged in

the development of a new instrument of war to exaggerate its power and

minimize its limitations. Air craft at the present moment are capable

of rendering most valuable service, and with the improvements that

are bound to come, their value for military purposes will be greatly

increased; but the claims of certain enthusiasts that aeroplanes and

air ships have rendered cavalry obsolete and revolutionized the art of

war have no foundation of fact.

_Characteristics._ _Aeroplanes_ can travel about 350 miles and have

a maximum speed of 80 or 90 miles an hour, or more. Service machines

normally carry a pilot, an observer, and fuel and oil for from four to

six hours. Aeroplanes can start and can land without assistance. They

can be handled on the ground by three or four men. They can remain in

the open for short periods without serious deterioration. When flying

at normal working altitudes they are difficult to hit. Their chief use

is for reconnaissance. On the other hand, aeroplanes cannot always be

depended upon to be ready for work whenever they are needed. Compared

with most war equipment, both aeroplanes and aeroplane engines are

extremely fragile. Flying round an aerodrome where landings can be made

on suitable ground, an average pilot will rarely injure his machine.

But in war, pilots will be required to fly in all sorts of weather

and will be forced to land on all sorts of ground in order to deliver

promptly the information they have obtained. Minor breakages are

bound to result and machines will be so badly strained that frequent

overhauling will be necessary. Moreover, the engine, even with the

best of care, should be overhauled after running twenty or twenty-five

hours. It will be necessary, therefore, to provide large quantities of

spare parts and to deliver these wherever needed. The care and repair

of aeroplanes and engines require a highly trained commissioned and

enlisted personnel.

Types are in active process of development and they vary with different

nations. It seems certain that for the immediate future, no single type

of aeroplane will suffice for all purposes but that air fleets will be

composed of craft suited to different functions as is the case with sea

craft. Examples of the variety of types are: The _destroyer_, a pusher

biplane, armed with a machine gun in front and arranged to carry bombs

and a wireless equipment but without armor. The _battleplane_, of great

size, speed and offensive power, has a pilot with two soldiers each

operating a machine gun that fires in all directions. The _artillery

spotter_, carries armor, operates at a low height and has low speed; it

carries an observer and a wireless equipment. The _scout_, a one man

craft capable of great speed up to 80 or 90 miles per hour, or more,

and great climbing power. It is equipped with rifle or revolver and is

unarmored.

The principal problems remaining for solution in aeroplane development

are concerned with obtaining a dependable motor and a propeller able to

withstand the very great centrifugal stresses.

In several countries, and depending upon the nature of the duty,

aeroplanes are organized and operate in squadrons of 6 to 8 machines.

These squadrons are served by motor trucks that tow them from place to

place. Some machines have wings that fold when being towed.

_Air Ships._ Air ships have a radius of action of about 1000 miles

and a speed of from 40 to 50 miles an hour. They can remain in the

air for many hours at a time, can hover over a selected spot, and can

be used safely at night and in mist or rain. They afford a good field

of view and can carry a number of observers. Their chief use is for

distant reconnaissance which is greatly facilitated by their long range

wireless equipment. Compared with aeroplanes, they offer an easy target

and require a large number of trained men to handle them on the ground.

The difficulty of maintaining them in the field makes it necessary to

operate them from fixed bases established in time of peace.

Balloons are still used. Captive balloons are employed for tactical

reconnaissance, and for observation of artillery fire; they are usually

equipped with telephones.

Hydroaeroplanes are employed with navies, but have not come into

extensive use.

_Armor and armament._ The weight of armor reduces the speed and the

lifting capacity of aeroplanes. At present, armor is in general limited

to a bullet proof seat for the pilot, and bullet proof protection

to the fuel tank. Airships are able to carry more extensive armor.

Aeroplanes are not very vulnerable to fire; to bring one to earth it

is in general necessary to disable the pilot or to puncture the fuel

tank. Even these accidents do not necessarily involve the destruction

of the craft; pilots volplane successfully to earth without the use

of the motor. Aeroplanes are frequently riddled with bullets without

interfering with their operation. The principal armament of the

aeroplane is the machine gun. The rifle and revolver are also used, as

also small calibre guns. The armor and armament of a particular type

depend upon the use to which that type is destined.

_Duties._ The primary duty is reconnaissance, both strategic and

tactical. Reconnaissance consists usually in the location of troops and

artillery positions.

Strategic reconnaissance by aeroplane is practicable for a distance of

150 miles; it endeavors to ascertain the position, strength, directions

of movement, and dispositions of the larger elements of the enemy and

also knowledge of the terrain in the theatre.

Tactical reconnaissance by air is used in both attack and defense. It

is necessarily general in nature because the height of observation

prevents close view. It endeavors to discover movements of the enemy,

location of his reserve, his cavalry, artillery, movements of wagon and

auto trains, camps, lines of communication, the nature of terrain, etc.

Air reconnaissance extends and supplements that of cavalry but does not

supplant it. Often verification of reconnaissance must be secured by

actual contact.

The duty of reconnaissance involves the corresponding prevention of

hostile reconnaissance. This duty has resulted in developing in most

armies special types of fighting craft, the aim of which is to secure

command of the air within the military theatre. There is in this a

close analogy with the domination of the military theatre by sea power

or by cavalry. Another important duty of air craft is that of directing

artillery fire. For this purpose air craft are usually assigned one

to each group of batteries, and operate directly under the orders of

the artillery commander. Their information is conveyed by wireless, by

smoke bombs, by visual signals, and by dropping messages. These methods

are all in active process of development and vary with the different

nations.

Hostile artillery in position, is discovered by the flash of its guns,

by telltale wheel tracks to the artillery position and by activity in

the position. For mid-range firing, aeroplanes can frequently direct

the fire from a position directly above or even behind the friendly

artillery.

Another duty of air craft is that of air raids. This duty is less

important than the others. Like most other raids, those by aircraft are

likely to have but little direct bearing on the military situation; but

within special range they will continue to be performed. The objectives

for air raids are capitals of states, military bases, hangars, lines

of communication, depots, arsenals, etc. Raids are usually ineffective

against troops or fortifications.

Another important function is the carrying of staff officers, of

maps, dispatches, etc., as also reporting promptly the positions and

movements of friendly troops.

_Practicable heights for observation._ Satisfactory reconnaissance

from air craft requires low flying height and low speed. These two

elements increase greatly the vulnerability of the craft. Air craft

are comparatively safe from all kinds of fire, at 6000 feet elevation

and are entirely safe at 10,000 feet. In clear weather the observer,

at an elevation of about 5000 feet, can detect bodies of troops for a

radius of four to six miles. Aeroplanes are practically safe from rifle

fire at 2000 yards range or at an elevation of 3000 feet. They are

reasonably safe from field artillery fire at 4000 yards range or at an

elevation of approximately 4500 feet. It is difficult to reconnoiter in

a wooded country. Timbered areas, therefore, have a new importance in

the concealment they afford from overhead observation.

The safe heights above mentioned are in general too great to afford

detailed observation, the necessity for close observation will,

therefore, lead bold airmen to a closer approach to the enemy. By

swerving, changing velocities, diving, soaring, etc., the airman

reduces the risk involved in a close approach to the enemy. He will

have added protection from hostile fire when he can soar directly

over the anti aircraft guns, none of which is able to fire vertically

upwards; also by operating where hostile projectiles will be likely

in their fall to damage other hostile troops, and also by utilizing

the protection of hills, etc. The vibration of the machine prevents

satisfactory use of field glasses. The observer is restricted to

observation with the naked eye.

Airships because of their greater size and slower and more regular

motion, must remain at greater altitudes for safety than aeroplanes.

Accordingly they will be less frequently employed for battlefield

reconnaissance or wherever exposed to rapid fire of anti aircraft

artillery.

_Defensive measures._ The principal defense against air craft is

command of the air by superior air fleets. The tactics of air

reconnaissance are, therefore, largely similar to those of cavalry or

of sea power. The secondary defense against air craft consists of anti

aircraft artillery. For elevations up to 3000 feet, the machine gun is

effective. For greater elevations land forces must protect themselves

by artillery. Special types of guns of great rapidity of fire are used

as is also the standard light field types. The special types of anti

aircraft artillery are usually employed in the protection of capitals,

lines of communication, etc. They have a lesser application to mobile

forces, because the need is less and the economy of road space greater.

Light field artillery to be effective against air craft must be capable

of firing at an elevation of 45 to 50 degrees. This calls for special

types of trail and the necessity of digging pits for the trail.

Range finders are in general of little efficacy in locating the fast

moving target. Artillery fire seeks its object in speed and volume of

fire, rather than in attempted accuracy. Volume of fire may keep air

craft away even if hits are few. Tracer shells emitting smoke are much

used to assist observation of fire. To bring down an aeroplane it is

almost absolutely necessary to disable the pilot or the fuel tank. The

airship is much more vulnerable. The target is the gas bag, rather than

the pilot.

_Powers and limitations._ From the very first it has been obvious that

air craft would be of enormous value for all kinds of reconnaissance

work. Some of their advantages for this purpose are:

1. Speed. It will often be possible for air craft to obtain in a few

hours, information that it would require days to secure by any other

means.

2. Ability to surmount both natural and artificial obstacles.

3. Ability to determine depth of enemy’s troops as well as front.

4. Having once obtained the desired information, it is comparatively

easy to ascend to a reasonably safe altitude and bring the information

back.

Some of the limitations of air craft in reconnaissance work are:

1. They can accomplish but little in heavy rains, gales, fog or

darkness, though they are steadily improving in their ability to travel

in heavy weather.

2. Inability to reconnoiter at night makes it impossible for air craft

to keep in continuous touch with the enemy.

3. They cannot be depended upon to be ready for duty whenever they are

needed.

4. Observing downwards from a considerable height, detailed knowledge

of terrain cannot be obtained.

The European war has given the greatest stimulus to the development

of aerial navigation. The art is doubtless destined to the widest

expansion in the future. At present it has many limitations, and the

absurd claims made for it should be carefully discounted. It has become

another arm in warfare.

Like other inventions it is indispensable to the conduct of warfare. A

relative preponderance in this arm confers on a belligerent an immense

advantage.

(See also “Anti Aircraft Artillery,” Chap. VIII.)

_The motor car_, as lately applied to military purposes, has influenced

practically every phase of campaign. As affecting _tactics_, it

permits the rapid transport of troops over short distances where

rail transport, even if available, might be slower than marching.

The loading, dispatch and unloading are very rapid and flexible in

arrangement. Even where the railroad is available, the motor car or

truck is a valuable adjunct, provided suitable roads are available.

The railroad can reach only its various stations, but with a system of

good highways the motor vehicle can load or deliver at or very close

to any designated point. Whereas a very slight accident will interrupt

rail traffic the automobile can be stopped only by the destruction of

the road (a comparatively rare occurrence) and sometimes even this

will cause very little delay. The transportation begins at almost any

point, such as camp, bivouac, or barrack, and is complete to the final

destination without resorting to marches at either or both ends of the

line.

The routing is not confined to any one prepared road bed. Moreover, the

transport is not confined to short distances. The European war shows

instances of transporting large bodies of troops over distances as

great as 100 miles.

In effecting tactical concentrations of bodies of troops, such as

reserves at critical points on the battle field itself, the motor car

is very useful. The rapid concentration of forces at critical points

of the field is the aim of all tactical operations and the secret of

success in battle. The motor vehicle rapidly brings the troops to the

desired point, fresh for action.

