ARTILLERY TACTICS.
_Materiel._ A battery of _light field artillery_ (3"), in the United
States service, is sub-divided for action as follows:
Firing battery--4 guns and 6 caissons. (5 sections).
Combat train--6 caissons, 1 battery wagon, 1 store wagon.
Field train--4 army wagons.
The firing battery includes the first five sections (4 gun and 1
caisson).
The combat train includes the 3 remaining caisson sections and the
battery and store wagons. The 9th section comprises the battery and
store wagons and 4 field wagons. In subdivision part of the 9th section
(battery and store wagons) is with the combat train. The battery is
also divided into 4 platoons, each includes 2 sections.
A battalion consists of 3 batteries, a regiment of 2 battalions. A
battery has 3 telephones and 1 mile of double conductor buzzer wire.
A battalion has 2 telephones and 3 miles of double conductor armored
cable, on a reel cart. A regiment has same telephone equipment as a
battalion with extra buzzer wire.
Each battery carries 358 rounds of ammunition per gun, a portion of
which, varying with circumstances, is shell, the remainder being
shrapnel. Remarkable results are claimed for the large capacity high
explosive shell, against both personnel and materiel. The proper
proportions of shell and shrapnel and the feasibility of the use of
high explosive shell are still undecided. The weight behind the teams
is: gun and limber about 4,300 lbs., caisson and limber about 4,600 lbs.
The gun elevates 15°, and depresses 5°, and these angles may be
increased by depressing or elevating the trail. It traverses 4° each
side of center. Height of axle 41 inches, tread of carriage, 60 inches.
In the panoramic sight the deflection is measured in mils (angle
subtended by .001 times the range--hence approximately ¹/₆₄₀₀ of a
circumference). The elevation (range) is measured in yards. The highest
reading is 6,250 yards.
The clinometer of the range quadrant is graduated in mils. The range
disc of the quadrant is graduated from 0 to 6,500 yards. For greater
ranges, with either sight or quadrant, an arbitrary index setting may
be employed. The clinometer is used for indirect laying. Set off angle
of site on clinometer and range on range disc.
The front covered by the fire of a battery of 4 guns without shifting
trails is 60 yds. + 140 mils; this equals 200 yds. at 1,000 yds. range,
480 yds. at 3,000 yds. range, etc.
_Dispositions of Artillery._ On the march the firing batteries of
light field artillery are usually near head of main body, a regiment
(or battalion) of infantry being immediately in front of them. The
combat trains usually march immediately in rear of the last foot
troops in the main body. Exceptionally they may be with the firing
batteries, especially in a small command, if there seems to be good
reason for so placing them. Artillery in column with other troops
should preferably occupy not more than about a mile of road space. If
the artillery column be much longer than this its flanks will not be
properly protected by the fire of the troops in front and rear in case
of a sudden attack. In such a case then, a body of foot troops should
be placed in the middle of the artillery. The field trains of the
artillery on the march, are combined with those of the other troops, in
rear.
For dispositions of artillery with advance, rear and flank guards see
the Chapters on these subjects. (IV and V.)
In battery a gun and its caisson are placed side by side. Guns are
at 20 yard intervals and the caissons of the 5th section are on the
flanks of battery at 20 yard intervals. Hence the ordinary front of
a battery is 100 yards. The limbers are placed under cover near the
battery and to the flank. The combat train should be about 600 yards
distant, in a secure position. These will be the usual dispositions,
which may, however, be varied to suit the terrain or other conditions.
To avoid detection of the location of the artillery by hostile air
scouts exact alignments and uniform intervals should be avoided. Dust
raised by the blast of discharge may betray the artillery’s location.
This can be reduced by wetting or oiling the ground or covering with
brush or paulins of inconspicuous color. When not actually firing,
guns, limbers and caissons may be concealed by covering with brush or
branches of trees. If the ground permits, the guns may be placed in
pits with parapets for protection, the works being concealed by trees
and branches.
A division is the smallest body of troops having artillery permanently
assigned to it.
_Personnel._
_Artillery Commander._ Informs himself as to enemy. Examines terrain,
selects general positions. Assigns units (usually large ones only) to
general positions and targets in accord with plan of supreme commander.
Takes general measures for communication, supply and reinforcement of
artillery.
_Regimental Commander._ Informs himself as to location and disposition
of enemy and friendly troops. Makes reconnaissance of area for
artillery, and assigns battalions to general positions and targets.
Takes measures for communication, supply and reinforcement.
_Battalion Commander._ Makes close reconnaissance with officers and
scouts as to position of enemy and friendly troops, their disposition,
terrain around his position, best method of approach. Selects positions
for his batteries and assigns duties (targets, etc.) to each. Assigns
direction point and sectors of observation. Gives orders about
artificial cover, provides for auxiliary observing stations. Provides
for local communications. Sees the position is secure or that there are
supporting troops or scouts out. Selects routes for possible subsequent
movements and provides for supply of ammunition, location of combat
trains, etc.
The functions of the foregoing commanders are mainly tactical. They
assign and employ the groups of artillery to meet the requirements of
the initial and all succeeding phases of the combat. They keep in close
touch with the higher commander under whose orders they are operating,
and with the changing conditions on the battlefield.
_Battery Commander._ Examines target and ground near it, and general
location assigned him. Picks out place for his battery and way to
approach, under cover if possible, similarly for his limbers and combat
train (if posted separately) with an eye to supply of ammunition
under cover. If direct laying is to be used makes sure each gunner
can see target, or if indirect that nothing interferes with fire,
that guns are defiladed, etc. and that gunners can see aiming point.
Selects an aiming point, a battery commander’s station and auxiliary
observing stations. Arranges for communications (telephone and signal),
for ammunition supply. Secures firing data. Conducts his battery to
position and posts it. Conducts the fire. The functions of the battery
commander, especially in battalion, are thus mainly technical.
NOTE: If any of the higher commanders mentioned are not present or if
the command is too small to have such, each officer must perform such
of the duties of rank next above as the situation requires.
_Lieutenants._ In march or maneuver they command platoons. In
subdivision for action the first two command the platoons of the firing
battery, the 3d is reconnaissance officer and the junior commands the
combat train.
_Reconnaissance Officer._ Determines firing data. Supervises work of
scouts and auxiliary observing parties. Watches battlefield and notes
tactical changes. Supervises communications. Prior to an action, while
on the march, the reconnaissance officer may be sent with the advance
guard to make such reconnaissance as may be of value to artillery. May
conduct battery to position.
_1st Sergeant._ Assists captain. Posts limbers under cover. Keeps
captain informed as to ammunition supply, supervises removal of empty
caissons. Has charge of replacement of casualties, removal of wounded,
etc.
_Sergeants._ (Q. M. Sgt. commands field train) Command sections.
Supervise service of guns. Chief of 5th section sets up B. C. telescope
and assists in using it.
_Corporals._ Act as gunners, caisson corporals, scouts, observers, etc.
_Scouts and Signalers._ In each battery 2 corporals trained as scouts,
one corporal, 2 privates as signalers. Scouts may be used to guard
flanks of battery. Scouts usually operate in pairs. The scouts are
trained as ground scouts in selecting routes and guiding batteries
along them. They act as auxiliary observers. In battalion the ground
scouting is done by battalion scouts.
_Agents._ Agents are men who transmit information from one commander to
another, and keep a commander in touch with the lower commanders. Each
headquarters in an artillery organization has agents.
_Route Markers._ These are men who are stationed at certain points to
indicate the route to a position.
Artillery is so trained that if any of these positions are vacant they
are readily filled by an alternate.
