Beginning of the French War.
The years from 1336 to 1338 had been spent by Edward III. in
preparations for war. He had been endeavouring to gain allies amongst
the princes on the Continent, his idea being to unite against France the
rulers of the small principalities that lay to its north, such as
Brabant, Gueldres, Hainault, and Namur. He also succeeded in gaining the
alliance of the Emperor Louis of Bavaria. But his most important ally
was Jacques van Arteveldt, the man who then ruled Flanders with the
title of Ruwaert.
The condition of Flanders at that time was very strange. Since 877
Flanders had been ruled by a long succession of counts, who had done
homage to the Kings of France for their country. The peculiar
circumstances of the country, its mighty rivers, whose wide mouths
afforded safe harbours for the ships, combined with the industry of the
people, had early made Flanders important as a commercial and trading
country. During the absence of the counts on the crusades, the towns had
won for themselves many important privileges, and were really free
communes, owning little more than a nominal allegiance to their duke.
The kings of France eyed this wealthy and thriving province with great
jealousy, and eagerly watched for an opportunity of asserting their
authority over it. But till 1322 the people and their counts had been
firmly united in resistance to France. Only with the accession of Count
Louis de Nevers did the aspect of affairs change. This count had been
brought up in France, and was imbued with French interests. He objected
to the power and independence of the Flemish towns, and sought to
oppress them in every way. He governed by French ministers, and called
in French help against his own subjects. Then, when the people were
oppressed, their industries ruined, their commerce at a standstill by
the tyranny of their count, they found a leader in Jacques van
Arteveldt, who showed them the way to liberty and prosperity. Against
the firm union formed by the towns the Count of Flanders was powerless,
and fled to the Court of France.
Under Arteveldt's care commerce and manufactures flourished, peace and
prosperity reigned in the land, whilst there was no question of actual
revolt from the authority of the count. Arteveldt only wished to show
that the liberties of the people must be respected. Flanders was the
great commercial centre of the Middle Ages, where merchants from far
distant countries met and exchanged their goods. Arteveldt conceived
the great idea, in which he was far beyond the intelligence of his
time, of establishing free trade and neutrality as far as commerce was
concerned. He was an important ally for Edward III. for many reasons. It
was necessary for the interests of both peoples that Flanders and
England should be friends; for in Flanders England found a sale for her
wool, then the great source of her national wealth. From England alone
could Flanders obtain this precious wool, which she manufactured into
the famous Flemish cloth, and sent to all parts of the world. Edward
III. recognised the wisdom and greatness of Arteveldt, and concluded a
strong alliance with him for the benefit of both parties. On all
occasions the English King treated the simple burgher of Ghent as an
equal and a friend. It is not impossible that he gained in his
intercourse with Arteveldt that feeling of the importance of commerce
and industry which exercised so great an influence upon his legislation,
and gained for him the title of the Father of English Commerce.
It was on the 16th July, 1338, that Edward III. sailed for Flanders. His
first object was to meet his allies, the various princes of the
Netherlands. He did not find them very eager for active co-operation in
his undertaking. He determined to visit the Emperor in person, so as to
prevail upon him to take an active part in the war. With this view he
travelled up the Rhine, stopping first at Cöln, then a thriving
commercial city, enjoying active intercourse with England. Here Edward
stayed some days in the house of a wealthy burgher; the time passed in
merriment and festivities, the King receiving visits from all the chief
citizens. He visited most of the churches, and made offerings at the
various altars; to the building fund of the great Cathedral he gave £67,
a sum equal to £1,000 of our money. From Cöln he proceeded up the Rhine,
his whole way being marked by continual festivities. At Bonn he stopped
with one of the canons of the Cathedral, at Andemach with the
Franciscans, and finally, on the 31st August, he reached Coblentz, where
the German Diet was assembled. The Emperor received him in state in the
market-place, seated on a throne twelve feet high, and by his side,
though a little lower, was a seat for Edward. Around them stood a
brilliant assembly; four of the electors were there, and wore the
insignia of their rank. One of the nobles, as representative of the Duke
of Brabant, held a naked sword high over the Emperor's head; 17,000
knights and gentlemen are said to have been present. In the presence of
this imposing gathering Edward III. was created Vicar of the Empire for
the west bank of the Rhine. In spite of this journey he obtained nothing
from the Emperor but this empty title. On his return to Flanders he was
so short of money that he had to pawn the crown jewels to the Bardi, the
great Florentine merchants at Bruges. The allies were slow in bringing
their forces into the field. Van Arteveldt refused to give Edward any
active help, because of the oaths of fealty by which the Flemings were
bound to Philip of Valois. At last Edward succeeded in collecting an
army of 15,000 men, and met the French before Cambrai. The two armies
parted without a battle, and Edward returned to Hainault. This fruitless
campaign had exhausted his resources without gaining any result. He grew
more anxious than ever for the help of Flanders, and made new proposals
to the towns with magnificent offers. Arteveldt at last consented to
help him, if he would assume the title of King of France; then the
fealty which the towns owed to their suzerain could be transferred from
Philip of Valois to Edward.