Motor vehicles are useful in the transport of troops pursuing a

defeated enemy and correspondingly useful to the retreating force.

Heavy field artillery is utilizing motor transport to an ever

increasing extent. The motor truck also lends itself admirably to use

as swift, powerful armored cars, which are virtually small, movable

forts. Motor trucks have demonstrated their ability to rapidly

transport siege howitzers to threatened points along undefended

portions of a coast line and thus greatly aid the mobile army in

resisting landings. In operations on land the heaviest types of guns

and howitzers are successfully transported.

For overseas operations the motor is useful, as it needs less room

aboard ship and dispenses with much of the care and attention that

animals require.

For _Staff_ uses the motor is specially adapted to the transportation

of general and staff officers over the field of battle. It also assists

greatly in the distribution of orders; for this purpose the motorcycle

also is much used. Officers can thus cover vastly greater territory

than by the use of a horse and with practically no fatigue. The result

is that officers of ripe experience and advanced age, whose failing

physical powers would formerly have prevented their riding horses

are now employed in the field. The scope of staff service is greatly

increased.

For the _Supply_ of an army the motor truck is particularly valuable.

Its speed will vary with the condition of roads but on even mediocre

roads it will cover daily several times the distance covered by the

horse-drawn vehicle. It needs no halts for rest, operates in a country

without regard to green forage areas, is hardier than the animal and is

but little affected by weather. Nearly its total carrying capacity is

available for cargo, whereas the necessity for carrying forage reduces

that of the horse-drawn vehicle.

The motor truck is well adapted to use as a mobile soup kitchen; one

small truck will serve a meal for 500 men.

Motor transportation now permits the army to operate at a distance

from the base or railhead several times greater than is possible by

the use of wagons or, conversely, it permits the supply of the army at

moderate distances from a base with a much less number of vehicles;

thus it shortens the total road distance of a force and tends to make

armies less dependent for subsistence on the military theater. The

increasing numerical strength of the modern army requires more and more

independence of subsistence drawn from the country in which it operates.

In line of communication service, the armored car greatly assists in

thwarting hostile attempts to cut the line.

The greater the capacity of motor trucks the more economical they are

as carriers if the roads are satisfactory. In many theaters where

American forces will continue to operate for some time to come,

indifferent roads will be the rule; the economic size of the truck is

accordingly restricted to a cargo capacity of about 1½ tons.

Motor trucks equipped with flanged steel wheels may be used on

railroads in lieu of or in addition to the regular rolling stock.

If both kinds of wheels (road and railroad) are carried, or

interchangeable sets of demountable rims, the same truck may be used on

both road and railroad. The change of wheels or rims can be made in a

few minutes.

The motor vehicle is extensively employed in the ambulance service.

In addition to its superiority from an humanitarian point of view, it

has a very great capacity for the evacuation of sick and wounded, thus

contributing to the increase of tactical efficiency of the army.

For the service of _information_, the motor is useful in patrolling;

its speed and carrying capacity is great; it is in many ways less

likely to attract notice than is a group of horsemen. It has been used

for the prompt occupation of important points weakly defended. It is a

useful adjunct to the aero service; aeroplanes organized into divisions

of 7 or 8 machines are served by motor vehicles which transport the

aeroplanes; the wings of the latter being folded for transport. The

aeroplanes, which would otherwise be very vulnerable in camp, have thus

some protection against the risk of sudden capture.

The motor car, in short, aids in strategic and tactical concentration

of troops and heavy guns and in the defense of isolated points,

lessens fatigue, and extends the theater of command, inspection and

reconnaissance. It greatly increases the scope of operations by

increasing the mobility of an army and making it largely independent of

local food supplies; its humanitarian service is very satisfactory.

No army devoid of good motor transport service can thus hope to

maintain itself against an adversary well equipped in that respect. All

trained armies will be equipped with motors; therefore the motor will

not permit a diminution of effort by a belligerent; to impose one’s

will upon a trained adversary, the effort must in fact be greater than

ever.

For efficiency of service, motors are employed where practicable in

groups of the same type. This facilitates training of personnel,

interchangeability of parts, repairs, etc. In armies generally, the

field and combat wagons continue to use animal power.

The motor can enter every department of military activity, increasing

the efficiency of operation therein. It is as applicable to campaign as

to most other phases of modern life.

GLOSSARY

of

Military Terms Employed in the Text

(Consult also Alphabetical Index)

=Abatis.=--An obstacle consisting of felled trees,

often interlaced with wire. The trees are felled or

placed with their tops toward the enemy, the butts

often remain attached to the stumps, or are secured

to the ground by stakes.

=Adjutant.=--The executive officer of a command.

=Advance cavalry.=--_See Cavalry._

=Advance guard.=--A body of troops which marches

in front of a command in column of route to

facilitate the march and protect the main body from

surprise. _See Chap. IV._

=Advance party.=--The leading formed element of an

advance guard.

=Advance supply depot.=--A station for the issue

of ammunition, rations and other supplies, where

the trains attached to the combatant troops are

sent to refill. _See Chap. XVII._

=Advanced position.=--A defensive position in

advance of the main line of defense.

=Aiming point.=--_See Artillery fire._

=Ambuscade.=--A surprise attack delivered by a

body lying in wait for its enemy.

=Angle of site.=--The inclination or slope of the

ground as affecting the angles of elevation of

artillery.

=Applicatory method.=--A system of military

peace training by means of the solution of

practical problems in strategy and tactics. These

problems are solved on a map or on the terrain,

and are called =map problems=, =terrain

exercises=, =war games=, etc. _See Chap.

I._

=Artillery.=--The heavier pieces of ordnance, as

distinguished from small arms and machine guns.

Artillery includes guns, howitzers, and mortars of

various calibers, and the troops attached thereto.

All modern artillery is rifled. Mobile artillery

is habitually mounted, both for transport and use,

on wheeled carriages, and accompanies the mobile

troops. _See Ordnance._

=Artillery fire.=--_See Chap. VIII._ The

usual method of fire of modern artillery is that

which employs =indirect laying=. The guns are

concealed and the target is usually not visible

to the gunners. The officer directing the fire

ascertains the range and direction of the target

from one of the guns of the battery, called

the =directing gun=. He also determines

the difference in azimuth or direction (at the

directing gun) between the target and some

conspicuous object visible to all the gunners. This

point is called the =aiming point= and the

angular difference of azimuth of the target and the

aiming point is known as the =deflection=.

This is set off on the gun sight in such manner

that when the sight is directed on the aiming

point the gun will be directed on the target.

Due to their different positions the deflections

at the other guns will vary slightly from that

at the directing gun. This variation is called

the =deflection difference=. By varying the

=deflection= and =deflection difference=

the officer in charge may distribute the fire over

the front of the target. The range is determined

by the process known as =bracketing=. The

approximate range having been estimated or

determined by a mechanical =range finder=, a

shot or group of shots is fired at the estimated

=range=. They burst on impact, and from

observation of the smoke it is possible to

determine whether the shots are =short of= or

=over the target=. The range is then increased

or decreased and the firing continued until two

consecutive bursts are obtained, one on either

side of the target. Thus if a shot at 3,000 yds.

bursts short of the target and one at 3,400 bursts

over, it is known that the target lies between

these ranges. Two shots at known ranges, one over

and one short, form a =bracket=. The length

of the bracket may be reduced by interpolating

intermediate shots. Bracketing need not be done

by a single piece. To save time a number of shots

on both sides of the estimated range may be fired

simultaneously by different pieces.

=Barrage.=--A zone or belt of the terrain more

or less continuously swept by the fire of field

artillery, with the purpose of preventing or

discouraging the passage of hostile troops across

the fire swept space. Such a barrage or =curtain

of fire= might be designed to break down the

fighting power of a line of battle by preventing

the forwarding of ammunition, supplies and

reinforcements. It may also be established in front

of hostile line for the purpose of checking or

breaking up an assault or counter-attack, etc.

=Base depot.=--_See p. 365._

=Billeting.=--Quartering troops in the homes

of local residents, who may be required also to

furnish food. The practice is common in Europe but

has seldom been employed in this country.

=Bivouac.=--A camp of very temporary nature, such

as that of troops on the open field of battle. The

shelter and bedding are such as the troops carry on

their persons.

=Bracket.=--_See Artillery fire._

=Bomb-proof.=--A shelter, usually subterranean,

against high explosive shell.

=Caisson.=--A carriage for artillery ammunition.

It consists of two parts, the =body= and

=limber=, each mounted on wheels. The two

parts may be separated. The limber is the forward

portion to which the team is attached, and is

identical with the limber to which the gun is

attached on the march. The separation of the

caisson body and limber, or of the gun and limber,

is called =unlimbering=.

=Cantonment.=--A camp of rather permanent nature

where the accommodations are more elaborate than in

the ordinary camp under canvas. The shelters often

consist of rough huts or simple frame buildings

erected for the purpose. The term is also applied

to portions of towns occupied by troops for a

protracted stay.

=Cavalry.=--Cavalry, according to its uses, has

several classifications:

=Advance guard cavalry.=--Attached to the

advance guard.

=Advance cavalry.=--That portion of the

advance guard cavalry which precedes the point of

the advance guard.

=Independent cavalry.=--Cavalry operating

independently of all save the supreme commander.

=Outpost cavalry.=--Attached to the outpost.

=Rear cavalry.=--Attached to the rear guard.

=Chevaux-de-frise.=--An obstacle in the form of a

saw-horse with several legs.

=Clinometer.=--A small hand instrument used to

measure the inclination or slope of the ground, or

the angle of elevation of a gun.

=Column.=--A formation of troops in which the

elements are placed one in rear of the other, as a

column of route.

=Combined sights.=--_See p. 331._

=Communications.=--The prepared routes by which

troops move from one part of a position to another;

also their lines of supply and reinforcement. The

term is also applied to telegraph, telephone, and

other signaling apparatus.

=Connecting files.=--_See p. 61._

=Conscription.=--The act of impressing men for

compulsory military service; the draft.

=Contact squadron.=--_See p. 149._

=Containing.=--The act of restraining or delaying

the movements of a hostile force, by attack or

threatened attack, with the object of preventing

its junction with other hostile forces. _See p.

91._

=Convoy.=--_See p. 95._

=Cordon system of outposts.=--_See p. 184._

=Cossack post.=--A group on the line of

observation of an outpost. It consists of four men,

and places one sentinel.

=Counter-attack.=--Offensive operations by troops

whose general attitude is or has been defensive.

_See p. 236._

=Counter-mining.=--The subterranean operations

of troops on the defensive for the purpose of

frustrating the efforts of the attack.

=Cover.=--Protection from fire or view, or both.

=Crest, geographical or topographical.=--The

highest part of a ridge or elevation.

=Crest, Military.=--A line or position on the

front slope of a hill or ridge which affords a good

view of the whole or of some special portion of

the foreground. Depending on the configuration of

the terrain, it may or may not coincide with the

geographical crest. _See Fig. V, p. 135._

=Curtain of fire.=--_See Barrage_.

=Danger space.=--That portion of the trajectory in

which the height of the projectile above the ground

is less than the height of the target. The length

of the danger space varies with the flatness of the

trajectory and the height of the target. Thus, for

a man standing, the danger space is that portion

of the trajectory in which the height of the

projectile above the ground does not exceed about 5

ft. 8 in.

=Dead space.=--A portion of the terrain,

especially in front of a defensive position, not

covered by fire; a defiladed area.