An artillery officer, preferably the senior present, should accompany
the supreme commander during the advance to battle to learn the
situation and the wishes of the commander. An artillery officer should
accompany an advance guard. An artillery officer or other agent should
accompany an attacking infantry line in order to communicate to the
supporting artillery the needs of the infantry. He will generally keep
in touch with the commander of the attacking force. The artillery
commander is represented at supreme headquarters by a suitable agent
from the artillery personnel.
_Kinds of fire._ Fire is classified in various ways:
_Masked fire_ (indirect laying is used)
_Unmasked fire_ (either direct or indirect laying may be used)
Masked fire is where guns are concealed from view and corresponds to
indirect laying, where gunner does not see target but uses an aiming
point.
If the target can be just seen through the sights (over the mask) the
position has sight defilade, if by a mounted or dismounted man, mounted
or dismounted defilade. If the mask conceals the flashes of the guns
(in day time) the position has flash defilade, this requires 12 to 15
feet vertical cover. Even twigs will explode a shrapnel so make sure
mask does not interfere with _fire_. To ascertain this allow height of
muzzle 4 feet, angle of departure for range of 3,000 yards = 5° 40´,
(Inverse tangent of 0.10). Thus, Distance from mask ÷ 10 > Height of
mask - 4 (all figures in feet); or D > 10 (H - 4). To fire over a mask
20 feet high, the distance from the gun to the mask on level ground
should be greater than 10 (20 - 4) = 160 feet.
_Fire for adjustment. Fire for demolition. Fire for registration. Fire
for effect._
Fire for adjustment is to get on the target. It is adjusted for range,
direction, distribution and height of burst (4). Fire for registration
is fire to determine ranges, to a position which may in future be
occupied by enemy. (It should generally not be employed prematurely
unless enemy already knows about your artillery as it would otherwise
betray your presence and possibly your position.) Fire for effect is
fire on the enemy, materiel or personnel. It is ordinarily directed to
that portion of the enemy which is doing or may do most damage to the
friendly infantry. Thus in the earlier stages of the action, and while
the friendly infantry is in the zone of hostile artillery fire, but
not yet within range of the infantry, the fire of the artillery will
be directed against the hostile artillery. Later in the attack, during
the struggle for fire superiority between the opposing infantries,
the artillery will usually direct its fire upon the hostile infantry,
that being at this stage, the most threatening element to the friendly
infantry. Fire for demolition is fire against material objects, such as
walls, houses, etc. For this purpose shell is invariably used.
_Direct laying. Indirect laying._
In direct laying the gunner sees and aims on the target or a designated
portion thereof. In indirect laying (whether the target is visible
to the gunner or not) he aims on an auxiliary aiming point. Indirect
laying is that generally employed, whether the guns are masked or not.
It is usually simpler to use a clearly defined aiming point than to
indicate to each gunner his allotted portion of a (possibly poorly
defined) target. In case of a rapidly moving target, especially at
close range, direct laying may be preferable to indirect, as the
gunner can see his target, and often observe the effects of his fire.
It may also be used in the last stages of an action, the guns being
pushed forward to the crest, or for the defense of the guns themselves
at close range. Direct laying has the disadvantage that it does not
permit the proper concealment of the guns, and renders more difficult
the conduct, control and direction of the fire by the captain and the
higher artillery commanders. Its employment, therefore, will not be
habitual. Indirect laying cannot as a rule be effectively employed
against small, rapidly moving targets.
_Salvo fire. Continuous fire. Volley fire. Fire at will._
A salvo is a single discharge of successive pieces at stated intervals
from one flank of the battery (or platoon) to the other. It is used
especially for ranging, (adjustment) as a series of bursts will give
more information than a single burst. In continuous fire shots are
fired singly at stated intervals. Volley fire is where each piece fires
a stated number of rounds as fast as is consistent with proper laying,
independent of the other pieces. Fire at will is used, generally for
the defense of the guns themselves, at short ranges. The sights are
set at 1,000 yards and the fuses of the shrapnel at zero, this setting
being analagous to the “battle sight” of the infantry.
_Time fire and percussion fire._ Percussion fire is generally with
shell and is directed against materiel. Time fire is always with
shrapnel, and is usually directed against personnel. Shrapnel have a
smoke producing matrix to produce a large, dense ball of smoke, at
the point of burst, facilitating observation of fire. A shrapnel well
burst (at a height of 3 mils) covers effectively a depth of 200 yards
at ranges up to 3,000. Beyond this range the depth of the “beaten zone”
falls off rapidly, being only 125 yards at 4,500. Due to dispersion
along the range of the shots (longitudinal dispersion) the depth of the
beaten zone at 3,000 yards is assumed at about 250 yards. It is 150
at 4,500. Width of beaten zone, 20 to 25 yards. Errors of fuse become
serious as the range increases beyond 3,000.
_Fire at single range. Searching fire (fire at successive ranges).
Sweeping fire._ Fire at a single range is employed in case accurate
adjustment has been surely obtained by previous firing. As such
accurate adjustment is very difficult to obtain it will generally be
advisable to increase the dispersion by employing fire at successive
ranges, gradually reducing the number of ranges as observation may
warrant. Searching fire is also used to sweep ground known to be
occupied by the enemy’s reserves or over which they must pass in
reinforcing the firing line or making a counter-attack.
In absence of opportunity for observation of fire such practice will
cause a great expenditure of ammunition often with little result. It
may, however, be justified by circumstances. Sweeping fire is that
which sweeps the front at same range. It is obtained by giving a full
turn to the traversing wheel after each shot. This corresponds to a
change of 8 mils of front. Ordinarily sweeping fire will be from right
to left. But note that when entire sheaf is moved along the front it
is better to begin at the leeward side, so that the first shots fired
will not obscure target for the remainder. At a range of about 2,500
yards sweeping will just about cover the front. If the range is greater
there will be intervals unswept and if it is less the successive cones
of dispersion will overlap. If the front of the target is not much over
35 mils it can be covered without sweeping. If more it can be swept, or
the B. C. may shift the entire sheaf and attack first one part of the
front and then another (see post).
_Individual distribution._
_Collective distribution._
In the former each gunner is assigned a definite part of the target to
attack. Direct laying is used. In the latter the pieces have a common
aiming point, and the B. C. distributes the fire over the target by
varying the deflections of the different guns (deflection difference).
Indirect laying is always employed. The B. C. can open or close the
sheaf to fit the front of his target, and can shift the entire sheaf to
the right or the left, the latter by varying the deflection, the former
by varying the deflection difference. Or he may do both at once. To
obtain or verify adjustment the sheaf may be converged until adjustment
is secured and then properly distributed. Searching fire (at successive
ranges) is used when the adjustment is imperfect, or to cover an
area of some depth known or believed to be occupied by the enemy,
or through which his supports or reserves must pass in reinforcing
his firing line, making a counter-attack, etc. It usually implies a
large expenditure of ammunition in proportion to the physical effect
produced, but must, nevertheless be frequently employed, albeit with
judgment and not at random.
The “firing data” obtained by the captain or reconnaissance officer are:
1. Deflection for directing gun.
2. Deflection difference for other guns.
3. Corrector for height of burst.
4. Angle of site.
5. Range.
In addition to this information the battery is also shown the aiming
point and told the kind of fire to be used.
_Observation and control of fire._ The officer conducting the fire
should generally be posted near his battery so that he can watch it if
possible or at least communicate readily, and to facilitate adjustment.
In order to observe ground which cannot be seen from his station,
as well as to assist in the control of the fire it may be desirable
to have auxiliary observing stations. These should generally be on
commanding sites.