This, then, was the real cause of Edward's assuming the arms and title
of the King of France; he did it only that he might gain the active help
of the Flemings. As their suzerain he confirmed all the privileges of
the towns, and granted them three great charters of liberties. These
charters bear the impress of Arteveldt's mind, and are an expression of
his commercial views. They proclaim liberty of commerce, the abolition
of tailage (that is, of taxes upon merchandise), and a common currency.
They guarantee also the security of merchandise, as well as of the
persons of the merchants. The wool staple was fixed at Bruges; that is,
Bruges was to be the place where alone wool might be imported, and be
sold to the Flemish merchants. Edward returned to England to obtain the
confirmation of these treaties by Parliament, as Arteveldt would not be
content unless the Commons of England gave their consent to them. During
his absence Queen Philippa remained at Ghent, and there gave birth to
her third son John, who, from the city of his birth, was ever afterwards
called John of Gaunt. Queen Philippa also acted as godmother to
Arteveldt's son, who was called Philip after her, and afterwards became
famous, like his father, for defending the liberties of his country,
though he did not show his father's wisdom and moderation.
Edward III. obtained from the Parliament at Westminster the confirmation
of his treaty with the Flemish towns, and also a new grant of supplies.
This grant was for the most part in kind. The King was to have the ninth
lamb, the ninth fleece, and the ninth sheaf; that is, in reality, a
tenth part of the chief produce of the kingdom; for the tithe had first
to be paid to the church, and so the ninth part of the remainder
equalled the tithe. He was also allowed to levy a tax on the exportation
of wool for two years. It shows the great popularity of the war that so
large a grant was agreed upon. We also see the increasing power of
Parliament, from the fact that Edward III. did not venture to impose any
tax without its consent.
But in spite of all these grants Edward was still considerably in debt.
He owed £9,000 to the merchants of Bruges and £18,100 to the
association of German merchants in London, called the Hanseatic
Steelyard, which had existed certainly since the time of Henry III., and
had always been specially favoured by the English monarchs. But the
merchants were always willing to lend him money, in return for the
facilities which he gave to commerce. He was still obliged to pawn the
crown jewels--his own crown was pawned to the city of Trier, and Queen
Philippa's to Cöln. Orders had to be given for the alteration of the
royal seal; the lilies of France had to be incorporated with the leopard
of England.
Meanwhile the French had gathered a large fleet, composed principally of
Genoese ships, and were threatening the Flemish coast. There was danger
of their cutting off intercourse between Antwerp and England. It was
necessary for Edward to set off without delay. He hastily collected a
fleet of some 200 sail, and started from Orewell, a port in Suffolk, on
22nd June, 1340. When the English fleet neared Sluys they saw standing
before them, as Froissart tells us, "so many masts that they looked like
a wood." This was the French fleet waiting to dispute the passage of the
English. When Edward heard who they were, he exclaimed, "I have for a
long time wished to meet with them; and now, please God and St. George,
we will fight with them; for in truth they have done me so much mischief
that I will be revenged on them if possible." The English fleet was
arranged in order of battle. The strongest ships were put in the
middle; between every two ships manned with archers was a ship of armed
knights; the wings were mostly composed of archers. Great care was taken
for the safety of a large number of noble ladies who were going to
attend the Queen at Ghent, picked men being chosen to guard them.
The French force was greatly superior to the English, as they possessed
nineteen ships of very large size, most of which had been captured from
the English the year before, when the French had attacked the English
ports. The French formed themselves into four long lines; their ships
were firmly fastened together with chains and ropes. The French admiral,
considering his position impregnable, determined to remain on the
defensive, and refused to listen to the advice of the Genoese commander
Barbavara, and advance to the attack. The French were soon enveloped in
a shower of English arrows; grappling irons fastened the English ships
to the French, and the fight became fierce. The great English ship, the
_Christofer_, was recaptured from the French, and the English flag again
hoisted upon her. The French were hemmed in on all sides. In their rear
they were threatened by the inhabitants of the coast, so that escape
seemed impossible. Only at nightfall did the Genoese and some few French
ships succeed in getting away in the darkness. The loss of the French
was enormous, whilst the English suffered comparatively little, and
captured a vast amount of booty and a large number of prisoners.
Great were the rejoicings for this victory. The news of it passed
rapidly from mouth to mouth. The French pirates were destroyed, and once
more the merchant could carry his goods across the seas without danger.