=Defensive position.=--A line or zone of the

terrain occupied by troops and prepared for defense

by means of field fortifications.

=Defilade.=--Vertical cover from view or from

fire. Troops behind a crest are said to be

defiladed if shots which skim the crest also pass

over their heads. =Flash defilade= is a mask

of sufficient height to conceal the flashes of guns.

=Defile.=--A narrow passage, such as a bridge or

mountain pass, that prevents or embarrasses the

deployment of troops passing through it.

=Deflection.=--_See Artillery fire._

=Delaying action.=--A combat entered into for the

purpose of temporarily delaying the enemy.

=Demolition.=--The destruction of material objects

by any means.

=Deployment.=--An extension of the front, usually

for the purpose of forming line of battle.

=Deployment, depth of.=--_See p. 349._

=Depth.=--Space measured from front to rear.

=Detonator.=--A small charge of explosive used to

ignite a larger charge.

=Diagrammatic analysis.=--_See p. 29._

=Direct laying.=--_See Artillery fire._

=Directing gun.=--_See Artillery fire._

=Distance.=--_See Depth._

=Dispersion.=--A separation of the elements of a

command, especially when combat is imminent; the

opposite of concentration.

=Division.=--A unit of army organization, the

smallest which includes all branches of the

service. In the United States Army a division has

a strength of about 20,000. It includes infantry,

cavalry, and field artillery, and the necessary

special troops such as engineers, signal, sanitary,

etc., with all the requisite wagon or motor

transport.

=Draft.=--_See Conscription._

=Echelon.=--A term applied to lines or groups that

are stepped or “staggered” with respect to one

another.

=Elongation.=--An increase in the usual road space

or length of a column of troops, due to fatigue,

poor discipline, or other causes.

=Enfilade.=--Fire from the flank, parallel or

nearly parallel to the line against which it is

directed. It is peculiarly effective and demoralizing

to troops against which directed, and is therefore always

carefully guarded against.

=Envelopment.=--An attack directed obliquely

against the flank of a position. _See Fig. IX, p.

219._

=Estimate of the situation.=--A mental review of

a military situation made as a preliminary to and

basis for a plan of action.

=Examining post.=--An outpost station at which

persons endeavoring to pass through the lines are

examined and identified.

=Fascine.=--A long cylindrical bundle of brush

used as a flexible log in a revetment.

=Feint.=--An attack made primarily for the purpose

of diverting the enemy’s attention from more

important operations.

=Field maneuver.=--A practical problem in tactics

prepared for solution on the terrain, with troops.

Both combatants may be represented by real troops

or one by imaginary troops.

=File.=--A single soldier; an element consisting

of one front rank and one rear rank man. A

=column of files= is one having a front of one

or two men.

=Fire superiority.=--Superior moral or physical

fire effect as compared to that of the adversary.

Fire superiority is implied if the assailant

can advance or force back the defender. Fire

superiority for the defender is implied if he

can hold his ground and check the advance of the

assailant.

=Firing data.=--_See p. 116._

=Fixed ammunition.=--Ammunition in which the

projectile and propelling charge are a single

piece, the charge being contained in a cylindrical

metal case with the projectile fixed in the end

like a rifle cartridge. It is used in all small

arms and machine guns and in practically all of the

smaller field guns and howitzers.

=Flanks.=--The extremities of a line of battle,

outpost, etc., and the terrain in their vicinity.

=Foraging.=--The process of obtaining supplies,

especially food, from the local inhabitants, force

being used when necessary.

=Forced march.=--_See p. 89._

=Fortification.=--Any engineering work or

accessory device which increases the fighting power

of troops by affording shelter or concealment or

increased fire effect, or which restricts the

tactical maneuvers or fire effect of the enemy.

=Fortification, field or hasty.=--Those works

executed by combatant troops in the field to meet

immediate tactical needs.

=Fougasse.=--A small land mine with a charge of

explosive and broken stone. It is fired by powder

fuse or electricity, as the enemy approaches.

=Front.=--The known or supposed direction of the

enemy; the theater of active military operations as

distinguished from the country in rear.

=Frontage.=--The extent of front of a command

deployed for battle, of an outpost, etc.

=Fuse.=--A device used for detonating the

explosive charge of a shell or shrapnel. Fuses

are classified as time, percussion, combination

(percussion and time), and delayed action. Time

fuses detonate at the end of a given time,

percussion fuses on impact. A delayed action fuse

is one which delays the explosion of the charge

until the projectile has penetrated the structure

which it strikes. The term fuse is also applied

to powder trains used to ignite placed charges of

explosive in demolition. Electric fuses are devices

which detonate a charge by means of the heating

effect of an electric current. They are also called

primers.

=Gabion.=--A hollow cylinder of brush or other

material which is filled with earth and used as a

revetment.

=General Staff.=--A corps of highly trained

officers charged with the study of the conduct

of war and the detailed methods of military

operations. In time of war they direct and

administer the operations of mobilization,

concentration, supply, transportation, etc.,

and assist the field commanders in planning and

executing their operations.

=Grenade.=--A charge of high explosive in a

container hurled a relatively short distance by

hand or by means of a catapult, rifle, or small

mortar. The charge explodes by time fuse or

concussion. Large grenades are called air mines or

air torpedoes. They are distinguished from high

explosive shell by their relatively short range,

which ordinarily does not exceed 500 yards.

=Guerrillas.=--Irregular troops, not belonging to

the organized combatant forces of a belligerent

state, and not recognized by the laws of civilized

warfare.

=Gun.=--A piece of ordnance fired from a platform

or wheeled mount. A gun, as compared with a

=howitzer=, has a relatively long barrel,

flat trajectory and high velocity. Its effect is

produced largely by the vigor of the blow struck

by the projectile, which is usually combined

with the action of a charge of explosive. Guns,

according to their size and uses, are classed

as =mountain=, =light= or =heavy

field=, =siege= and =seacoast=. All

modern guns are breech-loading rifles.

=Head cover.=--A vertical or nearly vertical

shield of any material which protects the heads of

troops from flat trajectory fire. _See Overhead

cover._

=Heliograph.=--An instrument used for signaling by

flashing the rays of the sun from a mirror.

=High explosive shell.=--A projectile containing

a charge of high explosive fired from a gun or

howitzer. The charge explodes by time fuse or upon

impact. It is used to demolish material objects,

such as fortifications, but is often employed also

against living targets.

=Howitzer.=--A piece of ordnance having, as

compared with a gun, a short barrel, low velocity

and curved trajectory. Its effect is produced

chiefly by the explosion of the charge contained

in the projectile. _See Mortar._

=Hurdle.=--A revetment of woven brush.

=Initial point.=--A point of the terrain from

which the starting times for all elements of a

command are calculated for the commencement of a

march. _See p. 58._

=Initiative.=--A commander is said to have the

initiative when he carries out a preconceived plan,

dictating and controlling the course of operations

and forcing the adversary to meet his lead. The

initiative is ordinarily, though not always,

possessed by the attacker, inasmuch as he usually

selects the time, place and manner of attack, and

forces the defender to adapt his measures to meet

it. A vigorous counter attack, which forces a

suspension of the attack, transfers the initiative

to the original defender.

=Interval.=--An open space between adjacent men

or adjacent organizations on the same line. It is

measured parallel to the front.

=Latrine.=--A dry sewage pit or trench; a cesspool.

=Leading troops.=--The advanced elements of a

command; more specifically a less formal substitute

for an advance guard, employed in retreat or other

situations where a regular advance guard is not

required.

=Limber.=--A portion of an artillery carriage

consisting of an ammunition chest mounted on two

wheels, with a pole for the attachment of the

team. For the march the field guns are attached to

the limbers by engaging the eye at the end of the

trail with a pin or pintle on the limber. _See

Caisson._

=Line.=--A general term applied to all combatant

troops as distinguished from the non-combatant;

a position occupied by troops, as a defensive or

outpost line, etc.; a military formation in which

the elements are placed alongside or abreast of

each other. _See Column and Echelon._

=Line of columns.=--A number of parallel columns

of troops with their heads on the same line.

=Line of communications.=--_See p. 363._

=Line of investment.=--A cordon of troops drawn

around a fortress for the purpose of cutting off

its supply and communication; usually the first

step in siege operations for the reduction of the

fortress.

=Line of observation.=--The line occupied by the

sentinels and observing groups of an outpost.

_See Fig. VIII, p. 195._

=Line of resistance.=--Specifically, the prepared

line of defense of an outpost, usually occupied by

the supports. _See Fig. VIII, p. 195._

=Listening galleries.=--Subterranean galleries

driven to the front for the purpose of detecting

the mining operations of the enemy.

=Listening posts.=--Sheltered positions in

advance of a defensive line for the purpose of

early detection of the enemy’s movements. They are

connected with the main line by a communicating

trench or subterranean gallery.

=Loopholes.=--Openings in a parapet or head cover

through which fire is delivered.

=Machine gun.=--An automatic or semi-automatic

gun of small caliber, capable of great rapidity

of fire. It uses fixed ammunition, preferably

identical with that employed in small arms. The

ammunition is fed automatically from a hopper, clip

or belt. Machine guns are of various sizes and

types, but all are characterized by rather light

construction and great mobility. Some require a

crew of several men for their operation, others are

operated by a single individual. There is hence no

sharp line of demarcation between machine guns and

automatic rifles. _See p. 304._

=Maneuver.=--A movement of a body of troops.

Strategical maneuvers include movements of troops,

on a relatively large scale in preparation for

prospective battle, but usually at a distance from

the enemy. Tactical maneuvers include movements

executed on the battlefield or in the near presence

of the enemy. As compared with strategical

maneuvers they are usually on a smaller scale, in

closer proximity to the enemy, and more immediately

related to battle tactics.

=Map distance.=--The horizontal interval between

contours (on the map) corresponding to a given

slope or gradient.

=Map maneuver.=--A tactical study or exercise

followed out on a map.

=Map measure.=--A recording or counting device

used for measuring distances on a map.

=Map problem.=--A real or imaginary tactical

problem solved on a map. _See Chap. I._

=March outposts.=--Temporary outposts placed by

a marching column during a halt or at the end of

a day’s march. They are withdrawn on resuming the

march or when the regular outpost is in position.

=Marginal distribution.=--An outline of the

dispositions of troops placed in the margin of a

field order. _See pp. 40 and 342._

=Mask.=--A cover from hostile view or fire.

=Matériel.=--The equipment and non-expendable

supplies of an army; any material object.

=Melée.=--Specifically, the confusion following a

cavalry charge, often characterized by hand to hand

combat.

=Mil.=--A unit of angular measurement, the inverse

tangent of one thousandth. _See p. 109._

=Mine.=--A subterranean charge of explosive, used

to destroy hostile fortifications.

=Mining.=--The operations of subterranean attack

and defense.

=Mission.=--The aim or purpose of a commander on

which his decisions and plans are based.

=Mobility.=--The power of rapid movement. Mobile

troops are those capable of quickly changing their

location and dispositions to meet tactical needs.

Non-mobile troops are capable only of passive

defense. It is therefore essential that first line

troops shall be highly mobile. Otherwise they cannot

seize or retain the initiative. Even in defensive

operations mobility is essential to meet the movements

of the assailant.

=Mobilization.=--The change from peace to war

footing. An army is said to be mobilized when it is

assembled, organized, armed, and equipped to take

the field.

=Morale.=--The collective psychological condition

or spirit of troops, especially combatant troops

engaged in battle. High morale is implied when

troops respond readily to the will of their

commander. Morale is therefore measured by the

extent to which troops submit to the control of

their officers.