Observing stations well to the front will give a closer view than
possible to the B. C. and a station on the flank will afford better
opportunity for observing errors in range and burst. A flank observer
may be able to detect movements of troops, and also secure the
battery against a flank or surprise attack. If there is no supporting
detachment, observers to guard the exposed flank of the artillery
should never be omitted. These auxiliary observing stations are usually
established by the captain or reconnaissance officer, and usually
occupied by battery scouts. Their number depends on circumstances.
They communicate with B. C. by telephone, flag or helio. They should
report promptly everything they see including movements of troops.
There should also be communication between the B. C. and the advanced
friendly troops. An agent may accompany the advance for this purpose.
Trees and houses or other elevated points may be utilized for observing
stations. Stations close to the guns like B. C. Sta. should generally
be to windward, if practicable. Stations well out to the flanks are
often favorable for observing the enemy’s interior lines, particularly
the location of his artillery. If there are no natural observing
stations artificial ones must be erected. The B. C. station should if
possible be within 200 yards of the battery, preferably on a flank, in
prolongation of the front of the battery and on a high point. It is
desirable that it be within megaphone range if practicable. It would
be quite rare for the B. C. station to be distant as much as 800 yards
from the battery. It is very desirable that the captain should be able
to observe the effect of the fire. It is very important that the B. C.
station should not be too conspicuous. If it is it may draw enemy’s
fire, and perhaps betray location of battery.
Aiming points should be considered as follows:
1. Are they surely visible from each gun?
2. Are they distinctive, easily described and identified?
3. Are they at a considerable distance from the guns?
(Preferably over 2,000 yards).
4. Are they near the normal to the front?
A point in front or rear is best if it is at least 1,000 yards distant.
It should preferably be in rear in order that the guns may be defiladed
from possible hostile observing stations. If not more than 1,000 yards
away it had better be on a flank.
TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT OF FIELD ARTILLERY.
The recent great improvements in materiel and methods of modern field
artillery lend most of their advantages to the attack. The defender
should cover the front of his position by a careful distribution of his
batteries, permitting co-operation and mutual support. Batteries may be
placed to cover areas which would otherwise be defiladed, on or near
the military crest, or immediately in rear thereof, whence they can be
run forward by hand to cover the defiladed area.
The positions of artillery in the attack will be governed by the
following considerations:
1. What is the mission or purpose of the commander?
2. Is the attack a feint or holding action, or is it to be decisive?
Is it made for the purpose only of developing the enemy’s strength and
position? Is it the action of an advance guard, pushing forward to
seize a favorable position, to cover the deployment of the main body?
Is it a deliberately planned attack, or a rencontre engagement? Is
it an attack over ordinary terrain, or a river line or other special
form of attack? Is it intended to pursue the defeated enemy in case of
success? etc., etc.
3. What are the relative strengths of the attack and defense in all
arms?
4. What is known of the enemy’s dispositions, including those of his
artillery, and what further inferences can be drawn?
5. The terrain: what bearing has it on the dispositions of the
artillery? etc., etc.
The more detailed technical, tactical and topographical requirements of
an artillery position will include the following:
1. CAN THE ARTILLERY FROM THIS POSITION EFFECTIVELY PERFORM THE TASKS
ASSIGNED IT?
2. Is the range much over 4,000 yards? If so look for a closer
position. The fire of light artillery is very effective up to about
4,500 yds. The principal objection to long ranges is the difficulty of
observation. 3,000 yds., being beyond the range of hostile infantry and
machine guns and yet close enough for good observation of fire, is an
ideal range; but a good position at 4,000 yds., or at 2,000, is to be
preferred to a poor or indifferent one at 3,000 yds.
3. Has it a wide field of fire, wide in angle? Guns well disposed can
fire 45 degrees on each side of normal to front. Sometimes the position
may cover a still wider front by a shifting of the guns without change
of location.
4. Is the position wide enough for the artillery to occupy it? (A
battery normally takes up a front of 100 yards.)
5. Is the position such as to afford suitable ranges for all stages
of the action, or will it be necessary to shift and if so are there
suitable positions which can be approached under cover, and which are
otherwise good?
6. Is there concealment from view, especially by aero scouts, both in
position and approaching same?
7. Is the front approximately normal to the mean direction of fire?
8. Is the position such that it is possible to change to direct laying
without moving the guns too far?
9. Are there many dead spaces, how are they located, and are any of
them such as to menace the safety of the guns or afford cover from
which the friendly infantry might be effectively opposed?
10. Particularly is the field of fire to the flanks good, and could the
guns protect themselves to the flanks by indirect fire and direct fire
at short range?
11. Are there good natural observing stations available?
12. Is the position likely to be easily detected, especially by
observers well out on the enemy’s flank or by aero scouts?
13. Are the communications good, front, rear and flanks? Also for
ammunition supply?
14. Is there cover for limbers and teams? And for the ammunition or
combat trains at a suitable distance?
15. Are there suitable aiming points for indirect fire which are not
also possible hostile observing stations?
16. Can the position be readily “connected up” by telephone or
signaling? etc., etc.
A position in the interval between the frontal and enveloping attacks
has the advantages that the artillery is well protected, and can
support either attack with oblique or possibly flanking fire. A
position on the flank, while usually requiring an escort, is very
effective for oblique fire. It is also very useful in opposing an
envelopment, as it may be able to cause it to make so great a detour as
to defeat its purpose, or to delay it until the necessary dispositions
can be made to oppose the movement. The conformation of the terrain
will have a great influence on the decision as to where to place the
artillery. The position in any case should be such as to best permit
the artillery to accomplish its mission.
In the beginning of an action longer ranges may be permissible for
the defense than for the attack. If the defense is relatively weak in
artillery it is sometimes an advantage to have it out of range of the
attacking artillery while still able to fire on advancing infantry. The
attack must get within range of the defense artillery and may sometimes
be forced to take an exposed position if defender’s artillery is well
back.
Whatever the situation the mission of the field artillery is to
support the infantry, particularly at the critical stages. While the
infantry is deploying and during its advance through the zone of
hostile artillery fire, the artillery of the attack engages that of
the defense. When the infantry contest for fire superiority opens, the
artillery of the attack, or a portion of it, will sweep the hostile
infantry lines with the objects of causing the hostile infantry to
keep their heads down, getting on their nerves, diminishing the
effect of their fire, preventing supports from coming forward, etc.
The actual physical effect of such fire may not be great, but if its
moral influence is sufficient to diminish the efficacy of the hostile
infantry fire, thereby permitting the steady advance of the friendly
infantry, its purpose is accomplished. When the attacking infantry is
so close to the hostile lines as to be in danger from the fire of its
supporting artillery directed thereat, the latter should increase the
range without cessation of fire. This will have a decided moral effect
on the defenders in the fire trenches as the shrapnel will burst nearly
over their heads. It also establishes a fire swept zone in rear of the
hostile firing line through which supports and reserves must pass in
moving forward, or through which the firing line must retreat in case
it breaks to the rear. It is desirable that the attacker’s artillery
positions should be sufficiently close to permit effective fire
upon retreating troops, known as “pursuing by fire.” The attacker’s
artillery should move to advanced positions by echelon, in order that
there be no cessation of artillery fire.