=Mortar.=--A piece of ordnance having a very short

barrel, low velocity, and curved trajectory. It

throws a projectile containing a large charge of

high explosive, at angles of elevation varying

from 45 degrees to 60 degrees so as to drop the

projectile on top of its target.

=Mutual support.=--Two or more portions of a

firing line which can cross fire on a part of the

front of the position are said to afford mutual

support.

=Obstacle.=--Any natural object or artificial

device which retards the enemy’s movements without

affording him shelter from fire. _See p. 216._

=Orders, field.=--Written or verbal orders

covering the tactical dispositions and operations

of combatant troops. _See Chap. II._

=Ordnance.=--A collective term applied to all

firearms which hurl projectiles. As generally used

the term excludes small arms, such as rifles and

pistols, and applies especially to the heavier

pieces. _See Small arms and Artillery._

=Outguard.=--One of the observing groups of an

outpost. _See p. 183._

=Organization.=--_For the organization of all

tactical units in the U. S. Army, see p. 10 et

seq._

=Outpost.=--A line of observation and resistance

established between a body of troops and the known

or supposed position of the enemy, to guard against

surprise attacks.

=Overhead cover.=--A horizontal or inclined shield

of any material which extends over the heads of

the troops and protects them from grenades or high

angle fire. _See Head cover._

=Pack train.=--A train of animals, usually

mules, carrying packs on saddles. This form of

transportation is used in mountainous country or

where roads are very poor.

=Parados.=--A bank of earth in rear of a trench to

protect the occupants from the back draft of shells

bursting behind the trench.

=Parapet.=--A bank of earth or other material

in front of a =trench= or emplacement which

protects the occupants from fire.

=Patrol.=--A small body of troops, foot or

mounted, sent out from a larger body for the

purposes of observation and reconnaissance. _See

Chap. III, pp. 165, 185, 212, etc._

=Percussion.=--_See Fuse._

=Picket.=--A large outguard.

=Pioneer.=--A member of the mobile engineer forces

of an army.

=Platoon.=--A division of a company, troop or

battery.

=Platoon column.=--A platoon in double column of

files. This formation is much used in advancing

under fire, especially in rough country.

=Point.=--The extreme forward element of an

advance guard, or rear element of a rear guard.

=Ponton.=--A portable boat used as a support or

pier for a floating bridge.

=Ponton equipage.=--The portable floating bridge

equipment of an army.

=Position fire.=--_See p. 325._

=Position in readiness.=--_See p. 308._

=Pusher.=--An aeroplane in which the propeller is

placed in the back of the machine.

=Railhead.=--The forward limit of rail transport

for the supplies and reinforcements of an army.

=Range finder.=--Any device for determining

distances.

=Ration.=--The daily food allowance of a soldier.

=Reconnaissance.=--A rapid examination of a

hostile body of troops, structure, locality,

district, etc., for the purpose of noting features

and gathering information of military value.

=Re-entrant.=--A more or less sharp projection

from a line toward the rear. _See Salient._

=Reinforced brigade.=--A brigade of infantry

with attached auxiliary troops, usually on an

independent mission.

=Relay post.=--_See p. 53._

=Rencontre.=--_See p. 295._

=Requisition.=--A demand for supplies made by an

army upon the local inhabitants.

=Reserves.=--Troops temporarily withheld from

action for the purpose of reinforcement at critical

times and places, to meet emergencies, etc. As

distinguished from =supports=, the place

of their employment in combat cannot always be

foreseen. Also, individuals who have undergone

military training and are available for service but

not at the time a part of the standing army.

=Revetment.=--Any device used to retain earth or

other material at a slope steeper than the natural

slope.

=Road space.=--The distance covered by an

organization in its usual marching formation or

column of route. _See p. 16._

=Salient.=--A more or less sharp projection from a

line toward the front.

=Salvo.=--_See p. 114._

=Sap.=--A zigzag trench dug for the purpose of a

covered advance against the enemy.

=Screen.=--A feature of the terrain which favors

concealment. A disposition of troops designed to

prevent the enemy from obtaining information.

_See p. 165._

=Sentry squad.=--A group on the line of

observation of an outpost. It consists of eight men

and places a double sentinel.

=Shrapnel.=--A projectile containing a number

of small bullets or fragments with a propelling

charge. It explodes in the air and scatters

the bullets and fragments of the case over a

considerable area, being in effect a flying

shotgun. The shrapnel of the 3-inch, U. S. field

gun, when properly burst, will sweep an area 200

to 300 yards in depth and 20 to 25 yards in width,

killing or seriously wounding any man or animal in

the area. It has little effect on fortifications

and is used only against troops. Shrapnel is hence

known as the “man-killing projectile.”

=Siege.=--The formal investment and attack of

a fortress. A fortified place may be reduced by

cutting off its supply, by assault, or by both

methods. Occasionally the actual reduction of the

fortress is not attempted, it being simply covered

by a force of sufficient strength to prevent the

garrison of the fortress from interfering with the

operations of the invader.

=Situation, general and special.=--The (real or

imaginary) circumstances or conditions confronting

a body of troops at any stated time. A military

situation has two parts which are described

as =general= and =special=, or with

respect to time and place, as =distant=

and =immediate=. Past events and future

possibilities or probabilities usually form part of

the situation. _See p. 20._

=Small arms.=--Firearms, such as rifles and

pistols, carried by individuals. The term is

occasionally applied also to machine guns which use

small arms cartridges.

=Spar bridge.=--A type of military bridge in which

the support consists of two trestles which are

tilted toward each other and locked together.

=Splinter-proof.=--A shelter similar to a

bomb-proof but designed to afford protection

only against rifle bullets, shrapnel and shell

fragments. It is not proof against penetration by

large projectiles.

=Squad.=--A unit consisting of eight men, four

files in double rank. The commander, usually a

corporal, is called the squad leader.

=Squad column.=--A squad in double column of

files. _See Platoon column._

=Staff.=--A number of highly trained officers

attached to the larger units who are charged with

the administration of special departments and

who constitute an advisory board to the supreme

commander. _See General Staff._

=Strategy.=--The application of the broad

fundamental principles of the art of war. The

object of strategy is to place troops in the most

favorable or least unfavorable position for battle,

which is the logical culmination of strategy.

Strategy deals with questions of national policy,

national resources, geography, mobilization and

concentration of troops, supply, transportation,

etc.

=Successive bounds.=--_See p. 50._

=Successive thin lines.=--_See p. 328._

=Supporting point.=--_See p. 251._

=Supports.=--Troops held in rear of the firing

line for the purpose of replacing losses, so as

to maintain the firing line at proper strength;

the large groups on the line of resistance of an

outpost; one of the formed bodies of an advance,

rear or flank guard.

=Tactical walk (or ride).=--Tactical instruction

given upon the terrain with imaginary troops.

=Tactics.=--The methods employed in handling

troops in battle or in immediate preparation

therefor.

=Terrain.=--An area of ground considered as to its

extent and topography in relation to its use for a

specific purpose, as for a battle or the erection

of fortifications.

=Terrain exercise.=--A practical problem in

tactics prepared for solution on the terrain, with

imaginary troops.

=Theater of war.=--The territory covered by the

operations of belligerent forces.

=Time fire.=--_See Fuse._

=Trains.=--The supply wagons accompanying an army.

=Combat= and =field= trains are attached

to battalions and squadrons and carry respectively,

the ammunition and rations of the troops.

=Ammunition= and =supply= trains are

attached to the larger units such as a division.

There are also a number of special trains,

including =sanitary= and =engineer=

trains. _See Chap. XVII, Division Supply._

=Trajectory.=--The path of a projectile. Guns of

high power are said to have a flat trajectory, that

is to say, one which approaches a straight line.

=Traverse.=--A bank of earth or other material

in rear of and perpendicular to the parapet of a

trench for the purpose of protecting the occupants

from oblique or enfilade fire and to localize the

effect of shells bursting in the trench.

=Trenches.=--The purpose of trenches is to protect

the troops occupying them from hostile fire.

According to their use they are classified as fire,

support and communicating trenches.

=Troop leading.=--The practical art of commanding

troops. =Troop leading= is often used in

contradistinction to =decision=. The latter

involves the formulation of a plan of action, the

former the practical technique by which the plan is

executed.

=Turning movement.=--The attack of an enemy,

usually on a flank or in rear, by an element of the

command widely separated from the remainder of the

attacking force.

=Visibility problems.=--_See p. 24._

=War game.=--A competitive game conducted on a

map and involving the tactical handling of troops.

The two-sided war game is the usual form, and is

carried on by two individuals or groups under the

direction of an umpire. In the one-sided war game

the umpire dictates the operations of one of the

imaginary combatants.

=Wire entanglement.=--An obstacle of wire or

barbed wire strung on posts or other supports; the

most commonly employed artificial obstacle.

INDEX

TECHNIQUE OF MODERN TACTICS

Practically all the tactical principles and methods discussed in the

text are copiously illustrated by concrete cases in the examples of

orders. These illustrations are taken from carefully selected problems

of the Army Service Schools and constitute a valuable adjunct to and

illustration of the discussions. It is recommended that the student in

each case examine the appropriate examples of orders and supplement

the references sought in the text. The orders are indexed under the

caption--“ORDERS, examples of.”

A

Abandoning selected line of march, 82, 101.

Abandonment of wounded, 318, 351.

Abbreviations in orders, 41.

Abatis, 217, 261.

Access to trains, by troops, 57, 84, 144, 145, 159,

169, 181, 183, 365.

Accompanying batteries, 124.

Adjustment, fire for, _See Artillery_.

Administrative orders, _See Orders_.

Advance cavalry, _See Cavalry and Advance guard_.

ADVANCE GUARD, 56.

action, 228.

advance party, 56, 57.

aggressive action by, 63, 229, 296.

ambulance company with, 57, 318.

artillery with, 57, 127, 337, 338, 339.

artillery officer with, 112, 113, 128,

133, 141.

attack, occasions for, 229.

bridge train with, 340.

bringing on a general engagement, 63, 229.

camp of, 356.

cavalry, 56, 60, 61, 62, 64, 147, 338.

civilians not to precede, 62, 63.

composition, 56, 57, 337.

conduct on encountering enemy, 63, 296.

connecting files, 61.

contact with enemy, 62.

contact with flank guard, 62, 81.

contact with supporting troops, 62, 81.

covering main body in attack, 63, 209,

229, 296.

on the march, 204.

detail of outpost from, 170, 356.

distances, 60, 66, 67, 337.

distribution of troops, 64.

effect of terrain on tactics of, 62, 64.

engineers with, 56, 57, 337,

340.

field trains of, 57, 58.

in change of direction of march, 91.

in defense, 234.

in flank march, 79.

in position in readiness, 230, 308.

in pursuit, 229.

in rencontre, 123, 296.

in retreat, 57, 85.

initial point for march, 58, 88.

integrity of tactical units in forming, 57, 337.

interference of routes, 58, 59.

location of camp, 355.

machine guns with, 56, 306.

march outposts placed by, 62, 190, 201.

miscellaneous duties, 62.

mission of, 62, 63, 64,

147, 229, 296.

mounted orderlies with, 56, 61.

of a convoy, 97, 98, 99.

of a division, 337.

orders, 58, 59, 60.

outpost troops join, 58.

patrols, _See Patrols_, 56, 61.

place of commander, 62.

reconnaissance, 57, 60, 64.

in force, 63.

regiment assigned to holding attack, 226.

in brigade attack, 209.

provides security to front during

occupation of position, 234.

regulation of march, 60, 64, 88.

rotation of organizations in, 85, 337, 338.

route of, 58.

sanitary troops with, 57, 318, 337.

seizes post and telegraph offices, etc., 62.

signal troops with, 56, 337, 340.

starting march, 58, 64, 88.

strength, 56, 79, 296, 337.

as affected by independent cavalry, 56, 85.

subdivisions of, 56, 60, 61, 64.

support, 56, 62.

supreme commander with, 62, 85, 86,

225, 230,

297, 337.

Advance in two columns, 29, 30, 31,

78, 79, 91,

95, 149, 339.

Advance party, strength and duty, 56.

patrolling, 57.

Advance supply depot, 363, 365, 366, 367, 375.

distance in rear of troops, 364, 367, 370, 371, 372.

protection of, 373.

Advance, zone of, 363, 364.

Advanced posts, 230, 231, 235, 296, 310.

Advancing to attack, 209, 223, 277, 326, 346.

Advantages, relative, of frontal and enveloping attacks, 206,

209, 344.

relative, of rail and motor transport, 387.

Advantages of single position in defense, 74, 235, 310.

AEROPLANES, _See Air craft, Airships, Reconnaissance_.

armor and armament, 382, 383.

artillery spotters, 382.

battleplanes, 382.

care and repair of, 382.

carrying capacity, 381.

characteristics, 381.

chief function, 381, 383.

crews, 381.

dependability, 381, 386.

destroyers, 382.

difficulty of hitting, 138, 139, 381.

direction of artillery fire by, 131, 384.

effect of darkness, rain, fog, high winds, etc., 149, 386.

engines, 382.

fragility of, 382.

fuel carried, 381.

hydroaeroplanes, 383.

machine guns, 307, 382, 383.

motor transport for, 382, 389.

need of trained personnel, 382.

observers, 381.

organization of, 382.

pilots, 381, 382.

practicable height of observation, 138, 139,

384, 385.

radius of action, 381, 383.

rapidity of development, 382.

scout type, 382.

spare parts for, 382.

speed, 381, 382.

types, 382.

volplaning, 383.

vulnerability to fire, 138, 139, 383,

384, 385, 386.

wireless equipment, 131, 382, 384.

Aero reconnaissance, _See Reconnaissance_.

Agents of communication, mounted orderlies as, 46.

Agents, artillery, _See Artillery_.

Aggressive tactics, _See Counter attack_.

by advance guard, 63, 229, 296.

by escort of convoy, 98, 102.

by rear guard, 75.

essential to success, 204, 205.

in defense, 204, 236.

in delaying action, 75, 204, 297,

299.

in pursuit, 300, 301.

in rencontre, 231, 295.

Aid stations, regimental, 222, 224,

255, 319.

Aimed fire, small arms, 325, 326.

Aiming points, _See Artillery_.

AIR CRAFT, _See Aeroplanes, Airships, Reconnaissance_, 381.

command of the air, 384.

communication by, 150, 384.

defense against, 138, 385.

dependability, 381, 386.

development, 381.

powers and limitations, 381, 386.

radius of observation, 385.

raids, 384.

tactical analogy to sea craft, 382, 384, 385.

Air screen, 138, 384, 385.

AIRSHIPS, _See Aeroplanes, Air craft, Reconnaissance_.

ability to hover over one spot, 383.

armor, 383.

bases for, 383.

carrying capacity, 383.

characteristics, 382.

chief function, 383.

dependability, 386.

effect of darkness, rain, fog, etc., 149, 383, 386.

machine guns, 307.

need of trained personnel, 383.

practicable heights of observation, 139, 385.

radius of action, 382.

vulnerability to fire, 134, 383, 384,

385, 386.

wireless equipment, 383, 384.

Alignment of artillery in action, 110.

Alignment of trenches, 231, 251, 257,

260, 262, 270.

Alternation of troops in column of route, 85, 337, 338.

Altitudes for effective aero reconnaissance, 138, 139,

384, 385.

Altitudes of effective fire, anti-aircraft artillery, 138, 139.

Ambulance company, _See Sanitary_.

capacity, 319.

establishment of dressing and slightly wounded stations, 319, 320.

evacuation of wounded by, 350.

in camp, 355.

in combat, 349.

in position in readiness, 317.

in withdrawal, 289.

motor transport for, 389.

to remain with combatant troops, 321, 349, 350.

with advance guard, 57, 318.

Ambuscade, 299, 330.

AMMUNITION

amount carried by troops and trains, 214.

assembly of empty wagons, 214, 222, 225,

228, 234, 241,

255, 350.

artillery, _See Artillery_.

carried on person of soldier, 214.

companies, _See Trains_.

distributing stations and refilling points, 234, 349, 350,

351, 369, 370.

expenditure and waste, 135, 214, 215,

300, 329, 333.

issue of

after combat, 351.

by whom ordered, 214, 220, 223,

300, 311, 332.

in delaying action, 300.

in position in readiness, 311.

pack transportation, 214.

time of, 214, 220, 223,

332, 366, 375.

time required for, 214.

of dead and wounded, 215, 333.

supply in defense, 215, 236.

for cavalry, 375.

for machine guns, 305.

for position fire, 325.

in night attacks, 303.

trains, _See Trains_.

wagons, empty

assembly of, 214, 222, 225,

228, 234, 241,

255.

used for transport of wounded, 214, 222, 234,

241, 350.

Amount of supplies obtainable from a community, 377.

Analysis, diagrammatic, in solution of tactical problems, 29.

Angle between main and holding attack, 344.

Angles of elevation, artillery, 109, 137, 139, 385.

Angle of site, 110, 116.

Animal motive power for field and combat trains, 390.

Animals, transportation of, 378.

Animals, number to a division, 379.

Anti-aircraft artillery, _See Artillery_.

machine guns, 138, 305,

307, 385.

Apparatus for solution of problems, 28.

Applicatory system of tactical instruction, 19.

Approach, covered, to artillery position, 119, 122,

129, 140.

of hostile reinforcements, 207, 224, 227,

234, 288, 291.

to position, _See Routes_.

Areas of camp sites, 16, 17.

Armament of aircraft, 382, 383.

Armed men, with trains, 78, 84, 97,

317, 341.

Armored cars, _See Motor vehicles_, 80, 98, 388.

Army, U. S., organization of, 10.

Arrangement of troops and trains on the march, _See Marches_.

ARTILLERY, 109.

agents, _See Personnel_.

aiming points, 112, 113, 114,

116, 117, 118,

119, 129, 133.

requirements for, 117, 118, 129.

accompanying batteries, 124.

advantages enjoyed in defense, 121.

alignment, exact, to be avoided, 110.

ammunition, 109.

economy of, 126, 135.

supply, 111, 121, 123,

132, 133, 135,

266, 349.

trains, _See Trains_.

weights of, 132.

angles of fall of projectiles, 132.

angles of fire, 109, 137.

angle of site, 110, 116.

anti-aircraft, 137.

altitudes at which effective, 138, 139,

384, 385.

angles of fire, 137, 139, 385.

function, 139.

mounts for, 139.

motor transport, 136, 139.

observation of fire, 139, 386.

ranges, 138, 139, 384, 385.

rates of fire, 138, 305.

special types, 139, 385.

area of burst of shrapnel, 115, 327.

batteries of the counter attack, 124.

b. c. stations, 117, 129, 141.

between main and secondary attacks, 120, 141.

carriage, 109.

changes of position during action, 119, 121, 125,

126, 133, 141,

142.

classification of pieces employed in U. S. service, 132.

clinometer, 110.

combat train, composition, 109, 137.

in action, 110, 119, 123,

124, 129, 130,

131, 132, 141,

228, 340.

in position in readiness, 310, 317.

in retreat, 71.

on the march, 71, 83, 110,

123, 128, 339.

commander, latitude allowed, 142, 143,

240, 266.

on the march, 130.

station during combat, 131, 142.

concealment, 110, 111, 114,

119, 122, 125,

129, 138, 140,

141.

cooperation with other arms, 111, 120, 124,

126, 141, 266.

counter batteries, 124.

covered approach to position, 119, 122, 129,

140, 141.

covering front of a defensive position, 118, 121, 125,

140, 141.

dagger batteries, 121.

decoy batteries, 124.

defensive relation, 121.

defilade, flash, sight, mounted, dismounted, 113, 133, 140.

deflection and deflection difference, 116.

direction points, 111, 131.

dispositions in combat, _See Artillery, positions_.

dispositions on the march, _See Advance guard,

Marches, etc._, 83, 110,

338, 136.

duel, 120, 141.

dummy emplacements, 126.

engineers as escort to, 224, 291, 314.

escort for, _See Artillery, supports_.

field trains, composition, 109.

in action, 129.

on march, 83, 110,

123, 338.

fire

adjustment, 113, 115,

116, 262.

against machine guns, 305.

at what directed, 114, 120, 121,

122, 128, 141,

142, 228.

corrector for height of burst, 113, 116.

crossing zone of, _See Shrapnel_, 327, 329.

demolition by, _See Shell_, 109, 113, 114,

126, 133, 135,

141.

direct, when employed, 126, 140, 234.

direction of by air craft, 131, 383, 384.

distance required for protection against, 60, 61, 80,

176, 300.

distribution, 115, 116, 123.

enfilade and oblique, 120, 127, 226,

265, 327, 328,

349.

forces early deployment, 74, 121,

135, 300.

front of a battery, 110, 119.

in cavalry attack, 157.

kinds of, 113.

at single and successive ranges; direct, indirect;

for adjustment, for registration; for demolition,

for effect; masked, unmasked; salvo, continuous;

sweeping;

time, percussion; volley, at will.

observation and control, 115, 117, 122,

123, 125, 131,

140, 383.

pursuing by, 121.

ranges, in attack and defense, 115, 119, 121,

126, 129, 132,

135, 138, 141.

ranging and bracketing, 114, 115, 121,

127, 141, 143.

shifting sheaf of, 116.

shrapnel, _See Shrapnel_.

surprise by, 60, 61, 80, 127.

to oppose envelopment, 120.

firing batteries, position on the march, 83.

right of way to front, 225.

firing data, 112, 116, 122,

129, 130, 131,

142, 310, 313,

349.

firing over heads of infantry, 120, 122,

141, 349.

flank protection, 110, 117, 119,

122, 129, 130,

212.