In defense the dispositions of the artillery will be very largely
dependent upon the probable moves of the attacker. The principal
consideration will be, is the combat to be to a decision, or is it a
delaying action merely? In either case a long range fire is desirable
in order to force the attacker to an early deployment, and to embarrass
as much as possible his preliminary dispositions. In a decisive action
the defender’s artillery should cover every portion of the front over
which the attacker may pass. This may be done by taking a position
near the crest, or by so distributing the artillery units that each
will sweep the dead space in front of others (defensive relation). Or
a combination of the two methods may be employed. Of these the second
method is generally to be preferred, as it permits the occupation of
covered positions difficult to detect, and at suitable ranges. If in
this case there be dead space (defiladed from all the guns in the
sheltered localities) this may be covered by “dagger batteries,” placed
well forward in the defiladed area. The fronts of the dagger batteries
should be covered by artillery fire, and they should also be supported
by infantry and machine guns.
The artillery of the defense enjoys a certain advantage in that it
frequently has opportunity to make preliminary arrangements, such as
determining ranges, constructing shelter, providing for ammunition
supply, etc., so that it is able to deliver an effective fire from the
start. Some at least of the artillery of the defense may be held “in
readiness,” or “in observation,” pending the development of the enemy’s
attack, being placed in action according to the developments of the
situation. Fire must be brought to bear upon the advancing infantry
regardless of the attacker’s artillery. If overmatched by hostile
artillery the defender’s artillery ceases fire temporarily but resumes
again at the critical moment. Such a proceeding may often deceive the
attacker. The defender’s artillery must prevent the attacking artillery
from advancing to the position if captured, must concentrate its fire
on the hostile infantry which has penetrated, support a counter-attack,
or cover the rallying of the defender’s infantry, sacrificing itself
without hesitation if necessary. Unless it be necessary to reply to the
attacking artillery because of the damage due to its unrestricted fire
the artillery in defense (unless favorable targets are presented) may
often remain silent and avoid disclosing its position until it is ready
to fire on the hostile infantry. If it is perfectly concealed it may
begin firing at any time, even if inferior to the attack.
Firing over the heads of friendly troops will be the rule in both
attack and defense. In the attack this may be continued until the
assaulting infantry is quite close to the enemy’s line, the exact
distance depending on the accuracy of adjustment, terrain and other
conditions. It is the duty of the artillery to support the infantry
assault to the last practicable moment. Thereafter the attacking
artillery increases the range to cover the ground in rear.
Positions are not occupied by formal maneuvers, but each battery
proceeds under cover in most convenient manner. In moving in vicinity
of a masked position it is advisable to go at a walk so as not to raise
dust and betray location.
The artillery is safeguarded generally by the other troops. It should
not have special supports unless these be required by its exposure or
distance from the attacking or defending forces. Such a detachment if
required weakens the other arms. Machine guns are especially useful as
a support for artillery. The artillery must carefully watch its own
flanks even when it has a support. It should be particularly watchful
also of dead spaces.
The general positions of the artillery, its general duties, target,
etc. are prescribed by the supreme commander. The exact positions and
the control and direction of fire are under the artillery commander.
Artillery should make necessary reconnaissance, take position with
promptness, and at once obtain data, etc. The supreme commander will
designate whether batteries will take position for immediate action,
in observation, or in readiness. In the first case the artillery opens
fire as soon as possible. The position may be masked or unmasked.
In the second case (observation) the battery unlimbers and takes
position, obtains data, and prepares to open fire on indicated targets
when directed. The position is generally masked. In the third case
(readiness) the guns are not unlimbered, but are held near the selected
approximate position ready to go into action or to move to another
locality. Meantime the tactical situation is studied and the locality
reconnoitered, preparation being made to go into action if directed.
Before going into action a battery is sub-divided into firing battery,
combat train and field train. As to when it is divided this depends on
circumstances. If done too soon the other arms may get between battery
and combat train and interfere with supply of ammunition. If not done
soon enough the combat trains may interfere with movement to front
of other arms. The field trains are usually held in rear with other
trains. The order for subdivision is “form for action.”
The combat trains may be with the batteries or the battalions. If
at the rear of the combatant troops they are usually assembled by
battalion or regiment. Communication must always be maintained with the
fighting batteries by agents from the combat trains. Battalions are
rarely split to permit the employment of batteries singly, batteries
are practically never split.
The artillery should be kept well in hand, not necessarily all in
one group, but where it can be under one control. The desideratum is
concentration or dispersion of fire, at will. If batteries are somewhat
dispersed they will not be so readily silenced or overcome by hostile
fire. Facilities for communication permit greater dispersion with
better control. Artillery employs no “reserves” in the sense in which
the term is used with reference to infantry. Its reserve consists in
its reserve supply of ammunition and in its power to increase the
rapidity of its fire to meet crises of the combat. Nevertheless, it
will not always be advisable to place all the artillery in action
at the outset. The mission of the force and the circumstances of
the case must be considered. If it be desired to develop from the
outset an overwhelming superiority of artillery fire all the guns
may be posted for immediate action. An example of this would be a
rencontre engagement of an advance guard, seeking to seize or hold an
advantageous position pending the arrival of its main body. In the
case, however, that the enemy’s strength and dispositions (including
those of his artillery) are not accurately known, and when the nature
and course of the engagement cannot be foreseen, it would be unwise
to commit all the guns to action prematurely, as it would then be
difficult to meet rapid and unexpected developments in the situation.
In such a case part of the artillery may be held “in observation”
or “in readiness,” to be put into action as the developments of the
situation may require. A few guns may develop a considerable volume
of fire, for a limited period, by utilizing the rapid fire qualities
of the weapon. The proper assignment of the artillery is not a matter
of rule, but a question of judgment. Enough guns should be placed in
action at any time to meet the existing situation and accomplish the
mission of the artillery. The combat and ammunition trains should
be kept together (in large groups) to facilitate proper control and
ammunition supply. They should be in safe positions, but not too far to
the rear. Ammunition trains are marked with red flags or lanterns so
that they may be readily identified.
Different batteries may be assigned special tasks, but these may be
subject to change, in fact usually are, one battery also fulfilling
several different functions. The functions are: Counter batteries: To
fire on hostile artillery. Infantry batteries: To prepare and support
the infantry attack. They include batteries of preparation which fire
on opposing infantry, and breaching batteries which open passages
through the enemy’s line. Batteries of the counter-attack: Usually
posted in observation to watch for and oppose a counter-attack if
made. Accompanying batteries: To advance to the close support of the
infantry. They usually support the close advance without themselves
actually advancing. Reinforcing batteries: Held in observation to come
to the support of other batteries when needed. Decoy batteries: To draw
fire of hostile batteries not yet discovered. Usually posted with wide
intervals, they employ rapid fire. These classifications and terms,
while necessary for study and discussion, are seldom employed in the
verbiage of _field orders_. They are not to be considered as fixed or
rigid. A single battery may successively fulfill several functions at
different stages of the action, and it will be rare that all would be
required in a single engagement. When infantry batteries are directed
to support certain organizations in the attack, the Commander of the
organization to be supported would generally indicate the target and
exercise some supervision, but the artillery would not be under his
command, but under that of the artillery commander of the entire force.
The front of the position especially in defense, may be divided into
areas to be assigned to the various groups. These groups should be so
disposed as to permit the greatest possible concentration or dispersion
of fire, in other words the best possible _control_. Where the terrain
does not favor this, or the course of the action is uncertain, some
artillery should be held “in observation” or “in readiness” to meet
developments.
At the command “Prepare for Action” the instruments are taken out,
breech and muzzle covers removed, guns examined and cleaned, shields
set, etc. This command may be given before or after reaching position
and before or after unlimbering.