“form for action,” 123.

front of a battery, 110, 119, 140.

heavy field, 132.

aiming points, 133.

escort for, 133.

flash defilade, 133.

mobility of, 133.

motor transport, 136, 387.

observing stations, 135.

organization of, 133.

position on the march, 136, 339.

ranges, 132, 135.

single position during action, 133.

splitting units, 133.

weights of pieces and projectiles, 132.

with advance guard, 136.

horse

in delaying action, 71.

in pursuit, 301.

with cavalry force, 78, 126, 128,

145, 152.

with rear guard, 126.

hostile, location of by air craft, 384.

observing stations of, 262.

in attack and defense, _See special references desired_, 109.

in close country, 128.

in counter attack, 122, 124, 142.

in double column, 91, 339.

in flank positions, 120.

in night attacks, 303.

in a general position in readiness, 310.

in pursuit, 121, 142, 301.

in retreat and delaying actions, 71, 73, 74,

77, 126, 128,

290, 291, 300,

316.

in rencontre, 123, 296, 339.

in river line attack, 277, 278, 281,

282, 286.

intervals in battery, 110, 119, 140.

in withdrawal from action, 289, 290,

291, 292.

infantry in long columns of, 83, 110, 339.

laying, direct and indirect, 111.

limbers, position during action, 110, 119, 128,

129, 132.

machine guns as supports for, 121, 122, 133,

304, 307.

maneuvering zone for, 338.

maneuvers in occupation of a position, 122.

march order, 125.

materiel of light field, 109.

mission of, 118, 120, 122, 123,

126, 128, 142,

227.

motor transport for, 136, 387.

mountain, 136.

ammunition and supply trains, 137.

carts and light wagons for, 137.

combat trains, 137.

ease of concealment, 138.

mobility of, 137, 138.

organization of battery, 137.

pack transportation for, 136, 137.

tactical employment, 137, 138.

time required to unpack, 137.

weights of piece and projectile, 137.

with rear guard, 138.

movements across country, 127, 140.

during action, 119, 121, 125,

126, 133, 135,

141, 142, 238.

in echelon, 121, 125,

126, 291.

number of guns placed in action, 123, 124.

observing stations, 111, 117, 119,

129, 130, 131,

135, 140.

officer with advance guard, 112, 113, 128,

133, 141.

with supreme commander, 113, 126, 128,

130, 142, 225.

on outpost, 128, 172, 181.

on the march, _See Advance Guard, Marches, etc._, 71, 83, 110,

123, 128, 136,

338.

orders for, 122, 124, 126,

128, 130, 132,

142, 143, 240,

266.

personnel, duties of, 111, 128, 130.

positions in combat

aero reconnaissance of, 110, 119,

131, 384.

between holding and enveloping attacks, 120, 140,

141, 226.

changes of, 119, 121, 125,

126, 133, 135,

141, 142.

concealment in, 111, 112, 119,

121, 122, 133,

140.

considerations governing selection of, 118.

distance in rear of infantry line, 126, 142, 232.

for all stages of action, 119, 125, 133,

141, 227, 281.

for direct fire, 118, 121, 126,

129, 133, 140,

234.

in attack of a river line, 281.

in rear of main and secondary attacks, 226, 349.

in rencontre, 123, 296.

in withdrawal, 291.

near a crest, 118, 121, 126,

129, 133, 140,

234.

of limbers, 110, 119, 128,

129, 132.

on a flank, 120, 140.

selection of, 111, 118, 121,

122, 125, 128,

130.

prepare for action, 125.

protection of flanks, 117, 119, 129,

130, 212.

ranges in attack and defense, _See Artillery, fire_.

ranging, _See Artillery, fire_.

reconnaissance, 111, 112, 121,

122, 125, 130,

131, 133, 141,

142, 249.

reconnaissance officer, _See Artillery, personnel_.

registration of hostile artillery positions, 113, 230, 249,

282, 310.

reinforcing batteries, 124.

reserves, 123.

right of way for firing batteries, 225, 339, 340.

route markers, _See Artillery, personnel_.

routes to position, selection, cover, etc., 111, 119, 122,

125, 129, 133,

140, 141.

scouts, _See Artillery, personnel_.

searching fire on ground occupied by hostile reserves,

115, 116, 120,

122, 228, 237,

265.

sectors of observation, 111, 131.

sight, panoramic, 109.

signal equipment, 109, 129.

signalers, _See Artillery, personnel_.

splitting units of, 123, 133, 140,

228, 345, 349.

spotters, 382.

subdivision of regiments, 349.

of battery, 109, 123.

supports for, 121, 122, 127,

129, 133, 140,

181, 224, 226,

291, 304, 307,

314.

tactical employment of, 118, 130, 139.

tactics, 109.

telephone equipment, 109, 129.

vs. machine guns, 265, 305, 306.

weights of pieces and projectiles, 109, 132, 137.

with advance guard, 57, 127, 337,

338, 339.

with containing force, 205.

with cavalry force, 126, 128, 145,

152, 157.

with escort of a convoy, 98.

with flank guard, 77, 78, 339.

with rear guard, 71, 73, 77,

126, 128, 293,

316.

Assembly in column of route, 59, 341.

of troops in retreat, 292, 294.

Assembly orders, 43, 59, 89.

Assumptions in tactical problems, 22, 23, 223.

ATTACK, _See Combat_.

advance guard regiment in, 209, 226.

advance to, 209, 223, 277,

326, 346.

ammunition supply in, _See Ammunition_.

angle between main and holding, 344.

artillery in, _See Artillery_.

assignment of fronts, 210, 223, 224,

227, 331, 332,

346.

best disposition for infantry in, 207, 345.

by advance guard, _See Advance guard_.

by reinforced brigade, 225.

cavalry in, _See Cavalry_.

combat patrols, _See Patrols_.

concentration of force at critical points, 87, 211, 248,

347, 387.

conditions influencing decision to, 206, 226.

conjunction of main and holding, 209, 227,

344, 345.

contact of organizations in, 209.

coordination of, 209, 227, 344,

345, 346.

counter, _See Counter attack_.

cover for troops in position and approach thereto, 87, 207, 209,

216, 226, 227,

236, 237, 240,

250, 345, 346.

covering enemy’s line with fire, 210, 221,

331, 332.

covering line of retreat, 204, 207.

density of firing line, 208, 219, 330, 347.

deployment of, forced at long range, 74, 121, 135,

215, 233, 238,

257, 297, 299,

300, 306, 329.

deploying positions in, 226, 227, 346.

depth of deployment in, 208, 347.

dispersion of force in, 204, 205, 226,

344, 345.

disposition of division in, 208.

distance at which fire is opened, 209, 329.

division, 344.

duties subsequent to, 321, 350.

effect of obstacles on formation of, 216, 217,

277, 345.

enemy, strength of to be known, 209, 211, 213,

220, 348.

engineers in, 224, 228,

241, 347.

enveloping, 206, 344.

convergence of fire, 209.

extension of line to meet, 208, 209, 210.

of both flanks, 207.

provision against, 260.

selection of flank for, 207, 226, 229.

in rencontre, 296.

to be provided for in first deployment, 208, 345.

expenditure of ammunition in, 215.

fire superiority in, _See Fire superiority_.

flank protection, 211, 212, 226,

227, 240, 348.

flanks, hostile to be located, 146, 209, 220, 226.

forms of, 205, 344.

fortification in, _See Fortification_, 215, 216.

frontages in, 217, 348.

frontal, 206, 344.

in advance guard action, 229.

in pursuit, 229.

in rencontre, 296.

of a river line, 278.

guiding points in, 210, 211, 221,

223, 224, 330,

332.

holding, _See Attack, frontal_, 248.

integrity of tactical units, 204, 205, 344,

345, 346.

interval between main and holding, 209, 344,

345, 346.

landmarks in, _See Attack, guiding points in_.

machine guns in, 217, 218, 222,

282, 304.

night, _See Night attacks_.

obstacles in, _See Obstacles_.

of a bridge head, 304.

of a convoy, _See Convoys_, 101, 103.

of a river line, _See River line attack_, 277.

piercing an attenuated line, 206, 226.

plan of based on best dispositions of infantry, 207, 345.

problem for small infantry force, 219.

ranges in, 209, 329.

raw troops in, 204.

reconnaissance, _See Reconnaissance_.

reinforcing the firing line, 208, 211,

327, 328.

reserves

brigade, 211.

concentration under cover of darkness, 87, 205.

division of, 211, 346.

flank protection by, 211, 236, 346.

general, 212, 219.

position fire by, 325.

position of, 211, 212, 226,

228, 346, 347.

regimental, 211.

strength of, 208, 211, 217,

219, 227.

use of in influencing course of action, 211, 346.

routes to position, 209, 211, 223,

224, 225, 226,

227, 240.

sanitary troops in, _See Sanitary Troops_.

signal troops in, _See Signal Troops_.

supports

battalion, 208, 211,

219, 223.

distance from firing line, 210, 212, 324.

formations in advance to firing line, _See Rifle in War_, 325.

intrenchments for, 325.

prime function of, 211.

strength of, 208, 211, 217, 219.

timing the advance, 345, 346.

trains in, _See Trains_.

turning movements, _See Turning movements_.

Automobiles, _See Motor vehicles_.

B

Bakery, field, 361, 372.

Balloons, captive, 381, 383.

observation of artillery fire by, 383.

telephone equipment, 383.

Band, regimental, assists in collection of wounded, 222, 319.

Barricades, 180, 182, 307.

Base depots, 361, 363, 364.

Base of operations, 361.

Battalion

collecting stations, _See Sanitary_.

frontage in combat, 219.

frontage on outpost, 171, 180.

Batteries, accompanying, breaching, counter, decoy, infantry,

of the counter attack, of preparation, reinforcing, 124.

Battlefield, illumination of, 265, 304.

police of, 321, 351.

Battle sights, 115, 331.

Bayonet, effect of intrenchments on use of, 263.

in night attacks, 303, 304.

B. C. station, artillery, 117, 129, 141.

Beaten zone, machine gun fire, 305.

shrapnel fire, 115, 327.

Beef cattle, 379.

Best dispositions for infantry primary consideration

in attack, 207, 345.

Bibliography, 33.

Billeting, 94.

Bivouac, _See Camps_.

in line of battle, 180.

of patrols, 53.

Blazing trails on outpost, 184.

Blending defensive works with terrain, 258, 260, 266.

Bracketing, 127, 141, 143.

Breaching batteries, 124.

BRIDGES

construction and repair

for movements of artillery, 125, 136.

in attack of a river line, 277, 278,

280, 283.

in combat, 224, 258.

in retreat, 58.

on the march, 78, 98, 153.

demolition

by fire, 71.

in combat, 276, 304.

in defense of a river line, 284.

in position in readiness, 311.

in retreat, 57, 58, 71, 299, 316.

on outpost, 176, 182.

ordered by supreme commander, 71.

ponton, 14, 176, 277, 340.

placarding, 31.

protection

by artillery, 172.

by machine guns, 173.

by outpost, 176, 281.

in retreat, 312.

Bridge equipage, floating or portable.

capacity, 340.

organization, 14.

place on march, 340.

road space, 340.

Bridge head, 180, 304.

Bridge train, _See Bridge equipage_, 340, 361.

Brigade attack, 225.

Brigade, reinforced, _See Reinforced brigade_.

British experiences in trench warfare, 262.

Broad front in pursuit, 301.

in retreat and delaying action, 219, 233, 251,

297, 298.

Broken ground, advance over, 327.

Buildings

demolition of, 252, 272, 273.

use for shelter, 355.

C

CAMPS, 93.

advance guard, location of, 355.

areas of, 16, 94.

arrangement with reference to position of troops

in column, 85, 94.

assignment of organizations to, 93, 192.

at crossroads, 93, 354.

concealment of, 353, 355.

delay in placing troops in, 93, 191, 356.

dimensions of, 16.

distribution of troops from front to rear, 173.

distribution of troops in, 93, 192, 281,

354.

division, detailed disposition of, 354.

drainage of, 94, 354.

fuel and water for, 93, 180, 353,

354, 355.

guards, 171, 174,

178, 181.

in column of route 85, 88, 94,

354, 355.

influence of roads, 353, 354.

late arrival at, 87, 341.

mounted troops in, 354.

of convoy, 99, 102.

of reserve of outpost, 173, 180, 181,

187, 192.

outpost line, 353, 355.

place of trains in, 355.

prior to attack of river line, 281.

relative positions of foot and mounted troops and trains, 93.

sites for convoys, 99.

sanitary requirements of, 93, 94, 354.

selection of, 62, 93, 176,

191, 353.

tactical requirements of, 176, 353.

southern exposure, 94.

temporary, in field maneuvers, 33.

trains in, 354, 373, 375.

Camping in depth and in mass, 85, 88, 94,

354.

Camping with reference to facility of arrival

and departure, 85, 94, 354.

Carcasses, collection and disposal of, 321.

Capacities of carriers, 366, 379.

as affected by care in loading, 378, 379.

freight, passenger, and stock cars, 378, 379.

Capacity of sanitary units, 319.

Capital letters, use of in orders and messages, 41, 54.

Captive balloons, 381, 383.

Cash payments for supplies, 362.

Catechism of rifle in war, 334.

Cattle, beef, 379.

CAVALRY

advance and advance guard,

_See Advance guard_, 56, 60, 63,

146, 147, 148,

173, 181, 188.

advance in two columns, 149.

ammunition supply of, 375.

army, _See Cavalry, independent_, 146.

artillery with, 78, 126, 128,

145, 152, 157.

as escort to artillery, 291.

as escort to trains, 84, 168.

as flank guard, 81.

as police guard with convoy, 97.

as rear guard, 71.

at head of main body, 84.

attack, gaits in, 158, 159, 160.

attack of infantry when practicable, 153.

attacking line, 157.

charge, 150, 153,

155, 167.

at extended intervals, 150, 151, 156.

details of, 157, 160, 167.

distance at which launched, 158, 159.

examination of ground for, 156.

formations for, 158.

gaits in, 158, 159, 160.

in column, 151.

melee, 166.

most favorable times for, 153, 159, 167.

orders for, 160, 163.

combat patrols, 154, 156,

160, 161.

combat trains, 145, 159, 361.

commander, discretionary powers, 145, 146, 174,

240, 241, 311,

338.

contact squadron, 149, 150.

contact with enemy, 60, 62, 144,

146, 148, 149,

171, 174, 177,

181, 189, 212,

234, 259, 281,

311, 338.

coupling and linking horses, 152.

defensive power, 169.

demolition outfits, 71, 145.

detachments during combat, 155, 156,

160, 161.

discretionary powers of commander, 145, 174, 241,

311, 338.

dismounted action, 150, 153.

how close enemy may be allowed to approach, 154, 233.

dismounted fire action, 150, 151, 153,

156, 160.

dispersion of, 144, 147, 149,

155, 234, 311,

338.

division of for mounted attack, 157.

distance in front of outpost, 174, 179.

divisional, _See Cavalry, independent_, 146, 338.

economy in use of, 144, 168, 172.

effect of air craft on functions of, 381, 384.

effects of fire from rear, 154.

effect on strength of an outpost, 171.

engineers with, 56, 145, 153,

167, 283.

field train of, in camp, 56, 145, 356.

filling gaps in firing line, 144, 168.

fire action, 150, 153, 168.

flank patrols, 154, 155, 156,

160, 161, 212,

227, 234.

foraging by, 148, 150, 169, 375.

front covered by squadron on outpost, 171.

functions in campaign, 144.

gaits in mounted attack, 158, 159, 160.

on march, 86.

ground scouts, 155, 156,

160, 167.

horse artillery with, 78, 126, 128,

145, 152.

horses mobile and immobile, 152, 155.

horses, stampede of, 152, 154.

horseholders, 152, 154.

hostile, overthrow of, 144, 146,

149, 165.

in combat, 72, 85, 100,

144, 150, 227,

234.

in delaying action and withdrawal, 70, 71, 72,

73, 147, 153,

154, 155, 168,

233, 289, 290,

292, 293, 298.

in night attacks, 303.

in position in readiness, 310, 311.

in pursuit, 144, 168, 282,

301, 369.

in retreat, 70, 71, 144,

154, 168, 172,

290, 298.

in river line attack, 279, 281, 282.

in river line defense, 189, 284.

independent, 148.

communication by, 148.

concentration of, 144, 146, 149.

contact squadrons, 149, 150.

contact with enemy, 148, 149, 171,

174, 177, 338.

distance from supporting troops, 148, 149, 174.

effect on strength of advance guard, 56, 85.

effect on strength of outpost, 171, 172, 174.

foraging, 148, 150, 169.

in advance, 56, 85.

mission of, 81, 85, 144,

146, 147, 148,

149, 338.

mounted engineers with, 145.

on flank, 81.

orders for, 145.

patrols, _See Patrols, strategic_.

range of operations, 148.

reconnaissance, _See Reconnaissance_.

relay posts, 150.

return to camp at night, 148.

screening, 144, 146, 148,

149, 164, 165,

174.

signal troops with, 145, 150, 340.

strength of, 147, 148.

time of starting march, 86, 338.

under immediate control of supreme commander, 146, 147, 338.

when employed, 147, 148, 338.

wireless equipment, 145, 150, 340.

with detachments, 147.

initiative, 151, 161, 167.

led horses, 152.

cover for, 154, 233.

operations against, 154.

vulnerability of, 151, 154, 241.

line of columns, 157, 158, 161, 163.

line of fours, 158, 161.

lines of, in attack, 157, 167.

lines of retreat, 154.

machine guns with, 152, 157, 159,

161, 306.

march outposts, 190, 192.

messages for, 174.

mission, See _Cavalry, independent_, 60, 62, 64,

164, 234.

mobility and immobility of horses, 152, 155.

mounted action, orders for, 163.

mounted and dismounted action, 150.

mounted engineers with, 56, 145, 153,

167, 283.

mounted fire action, 150.

mounted fire, inaccuracy of, 168.

mounted reconnaissance during action, 152.

mounted reserve, 151, 154,

159, 241.

night movements, 144, 168.

on infantry firing line, 144, 168.

on outpost

contact with enemy, 171, 177.

covering flanks, 189.

day and night positions, 188, 189.

distance to front, 174, 179,

187, 189.

effect on strength of infantry, 171, 172, 174,

188, 189, 190.

front covered by a squadron, 171. habitual use, effect of, 168.

joins advance cavalry, 58.

march outposts, 190, 192.

messenger duty, 181, 186.

patrols, _See Outposts and Patrols_.

phases of use in security, 174.

reconnaissance, _See Patrols, Reconnaissance, etc._

relieving infantry, 168, 172.

strength, 171.

withdrawal behind outpost line, 148, 174, 179,

181, 188, 189,

190, 192.

operations against hostile flanks, 62, 85, 144,

153, 168, 227,

234, 293, 301.

orders for, 145, 146, 160,

174, 240, 311,

338, 356.

outpost of, 174, 179, 189.

pack trains with, 145, 159,

338, 375.

patrols, _See Patrols_.

phases of use in security, 174.

pioneer training, 153, 167.

protection of flanks by, 212, 227, 234.

raids, 144, 148, 169.

rally after charge, 152, 157,

158, 167.

rates of march, 90, 165.

rear, _See Cavalry, with rear guard_.

reconnaissance, _See Reconnaissance_.

remains mounted when practicable, 151, 152, 157.

reports, 149.

retirement behind outpost line, 148, 174, 179,

181, 188, 189,

190, 192.

screen, 144, 146,

149, 164.

distance to front, 164.

front covered by, 165, 174.

offensive and defensive, 165.

purpose of, 148, 164, 165.

security duties, _See Advance, Rear, and Flank guards,

Outposts, Reconnaissance, etc._

seizing advanced positions, 144.

separation of subordinates from commands, 161.

signal troops with, 145, 150, 340.

skirmishers, 150, 151.

stampede of horses, 152, 154.

supplies for, 375.

support and reserve of attacking line, 157, 163.

surprise, element of in operations, 153, 154, 155,

156, 157, 159,

160.

surrender of initiative, 151, 161, 167.

tactical employment with rear guard, 72.

tactical use of in combat, 72, 85, 100,

150, 227, 234.

tactics, 144.

lessons in, from American Civil War, 166.

time required to mount and dismount, 152.

time of starting march, 86, 338.

to be used for duty for which qualified, 144, 168, 172.

trains with, 144, 145, 159,

169, 188, 338,

361, 375.

turning movements by 153, 168, 205.

vs. artillery, 167.

vs. cavalry, 153, 155,

167, 169.

vs. infantry, 153, 167,

168, 330.

vulnerability to flank attack, 156.

wagons and pack trains with, 144, 145, 159,

169, 188, 338,

375.

watches for hostile reinforcements, 224, 227, 234,

244, 292, 311.

weapons employed, 151, 166, 168.

when used independently, 147, 148, 338.

wireless equipment with, 145, 150, 340.

with advance guard, 56, 60, 61, 62,

64, 147, 338.

with containing forces, 205.

with convoy, 80, 97, 98, 99,

100.

with motor convoy, 80.

with flank guard, 78, 81, 147,

168, 339.

with rear guard, 70, 147, 168,

290, 292.

with trains, 84, 168, 341.

withdrawal from action, 73, 154, 233,

289, 290, 291,

292, 298.

Change in direction of march, 80, 91,

92, 102.

Change in situation, 59, 65.

Change of position during action, artillery, 119, 121, 125,

126, 133, 135,

141, 142, 238.

Characteristics of air craft, 381, 382.

Charge, cavalry, _See Cavalry_.

Circulation of orders, _See Orders_.

Civilians, care of wounded by, 318, 322.

interviews with, 53.

preceding advance guard, 63.

preceding patrol, 50.

Clearing the field of fire, 217, 233, 235,

246, 252, 256,

258, 269, 270,

272, 275, 276.

Clinometer, 110.

Close country

effect on dispositions of advance guard, 60, 128.

of artillery, 128.

of outpost, 171, 179, 180,

186, 188.

of patrols, 49.

effect on field fortifications, 254.

on march of a convoy, 100.

Close order in night attacks, 303.

Codes, telegraphic, 150.

Collecting stations, 224, 256,

270, 319.

Collective distribution, _See Artillery fire_.

Collection of wounded, _See Wounded_.

Column, cavalry charge in, 151.

Column of route, assembly in, 58, 341.

camp in, 85, 94.

Columns, line of, vulnerability, 325, 326,

327, 328.

COMBAT, _See Attack and Defense, etc._

ammunition supply, _See Ammunition_.

approach of hostile reinforcements, 167, 206, 207,

224, 227, 234,

288, 291, 292,

311, 348.

by patrols, 51, 166, 190,

212, 213.

companies go complete into firing line, 211, 217, 348.

concentration of force at critical points, 87, 211, 248,

347, 387.

detachments during, 91, 149, 155,

205, 225.

density of firing line, 208, 216, 219,

233, 235, 330,

347.

depth of deployment, 208, 347.

dispersion in, 204, 205, 226,

236, 237, 344,

345.

division, 344.

duties subsequent to, 321, 350, 351.

expenditure of ammunition in, 215.

fortification, _See Fortification_.

frontages in, 217, 348.

integrity of tactical units, 205, 217, 329.

messages during, 350.

offering no chance of success, 205.

orders, 39, 40, 205,

208, 210, 211,

220, 225, 332,

346, 350.

patrols, _See Patrols_.

position fire, 74, 255, 257,

282, 325, 331.

protection of flanks in, 211, 212, 226,

227, 230, 232,

235, 240, 257,

259, 305, 306,

348.

reconnaissance, _See Reconnaissance_.

routes to position, 209, 211, 223,

224, 225, 226,

227, 240.

sanitary stations in, _See Sanitary_.

simple movements in, 204.

small units in, 224, 225, 231,

232, 248.

special forms of, 277.

special troops in, _See references to special troops_.

splitting tactical units in, 205, 217.

trains during, _See Trains_.