At the command “March order,” battery being limbered or unlimbered,
these operations are reversed and the gun and equipment secured for
the march. When the commander rides forward, leaving command to follow
he instructs officer in charge as to tactical situation, and gives
him such other pertinent information as may appear desirable. He may
also, in his judgment, instruct this officer as to time and place of
subdivision for action (if not already made), time to prepare for
action, route to be followed, gait, etc. An officer preceding a command
to a position should determine the route to be followed and post the
necessary markers.
It is desirable to secure at the outset a position suitable for all
stages of the action. The terrain must be carefully examined for
such positions. If batteries are well located and doing good service
changes during an action should be made only when it is apparent
that a distinct advantage can be thus gained. These changes take
time, necessitate readjustment on the target and are often dangerous.
They should be made under cover if possible. Sometimes they may
advantageously be made at night, or the first position may be taken at
night. Advantage should also be taken of lulls in the action. Changes
may be necessitated by the artillery of the enemy having adjusted
on a battery. In such a case a short move during a lull, may be all
that is required. Movements must be anticipated and the necessary
reconnaissance, clearing, repair of bridges, etc. and all other things
necessary as preliminaries must be attended to. Changes of position
are ordinarily made in echelon, the stationary part covering the
change with its fire. Batteries do not retire because they are out of
ammunition, they wait for more. A disabled gun is not sent to rear to
be repaired during action. A battery does not move in echelon, but all
at once.
It is the province of the supreme commander to order changes of his
artillery positions. But in emergency the artillery commander may order
changes.
Before important change, have plenty of ammunition. Economy of
ammunition at all times is a duty of all officers and non-commissioned
officers.
There must always be the closest co-operation between the artillery and
the other arms. The artillery commander should be kept advised of the
tactical situation and of any changes therein, and of the requirements
of the other arms. He should be in frequent conference and constant
communication with the supreme commander.
“Dummy” emplacements are sometimes used, especially on defense, to draw
fire and expose enemy’s artillery position.
Horse artillery usually accompanies a cavalry force of any size. Its
tactical employment is similar to that of light artillery. It is
particularly useful in a rear guard on account of its great mobility.
Do not get closer than 2,000 yards to hostile infantry of defense.
Their artillery will likely be about 500 yards behind the infantry. Get
within 3,000 to 3,500 yards of the defender’s artillery if practicable.
The best results against artillery will be obtained by the effect of
shrapnel on the men and animals. After a battery has been immobilized
by shrapnel fire high explosive shell may be used for the demolition
of the materiel. With the 3 inch rifle it is generally a waste of
ammunition to attempt the destruction of battery materiel except at
ranges within 2,500 yards, and then only when the fire can be observed.
With the high power ordnance, materiel may be destroyed at greater
ranges (see post).
In firing on a rapidly moving target direct laying will usually
be preferred. If direct fire is, for any reason, contemplated the
artillery, while employing indirect fire should be near a crest to
which the guns can be moved forward for direct fire. The movement of
the guns by hand, except for short distances and on smooth and gentle
slopes, is a very laborious task. It will usually be better to limber
up.
Opportunities for surprise fire at relatively close ranges will
occasionally be practicable in defense, but seldom in attack.
Oblique and enfilade fire are ordinarily more effective than frontal
fire, and are desirable when they can be obtained without too great
dispersion or exposure of the artillery.
A support for the artillery is usually not needed except on the march.
It can generally defend itself. If so isolated as to need a support,
generally place it in rear on the exposed flank.
Do not travel too far over fields in getting to a position. Look for a
position which can be reached without too much cross-country traveling.
Use shrapnel for ranging. Make the first bracket 400 yards. Do not
waste time over a small bracket. Under favorable conditions a first
bracket of 200 yds. may sometimes be obtained. In firing on cavalry a
600 yd. bracket is usual.
A battery should not halt to await orders if it can be avoided,
but should come on promptly if possible, while a position is being
reconnoitered. A good position promptly occupied may be better than the
best position tardily taken.
[Illustration: FIG. IV BATTERY WITH A REGIMENT.]
_Artillery with Advance Guard._ It should not occupy positions from
which it cannot readily withdraw, and so risk bringing on a general
action unless this has been authorized.
It should be so placed that it cannot be readily surprised in march
formation by hostile fire, especially artillery fire.
Artillery is seldom assigned to the advance guard of a force not larger
than a brigade.
If there is artillery with the main body an artillery reconnaissance
officer usually accompanies the advance guard.
Do not as a rule use artillery with an advance guard in wooded or
mountainous country. It is generally useless, and especially vulnerable
to attack at close range. In open country it is useful except at night.
Horse artillery may accompany a cavalry force. (See also Chap. IV.)
In a small force of artillery, there would be no objection to the
combat train marching immediately in rear of the firing batteries,
as the total continuous length of the artillery column would not be
objectionably great.
_With Rear Guard._ Artillery, especially horse artillery is
particularly useful for delaying the enemy. Hence the proportion with a
rear guard is generally large. (See also Chap. V.)
_With Outposts._ The use of artillery with an outpost is not usual, as
it is very trying duty and rapidly wears out the men and horses. If so
used it is generally to command important roads, bridges and defiles,
and is placed with the reserve.
PROBLEM INVOLVING A BATTERY IN POSITION.
_Mission._ The mission is to take position promptly and support attack.
Develop hostile artillery and later fire on hostile infantry.
Artillery commander accompanies supreme commander or latter will send
for him. Artillery commander usually has with him the reconnaissance
officer and scouts, the chief of 5th section with telescope, a
musician, with tripod, two orderlies.
_He considers_ the orders of the supreme commander, especially as to
limits of his position (on this point he may give advice) and general
plan of attack, disposition of enemy as learned from his reconnaissance
officer, etc. He takes the terrain under observation at once.
_He selects_ positions for battery, limbers, combat train, B. C.
station, auxiliary observing stations, aiming point, routes for battery
and combat train, etc.
_He sends word_ to battery to form and prepare for action (it may
already be formed) gives stations of fractions and routes thereto
and directs them to proceed, telephone detail to report at B. C.
station. He sends word by orderlies who also guide battery, or the
reconnaissance officer who is familiar with ground may be sent to do
this. Or Captain himself may do it.
_He has chief of 5th section_ set up B. C. telescope. Meantime,
assisted by the scouts, he selects exact position for the battery and
lays it out.
_He next_ obtains the firing data.
_Auxiliary observing stations_ may be established when desirable, by B.
C. or reconnaissance officer. They are occupied by the reconnaissance
officer, scouts, agents, or other available personnel.
_The position_ of the battery should have a range near 3,000, indirect
fire and flash defilade. It should be near a crest so that the guns
may be moved forward later for direct fire, especially in defense. It
should be concealed from view of observers on enemy’s flank.
_The limbers_ should be under cover preferably on a flank near the
battery.
_The combat train_ should be under cover, about 600 yards away.
_The field trains_ generally join those of main body.
_The B. C. station_ should be within 200 yards of the battery,
preferably in rear or on a flank. The battery should be visible and the
location favorable for observation of fire by the Captain. Sta. should
be to windward of battery.
_The auxiliary observing stations_ should generally be well to the
front, and at least one on a flank, to observe errors of range and
burst. The one on the flank also protects the battery from surprise.
_The aiming point_ should be a mile away preferably in rear, or else on
a flank. If not more than 1,000 yards off, the flank is better.
_The telephones_, 3 in number, are placed at B. C. station, battery (if
necessary) and at the observing station occupied by the reconnaissance
officer.
_The approaches_ to the positions should be under cover. Exposure for
a brief moment may not incur danger of fire, but may indicate where
battery is going. Covered approach more desirable for battery than for
combat train. If necessary for concealment dismount drivers in moving
to position.