Combat patrols, _See Patrols_.

Combat trains, _See Trains_.

Combined orders, 38, 39, 42,

220.

Combined sights, 331, 334.

Command of the air, 384, 385.

Command for firing line, 324.

Commander, battalion

observing station, 256.

orders issue of ammunition, 214, 220, 223,

300, 332.

regimental, observing station for, 255.

orders disposition of packs, 223.

Commander, supreme, _See Supreme commander_.

Communication, as affecting number of troops required

in a defensive position, 267.

control of local means of, 63.

flank guard, rear guard, and main body, 81.

in defensive position, _See Defensive position_.

in outpost, 184.

with friendly troops during combat, 212.

with friendly troops on the march, 62, 81, 99,

103, 108, 148.

Communicating trenches, _See Fortification_.

Companies go complete into firing line, 211, 217, 348.

Company wagons, _See Trains, field_.

Composition of advance, rear and flank guards, outposts, etc.,

_See these subjects_.

Compulsory military service, 5.

CONCEALMENT, _See Attack, Defense, Terrain, etc._

from aero reconnaissance, 119, 253, 256,

265, 286, 385.

in attack and defense, _See these subjects_.

in counter attack, 236, 237.

in delaying action, 74.

in position in readiness, 309.

in river line attack, 277, 279, 280.

of artillery, _See Artillery_.

of camp site, 353.

of obstacles, 259, 262, 265.

of outpost dispositions, 180, 182,

183, 184.

of works of field fortification, 183, 231, 233,

253, 256, 258,

260, 262, 265,

266.

Concentration

of fire on critical points, 331.

of force at critical points, 87, 211, 247,

248, 347, 387.

of reserves under cover of darkness, 87, 205,

281, 286.

of troops by motor vehicles, 87, 211,

387, 389.

Connecting files, 61.

Considerations influencing advance guard attack, 229.

choice of flank for envelopment, 207.

decision to attack, 206, 226.

depth of deployment, 348.

form of attack, 206, 226.

occupation of a position in readiness, 308, 309.

selection of artillery position, 118.

selection of camp site, 93, 94, 176,

353, 354.

selection of a defensive position, 230.

selection of route of march, 90, 100.

strength of outpost, 170.

use of flank guard, 79.

Consonance of decision and orders, 44.

Contact of adjacent outposts, 186.

of opposing sides in field maneuvers, 33.

of organizations in attack, 209.

squadron, _See Cavalry_.

Contact with enemy

by advance guard, 62.

by aero reconnaissance, 149, 383,

384, 386.

by cavalry, 60, 62, 144,

146, 148, 149,

171, 174, 177,

181, 189, 212,

234, 259, 281,

311, 338.

by flank guard, 81.

by rear guard, 72, 73.

by outpost, 170, 177, 181,

185, 189.

first, to be reported, 54.

in pursuit, 177, 301.

in retreat, 72, 301.

to verify reconnaissance, 384.

Contact with friendly troops, 62, 81, 99,

103, 108, 148,

212.

Containing force, 91, 204, 205,

208, 288.

Contingencies in orders, 41, 42,

314, 317.

Continuity of fire trenches, 251, 253,

254, 265.

Continuous fire, _See Artillery, fire_.

Control and observation of artillery fire, 115, 117, 122,

123, 125, 131,

140, 383.

Convergence of fire, secured by enveloping attack, 209.

CONVOYS, 95.

abandoning line of march, 101.

advance guard of, 97, 98, 99.

artillery with, 98.

attack of, 101, 103.

ambuscade, 103.

by cavalry, 148.

by small forces, 96.

long range fire in, 103, 104.

mobile troops in, 103.

motor vehicles in, 103.

places favorable for, 103.

usual method, 103.

auto, 80, 96, 101.

camp sites

selection of, 99.

security measures, 102.

cavalry with, 80, 97, 98, 99, 100.

change of direction of march, 101, 102.

classification of wagons, army, hired, impressed, 96.

conduct on encountering enemy, 102.

contact with friendly troops, 99, 103, 108.

defensive measures, 101, 102.

details of march, 96.

dispersion of troops, 99.

distance between convoy and covering detachment, 95

division into sections, 96, 97.

double column of wagons, 95.

engineers with, 99.

escort, strength, composition, duties, etc., 85, 97.

field trains of, 96.

of prisoners, 104.

flank guards, 80, 95, 96,

99, 100.

flank marches, 95.

in double column, 95.

infantry in long columns of wagons, 99.

limiting size of single column, 95.

machine guns with, 98.

motor vehicles, convoy and escort, 80, 96,

98, 101.

mounted point, 99.

occupation of critical points by escort, 100.

of prisoners, 104.

offensive tactics by escort, 98, 102.

parking, 102.

parks

form of, 102.

sites for, 99.

passage of defiles, 101.

place of commander, 97.

police guards, 96, 97, 99.

position of main body, 99.

quartermaster, duties of, 96, 97.

rate of progress and halts, 101.

rear guard, 72, 100.

reconnaissance on march, 97, 99, 100,

101, 102, 104,

108.

relative rank of quartermaster and commander of escort, 97.

retreat of, 102, 103.

routes of march, 100, 101, 102.

rule for position of covering troops, 95, 99.

slowest wagons in lead, 96.

straggling, 95.

teamsters and wagon masters, 96, 97.

vulnerability, 95, 96, 101,

103.

Cooks and kitchen police with outpost supports, 175.

Cooperation of artillery and other arms, 126, 141.

Coordination of main and holding attack, 345.

Cordon and patrol systems of outposts, 184.

Corrector for height of burst, 113, 116.

Cossack posts, _See Outposts_.

COUNTER ATTACK, 236.

artillery in, 122, 124, 142,

237, 238.

batteries of the, 124.

concealment in, 236, 237.

conduct of, 236.

fire superiority, 237, 238.

from flank, 236, 237, 238,

259.

general rule for, 238.

in defense of a river line, 281, 282, 284.

in retreat, 75, 301.

local, 236.

obstacles, effect of, 230, 233,

235, 310.

reinforcing firing line, 237, 238.

reserves for, 231, 233, 236,

237, 238, 253,

257, 259.

risk of, 75, 230, 281,

282, 284, 301,

344.

supporting points in rear of main line, 237.

surprise in, 236.

terrain favorable for, 237, 238.

Counter batteries, 124.

Countermanding of orders, 42, 317.

Coupling horses, 152.

Cover, _See Concealment_.

head and overhead, _See Fortification_.

in combat position and approach, _See Attack and Defense_.

natural, _See Terrain_.

Covering advance supply depot, 373.

detachments, 205, 212,

236, 308.

line of retreat, 204, 278.

main body, in advance, 204.

in attack, 209, 229, 296.

in retreat, 72, 73.

enemy’s line with fire, 118, 210, 331.

Crest, geographical.

artillery positions near, 118, 121, 126,

129, 133, 140,

234.

location of firing line with respect to, 262, 298, 324.

location of supports with respect to, 324.

Crest, military, 118, 298, 324.

Crews of air craft, 381, 383.

Criterion for depth of deployment, 347.

Criterion for strength of outpost, 170.

Cross fire, mutual support, 233, 250, 251,

252, 253, 254,

258, 263, 268,

269, 276, 325,

331.

Cross roads, for camp sites, 93, 354.

for position in readiness, 309.

issue points at, 375.

march outposts at, 190, 341.

D

Dagger batteries, 121, 234, 235.

Danger space, 324.

Darkness, concentration of reserves under cover of, 87, 205,

281, 286.

effect on aero reconnaissance, 149, 383, 386.

intrenching under cover of, 216.

making camp in, 87, 188, 341.

withdrawal from action under cover of, 205, 289.

Day and night positions of elements of an outpost, 187, 191,

193, 356.

Days of rest, 87, 89, 337,

365.

Dead, ammunition on persons of, 215, 333.

collection, identification and disposal of, 321.

Dead spaces

dagger batteries cover, 121.

distribution of artillery to cover, 118, 121, 141.

in a defensive position, 230, 249, 252,

258, 269.

influence on artillery position, 119.

observation of, 122.

Decision problems, 19.

Decision to attack, by what influenced, 206, 226.

Decisive action.

by advance, rear and flank guards, etc., _See these subjects_.

danger of in retreat, 299.

Decisive results obtained only by offensive, 204, 205.

Decoy batteries, 124.

DEFENSE

active, conduct of, _See Counter Attack_, 237, 254.

strong reserves characteristic of, 211, 219, 233,

235, 236, 237,

238, 254.

advance guard in, 234.

against air craft, 135, 385.

ambuscade in, 299, 330.

ammunition supply in, _See Ammunition_, 215, 349.

artillery in, _See Artillery_.

cavalry in, _See Cavalry_, 234, 259.

concentration of fire, 253, 331.

concentration of force at critical points, 211, 233,

235, 248.

conforms to attack, 204, 219.

covering front of enemy, 252, 331.

density of firing line, 216, 219,

233, 235.

depth of deployment, 219, 347, 348.

extension of front in, 208, 210, 216,

221, 235, 236,

237, 238, 251,

254.

engineers in, 216, 217, 228,

234, 235, 247,

258, 260, 272,

273, 276.

fire superiority, _See Fire superiority_.

influence of obstacles on assumption of offensive, 176, 217, 230,

232, 299, 310.

location of firing line, 324.

long range fire in, 121, 215, 230,

233, 250, 325,

329, 330.

machine guns in, 173, 228, 232,

233, 234, 252,

253, 255, 256,

265, 269, 270,

276, 304, 328.

of a river line, _See River line defense_.

passive, 204, 248,

254, 347.

position fire, 255, 256, 257,

325, 331.

position in readiness in, 231, 308.

ranges, 250, 257, 262.

raw troops in, 204.

reconnaissance, _See Reconnaissance_.

reinforcing the firing line, 237, 238, 257,

327, 328.

reserves

aggressive use of, 236, 237,

238, 249.

assist in organization of position, 235, 255,

271, 272.

brigade, 235.

communications for, 230, 255.

cover for, 216, 231, 236,

237, 257, 265.

counter attack by, 231, 233, 235,

236, 237, 238,

257.

distance from firing line, 257.

division of, 211, 232, 257.

effect of intrenchments on strength of, 216, 254.

employment of, 211, 233, 235,

236, 249, 257,

259.

general, 219, 232, 233,

236, 254.

influence on course of action, 211, 289, 346.

local, 219, 254.

position fire by, _See Position fire_.

position of, 211, 212, 232,

235, 257, 259.

protection of flanks by, 211, 213, 232,

236, 257, 259.

security of line of retreat by, 235, 236,

249, 253.

strength, 217, 233,

275, 347.

second line of, 258.

signal troops in, _See Signal troops_.

splitting and mixing units, 217.

supports

battalion, 211, 219, 251,

255, 257, 269.

communications for, _See Fortification_, 256, 257,

260, 276.

cover for, 216, 231, 256,

257, 260, 262.

distance from firing line, 212, 257, 262,

324, 325, 327.

division of, 257.

formations in advance to firing line, 327, 328.

local, 211, 219, 233, 257.

position fire by, _See Position fire_.

strength of, 211, 217, 219,

233, 236, 269.

trenches for, _See Fortification_.

time that small forces can hold larger, 231, 232.