_Flank guards_ should be placed by the Captain unless provided for by
an infantry support.
_In addition to the Captain_ the following artillery personnel, some or
all, must be accounted for:
The reconnaissance officer: On the march usually with the advance
guard, to select artillery positions and routes, learn enemy’s
dispositions, etc. He has charge of the battery scouts. He may lead
the battery over route to its position, or obtain firing data (usually
not both). Establishes the auxiliary observing stations and may occupy
one of them, supervises communications, watches battle for tactical
developments, etc.
The senior lieutenant: Commands the battery up to the time it is
unlimbered for action, and then commands one of the firing platoons.
Junior lieutenant, commands the combat train, (reserves) Q. M. Sergeant
commands field train.
Chief of 5th Section on entering action, sets up B. C. telescope (which
he brings forward) and assists in obtaining firing data.
Scouts. During march in advance guard with reconnaissance officer.
Scout the ground and locate routes, seek information of enemy. May
conduct battery to position. Assist Captain to lay out exact position
of battery. Act as auxiliary observers. Guard flanks of battery.
Telephone detail set up and operate the 3 telephones. Usually report to
Captain at B. C. Station.
An agent is usually with the supreme commander to transmit information
to the artillery.
Route markers, placed to mark routes and guide battery along them.
Musicians, one carries tripod of B. C. telescope. With Captain to act
as messengers.
REMARKS CONCERNING A BATTALION OR LARGER UNIT IN ACTION.
The Major will usually be with the supreme commander during the march.
Having received orders to place the artillery in position, he rides to
the designated locality with his staff, etc., to reconnoiter, observe
the terrain, and select positions for his batteries. When ready for
the batteries to come forward he sends the battery agents (who are
with him) to direct the Captains to join him. The battery agents may
also take word as to the route or routes by which the batteries are
to advance. Word is also sent back as to the disposition to be made
of the combat trains, the entire combat train of the battalion being
usually consolidated at one place. The batteries form for action and
are brought forward as directed by the senior officer of each, or all
together by the senior officer present.
The battery commanders, on receiving word, ride forward to join the
Major, usually taking with them their reconnaissance officers, scouts,
musicians, chiefs of the 5th section (with B. C. telescopes), etc. The
Major instructs the battery commanders as to the general situation, and
the orders he has received. He then indicates the approximate stations
of the different batteries, the exact positions being marked out by
the battery commanders, or by their orders. If posted for immediate
action the Major may now designate the target for each battery, and
give instructions as to opening fire. Otherwise he may indicate the
localities for which firing data are to be prepared, or give such other
instructions as the situation may demand. He designates a direction
point and sectors of observation. He informs the battery commanders
where his own station will be, and where the battalion telephone line
will be laid, so they may connect with same.
The Major instructs the Sergeant Major to bring up the reel cart, tells
him where his station will be, and where the cable is to be laid.
If the position of the hostile artillery is not known the Major may
send his adjutant, or one of the battery reconnaissance officers,
with some scouts to try to locate same. Aero reconnaissance will be
especially useful in locating hostile positions. Fire may be directed
by aeroplane and visual or wireless signaling, unless the enemy be well
provided with anti-aircraft guns and skillful in their use.
When practicable the artillery commander should be with the supreme
commander during the engagement, the same station being ordinarily
suitable for both. If not with the supreme commander the artillery
commander should place an agent, preferably an officer with some
orderlies, with the supreme commander, unless his station (artillery)
is connected with that of the supreme commander by telephone. For this
latter purpose the apparatus of the Signal Corps will generally be used.
If the batteries are close together, the Major may place a single
auxiliary observing station (consisting of a couple of scouts, or one
of the battery reconnaissance officers and a scout) for all. Or each
battery will be allowed to place its own observing station in the
judgment of its commander.
Each battery places its own limbers, usually about 100 to 150 yds. from
the battery, preferably on a flank. The combat trains are combined at
a locality designated by the Major unless there be some special reason
for keeping them separated. Ordinarily they should be some 600 yds. or
so from the fighting batteries, if cover is available.
An ammunition company from the division train (if there be one) on
taking station will send an agent to the artillery commander. The
latter informs his subordinates as to the location of the ammunition
company, when necessary.
The Major directs in a general way the fire of his battalion.
The duties of a Colonel commanding a regiment, or of a General
commanding an Artillery Brigade, are quite similar to those of the
Major commanding a battalion, but in less detail. The higher the
commander the more general his duties and the less detailed his orders.
The Brigade Commander outlines to his regimental commanders the general
situation, designates the approximate positions of the regiments, and
assigns general targets, etc.
The duties of a Major in the regiment are the same as when commanding
a separate battalion, except that he receives his orders through the
Colonel of his regiment instead of direct from the supreme commander.
(See ante.)
HEAVY FIELD ARTILLERY.
Heavy field artillery includes all ordnance heavier than the 3" field
gun, but still mobile enough to accompany an army in the field. It
would be used (if present) in practically every battle.
The field artillery adopted for U. S. service is the following:
--------------+----------+--------------+-------------+-------------
| | | Approximate |Slope of fall
Designation |Weight of | Assumed |weight behind|of projectile
of piece. |projectile|limiting range| teams | at limiting
| (lbs.) | (yds.) | (lbs.) | range.
--------------+----------+--------------+-------------+-------------
3" gun | 15 | 8,500[6] | 4,300 |
3.8" howitzer | 30 | 6,600 | 4,300 | 1/1.2
4.7" howitzer | 60 | 6,640 | 5,300 | 1/1.1
4.7" gun | 60 | 11,000 | 8,800 | 1/1.3
6" howitzer | 120 | 6,700 | 8,600 | 1/1
--------------+----------+--------------+-------------+-------------
[Footnote 6: For shrapnel by fuse, 6,500 yds.]
All of these pieces fire both shell and shrapnel, and they will
break up most of the field works that are likely to be constructed
(it is ordinarily not practicable to construct in field a work which
would resist their fire unless considerable time is available for
preparation). The 3.8" howitzer having same weight as 3” gun is quite
as mobile. The 4.7" howitzer is as mobile as the 3” gun when it has
eight horses. With 6 horses it cannot move as rapidly. The 4.7" gun can
move over roads and fields, maneuver and take positions exactly like 3”
gun, but it cannot move as rapidly.
The organization, tactical uses and methods of fire control of this
ordnance are similar to those of the 3" gun. Each battery has 4 pieces,
but howitzer battalions have only 2 batteries.
This ordnance is to be regarded as intended for the same uses as the 3”
gun and as supplementary thereto. It should not be used for tasks where
the 3" gun would do as well, but should be used for targets beyond the
range or destructive power of the 3” gun.
These pieces may be needed against troops who have had 24 hours or so
to prepare a defensive position, as in this time they can throw up
works which would protect them from the 3" gun fire.
These guns use indirect laying as a rule, but may also use direct
laying, being in this respect like 3" gun. They should be placed back
of the 3” gun and not assigned to living targets which can be reached
by the 3" gun. They should generally be concealed, for this purpose
they require a flash defilade of 20 ft. Behind a second ridge is a good
place. A clearing in the woods is also good, provided an aiming point
is available.
The position should afford good lines of approach and retreat and for
ammunition supply. The limbers are usually posted farther to the rear
than in the case of the 3" gun. There should always be an infantry
escort for these pieces, and machine guns may also be so used.
Usually this heavy artillery will take only one position during an
action, and it is therefore desirable that this position be carefully
selected. Ample time must be allowed for reconnoitering a position
and therefore a representative of the heavy artillery should be well
forward during the march, for this purpose.
On account of the great ranges at which heavy artillery is usually
employed, battalions are split up even less often than in the case of
3" guns.
[Illustration: Fig. V
TRAJECTORIES AND CONES OF DISPERSION FOR SHELL AND SHRAPNEL]
The shell fire of these pieces will destroy the materiel of a battery.
The 4.7" gun can destroy battery materiel with great accuracy at ranges
up to 5,000 yds. Thus they can often prevent hostile light artillery
from coming into action at all.
Whereas a reverse slope of about 15 degrees affords some protection
against 3" artillery, only very steep slopes, 50 degrees or more,
afford complete protection against the shrapnel of the field howitzer.
(Fig V.)
If at the opening of the attack the howitzers cannot find the hostile
artillery they may fire at the infantry. Later in the attack if the
defender runs his artillery forward for direct fire, he may then be
subject to the fire of the attacker’s heavy artillery.
Auxiliary observing stations from which target can be seen are of great
importance, and as little can be seen from a range of 8,000 yds., it is
necessary to have an observing station well to the front. Usually the
artillery (bn.) commander himself will occupy a station from which the
target can be seen. These stations are connected with the battery by
the telephone equipment, which is ample. Sweeping fire is not used with
these pieces, as it is too wasteful of the ammunition which is heavy
and expensive. Fire only at what can be seen, or otherwise accurately
located.
In defense these pieces are very useful in compelling the attacker to
deploy early, or to make a very long detour to get out of their range
if he turns the position.
[Illustration: Fig. VI]
_On the March._ As the 3.8“ howitzer and the 4.7” howitzer when
provided with 8 horses, are very mobile there is no serious objection
to having them well up at the head of the column except for the road
space they occupy. Therefore if the tactical situation is such as to
make it desirable to have these pieces well to the front they may be
placed there. They would seldom, however, be attached to the advance
guard. The 6" howitzer and 4.7” gun (and usually also the 3.8“ and 4.7”
howitzers) should be placed immediately in rear of the last infantry
organization in the main body (just ahead of the artillery combat
trains). The possible necessity of having to strengthen the bridges
for this heavy ordnance is an argument in favor of leaving them in the
rear, as this necessity would delay the march of the infantry if the
guns were in front. Ordinarily there is not as much speed required in
placing this ordnance in action as is usual with the lighter pieces.
Positions are selected with more deliberation.
Motor cars are extensively used for the transportation of field and
siege artillery of all types from the lightest to the heaviest.
Machine guns and some of the lighter types of rapid fire guns,
including anti-aircraft guns, are often mounted directly upon the
truck. The heavier pieces are hauled as trailers by the motor trucks,
which serve also to carry ammunition and supplies. The mobility of
the automobile motive power is greater than that of animals and the
machine is less vulnerable to fire. The possibilities of motor operated
vehicles in conducting artillery off the roads have not yet been fully
demonstrated, but the conduct of the “quads” or 4-wheel drive cars is
very satisfactory.
MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY.
There are many instances in campaign where the lack of roads or trails
prohibits or unduly restricts the employment of light artillery. To
meet such conditions, the mountain gun transported on pack animals
has been constructed. The gun should, in principle, be as effective
a weapon as the field gun but transportation conditions limit its
practicable size and power.
The various patterns of mountain guns are distributed in 3- 4- and
5-mule loads. The weight that can be borne by the best pack mules, for
other than brief periods, is limited to about 250 lbs. in addition to
the weight of the saddle. As a gun of acceptable power can hardly be
built within this weight, most mountain guns are made in two or more
parts, each constituting the load of a mule. The piece is equipped with
wheels and drag ropes for moving short distances without packing.
The weight of projectile fired from mountain artillery is approximately
the same as that from 3" field guns but the muzzle velocity is
considerably less and the range therefore shorter. The guns have a
larger allowable angle of elevation than 3” guns (usually to 27° or
30°); they are in effect howitzers.
The general construction of the gun, carriage and ammunition is largely
similar to those of light artillery. The gun is not permanently
connected to the recoil mechanism on account of the division into mule
loads but is dropped into recessed blocks on a sleigh when assembled
for action; and there it is secured by a key. The sleigh forms the
cover of the cradle and slides on the cradle guides in recoil. The
trail is made folding and is adapted for firing in cramped positions.
The guns fire fixed ammunition, shell and shrapnel. Mountain batteries
have no limbers or wagons. The battery is provided with an ammunition
train which may consist entirely of pack transportation or may include
some carts or light wagons. The gun can be unpacked and ready to fire
in one minute.
In the American service, a mountain battery consists of four guns and
their accessories. It is divided into six sections and has in addition
an ammunition train and a supply train. The first, second, third, and
fourth sections are gun sections to each of which is attached a mule
with pioneer tools. The gun section consists of a gun squad of 10 men
together with a gun team of 4 mules with drivers and an ammunition team
of the same strength. The 5th and 6th sections are ammunition sections
with 6 mules in each team.
The ammunition train comprises ammunition mules and the mules carrying
the forge, stores, tools, etc. The supply train carries kits, rations,
forage, etc.
Though mountain artillery is the only form of artillery that can be
used in country where wheel traffic is impossible, its use is by no
means limited to such terrain. For assisting the attacking infantry
throughout all stages of combat, it is very effective. The mule can go
practically anywhere that man can, except where the latter resorts
to climbing; hence mountain batteries are peculiarly effective in
country that restricts the scope of light artillery. These guns require
virtually no more cover for concealment on the march than do infantry
and they are thereby able to effect movements on the battlefield,
without attracting hostile attention or fire, that would be impossible
with light arty. They are very useful in the defense of woods, in
temporary forward positions, in rear guard actions or in general where
their mobility and easy concealment have special application.
On equal terms, they are no match for light artillery, but in terrain
that hinders the use of that weapon, the mountain gun is capable of a
usefulness that increases with the restrictions imposed on the former.
ANTI AIRCRAFT ARTILLERY.
The introduction of air craft into warfare has naturally resulted
in the use of special means of protection against this new menace.
Probably the most effective method is attack by a superior number of
similar craft on the principle of the cavalry screen.
Anti aircraft weapons include small arms, machine guns, and field
pieces having a range and power approximating that of the lighter
types of field artillery. Small arms are regarded as of little use in
the attack of air craft. The field gun type, using shrapnel and high
explosive shell appears to be the most effective. One German type has
a calibre of 104 mm. and throws a projectile weighing 34 lbs. It has
a maximum rate of fire of 15 shots per minute and a range (in height)
of 12,500 ft. For some types of gun hits are claimed at altitudes
of 10,000 ft. or more. Such performances must be regarded as most
exceptional and their probability will not be great enough to force
aeroplanes to remain at such altitudes. A lower elevation is necessary
for effective reconnaissance and the aeronauts must of necessity
frequently take the risk involved. Swift aeroplanes will be practically
immune from anti aircraft fire at altitudes of 10,000 ft. or more. They
will have a fair chance of escape as low as 5,000 ft. As the altitude
is reduced below this figure the risk will very rapidly increase.
Observation at heights of about a mile will, however, be frequently
attempted, but efficient guns in sufficient numbers should be able to
exact a heavy toll in the event of systematic efforts to observe at
less elevations. Airships, because of their greater size, and slower
and more regular movements, must remain at greater elevations to escape
the effects of hostile fire.
The greatest difficulties encountered in anti aircraft firing are
estimating the range and hitting a rapidly moving object. Results must
be obtained by great rapidity of fire.
Thus, unless the burst happens to be directly in line with the target,
it is impracticable to determine by observation from the firing point
whether the shot is over or short.
Guns cannot fire vertically. Their elevation never exceeds 60° and in
general 50° is the practicable limit. Beyond these angles accordingly
the aircraft are immune.
New problems in exterior ballistics are introduced. The influence of
air currents on the trajectory is considerable. Tracer shells which
emit a smoke flame are occasionally used to verify the aim.
As the aeroplane may use any line of approach at will and moves at
great speed, the need for a large number of very mobile, quick firing
guns will be apparent. The guns are frequently mounted on motor trucks
when used in the field.
Except for possible use in fortifications, special guns cannot
evidently always be provided in sufficient numbers for this purpose.
Arrangements must, therefore, be made for utilizing the standard
field and siege guns and howitzers. This is usually accomplished by
providing special types of mounts such as the split trail carriage, or
by extemporizing means whereby the trail can be sunk in the ground to
an extraordinary degree and the gun then prevented from overturning, by
cables to holdfasts, etc.
The anti aircraft gun may be considered to have satisfactorily
fulfilled its function if it prevents aircraft from flying at altitudes
sufficiently low to permit effective reconnaissance.
REMARKS CONCERNING THE TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT OF LIGHT FIELD ARTILLERY.
The following principles are of general (but not universal) application
in the tactics of field artillery. They may be considered as useful
suggestions, to be varied, however, as circumstances may dictate.
A battalion of artillery should seldom be sub-divided. A battery of
artillery has but one range finding equipment. Its subdivision would be
justified only by most unusual conditions.
At the opening of an engagement some of the artillery may, according
to circumstances, be held “in observation,” or “in readiness,”
exceptionally in a small force, more frequently in a large one.
It having been decided to place the artillery in action it should be
brought to its position promptly.
The artillery and combat trains should, when practicable, be conducted
to their positions by concealed routes. Utilize the roads as far as
practicable, avoiding long movements across country. Concealment in
position and en route thereto and good observing stations are the
principal technical requirements of an artillery position. The position
should be concealed from the enemy’s observation from either front or
flank. The position should be sufficiently roomy for the unit which
occupies it. It is not desirable to crowd guns at less than their
proper interval (20 yds.), but it often is necessary.
A good position for artillery in attack may often be found between the
holding and enveloping attack. In either attack or defense a favorable
position may be found on the flank. If the artillery is thus exposed
it will usually require a guard or escort of other troops (to be
designated by the supreme commander, often from the advance guard) both
in position and en route thereto. The artillery in any case should have
out the necessary details for protection and observation of fire.
If there be a choice between two crests it will generally be better,
when other considerations are not paramount, to select the one farther
from the enemy.
If direct fire is contemplated at any stage of the action the position
should be selected with a view to this. Such a provision would be more
usual in defense than in attack.
Flash defilade requires 12 to 15 ft. of vertical cover. In solving
defilade and other visibility problems allowance should be made for the
vegetation.
It is ordinarily desirable to obtain a range between 2,500 and 3,500
yards from the probable target. Initial range in defense may be
somewhat greater than in attack, since the hostile infantry will
approach the position.
It is desirable to secure at the outset a position suitable for all
stages of the action. Artillery once committed to action should not be
moved during the course of the engagement unless it is apparent that a
distinct advantage may thereby be gained, or unless such a movement is
unavoidable.
The front may be covered and dead spaces eliminated by a subdivision
and distribution of the artillery units.
Covered approach and concealment in position are desirable for the
combat trains. Unless otherwise specially ordered the combat trains
will be at the disposal of the artillery commander. In some cases they
may take their stations under cover of the artillery fire.
The artillery prior to and during the action reconnoiters the terrain
with a view to the selection of artillery positions. This is done
without special orders. An artillery officer with the necessary
reconnaissance detail should be with the advance guard during the march
for this purpose.
The B. C. station should be close to the battery, and not in a
conspicuous position, likely to draw the enemy’s fire.
Shrapnel should be used against living targets and for ranging. Shell
is used against material objects. A hostile battery which has been
immobilized by shrapnel fire may be destroyed by shell fire.
In ranging the first bracket should be of ample span, 400 yards is
generally a good distance.
A duel between the opposing artilleries is not a necessary preliminary
to every combat. It is the duty of the artillery in both attack and
defense to support the infantry. It should therefore direct its fire
as a rule, upon that element of the enemy which is at the time or may
become the most threatening to the friendly infantry. Firing over the
heads of the infantry will be the rule, in both attack and defense. The
attacker’s artillery, having once opened fire upon the infantry firing
line of the defense, should ordinarily continue this fire until the
proximity of the assaulting infantry to the position makes it necessary
to increase the range.
There should always be the closest co-operation between the artillery
and the other arms. The artillery commander during the engagement
will often be with the supreme commander. If not he should be in close
communication with him, generally through an artillery agent.
With rare exceptions the artillery in both attack and defense will be
in rear of the general line of battle of the infantry. It may be stated
as a very rough guide that the artillery of the defense will be, in the
average case, approximately 500 yds. in rear of the infantry firing
line, particularly when indirect fire is employed. The mission of the
force, the nature of the terrain and the conditions of the case will
determine the position of the artillery, which may also be subject to
change during the action. In case of a counter-attack, pursuit, or
occupation of a captured position, the artillery may often be pushed
boldly to the front.
Instructions too much in detail should not be given to artillery in
orders. It is usually unnecessary in the ordinary case for the supreme
commander to encroach upon the province of the artillery commander
by directing him to (a) Fire on any specified target, (b) Obtain
firing data, (c) Reconnoiter advanced positions, (d) Take station at
a definite point, (e) Open fire at any specified time. He should,
according to circumstances, be directed ordinarily merely to take
position (1) for immediate action, (2) in observation, or (3) in
readiness. The information in the order as to the enemy and his own
troops indicates to him what the probable targets will be and when and
where they will probably appear. This information, together with the
rule to fire on the hostile element most dangerous to the friendly
infantry, enables the artillery to obtain the necessary firing data
and fire on the proper target, (a) and (b). As to (c) the artillery
commander will, without orders, consider the possibility of occupying
a new position, according to developments, and he will conduct the
necessary reconnaissance for this purpose, so as to be ready to move
to a new position when later ordered to do so. As to (d) the supreme
commander should, in his orders, direct the artillery to take position
_near_ such a place, leaving the selection of the exact location for
the artillery to its commander. As to (e) if posted for immediate
action the artillery will open fire as soon as the target appears.
In the other two cases it will not open until it receives additional
orders. Case (2) in observation, is used when the supreme commander
does not wish fire opened prematurely, although he has decided where
to place the artillery. Case (3) in readiness, is characteristic
of a position in readiness, where combat position of the artillery
is not yet definitely decided upon. The supreme commander may, both
prior to and during the engagement, consult the artillery commander,
obtaining the latter’s views as to the positions for and handling of
the artillery, and give him detailed instructions, but this should
not appear in the orders. When using the expressions (1), (2) and
(3) in orders, it is well (in solutions) to add after your order, an
explanatory note as to why more definite instructions are not given to
the artillery commander. In some cases it may be desirable to give the
artillery more definite instructions in orders but such cases would
not be usual, and could often be covered by a consultation, omitting
detailed instructions from the orders. If detailed instructions, as
to particular targets on which to fire, advanced positions, etc., are
considered necessary in orders it is usually well to add (in your
solution) a note explaining why such orders are considered necessary
in this case. If firing data are to be obtained by “registration”
(bracketing fire) the order may contain instructions to that effect.
See also Chapters IV, V, VI, XI, XIII, XIV, XVII and XVIII.