In all the English churches thanksgivings were offered for the victory
by royal command. Edward III. had himself been slightly wounded in the
battle, but still his first act on landing was to go with his knights on
a pilgrimage to Our Lady of Ardembourg to give thanks. He then proceeded
to Ghent, where he found his Queen with her new-born baby.
Edward III. hoped to be able to follow up this naval victory by striking
a decisive blow on land. The deputies of the Flemish towns and his other
allies met him at Ghent, and the Flemings agreed to aid him, if he would
help them to get back Artois, which had formerly belonged to Flanders,
but had been treacherously taken from them by Philip IV., King of
France. In five days the towns had levied 140,000 foot soldiers, who all
agreed to fight without pay in this war. Thus reinforced, Edward marched
to Tournai, which he completely invested. Philip advanced from Arras to
relieve the town. Discontent had already broken out in the confederate
army. The Flemings were not professional soldiers, but were the burgers
and handicraftsmen of the towns who had turned out to defend their own
hearths and homes, marching under the banners of their different gilds.
They were soon eager to get back to their shops and their looms.
Philip's sister, Jeanne of Valois, a nun at Fontenelle hard by, appeared
between the two armies as peacemaker, and a truce was agreed upon.
Jacques van Arteveldt succeeded in obtaining most advantageous terms for
the Flemings. With the habitual selfishness of a commercial and
industrial people, having brought matters to a satisfactory conclusion
for themselves, they thought no more of Edward's interests. He, too, had
to agree to a truce for nine months, and to retire a second time without
striking a decisive blow. He had expended vast sums of money in these
two campaigns, and had gained nothing. He had only learnt one lesson,
and that a very important one--that it was no use depending upon allies,
and that henceforth he must trust to himself alone.
The truce between France and England had been concluded at first for
only nine months, till 25th September, 1341, but it was afterwards
prolonged till 1342. Edward soon found a new opening for attacking
France, in the contest that was going on about the succession of the
Duchy of Britany. Edward III. determined to give his aid to De Montfort,
whilst the other claimant, Charles of Blois, was supported by his uncle
Philip. Here also, after awhile, a truce was agreed upon, which was to
last till Michaelmas, 1346. A truce had also been made with Scotland,
and David Bruce had returned to his kingdom.
Thus there was an interval of comparative peace; but each side was only
waiting for an auspicious moment to begin the war again, and the French
did not cease their aggressions upon Guienne. In spite of the large sums
it cost, the English people were by no means weary of the war. The
Parliament that sat in 1344 began by giving its opinion in favour of
peace, if fair terms could be procured; but proceeded to grant the King
supplies to enable him to continue the war. They begged him to finish it
in a short time, either by battle or treaty. The nobles agreed to cross
the sea and fight with him, and the clergy granted him the tenth of
their benefices for three years. The King's cousin, the Earl of Derby, a
brave and accomplished knight, was sent with an army into Guienne to
recover the country which had been won by the French.
We must try to understand clearly what were at this time the possessions
of the English in France. Under Henry II., the territory which the
English King ruled over in France was greater in extent than England
itself. Part of this, such as Normandy, belonged to the English Kings,
by virtue of their descent from William the Conqueror. Anjou and
Tourraine had come to Henry II. through his father, Geoffrey of Anjou;
the great Duchy of Aquitaine, consisting of seven provinces, he obtained
as the marriage portion of his wife, Eleanor of Guienne. Thus he ruled
over the western part of France, from the Channel to the Pyrenees, and
held the mouths of the great rivers Seine, Loire, and Garonne. These
vast dominions really made the Angevin Kings, so called from their
descent from Geoffrey of Anjou, foreign rather than English rulers. It
was not therefore altogether to the disadvantage of England when
Normandy and the other possessions in Northern France were taken from
the feeble John by the King of France. The Duchy of Aquitaine still
remained in the possession of the English. Once it was wrested from them
in 1294 by Philip IV., King of France, but he soon had to restore it.
It is easy to imagine how anxious the French kings must have been to
gain possession of this great Duchy. A succession of able, unscrupulous
kings, had been trying by every means to extend and consolidate their
dominions. The kings of France had not at first been as powerful as many
of their great barons, who ruled as hereditary and independent princes
in their separate provinces, paying the king only a nominal homage. To
reduce these barons to submission was the task laid upon the French
kings for many generations. Little by little they got hold of the lands
of their vassals and neighbours. Rivalry between France and England
began from the first moment that the Dukes of Normandy became kings of
England. It was increased when the Duchy of Aquitaine was added to the
English dominions. Philip Augustus had won Normandy from John; it
remained for his successors to win Aquitaine.
The Duchy of Aquitaine included Poitou, Limousin, Guienne, and Gascony.
It extended towards the north almost as far as the mouth of the Loire,
and towards the south to the foot of the Pyrenees. It embraced the
fertile bed of the Garonne, at the mouth of which lay the great city of
Bordeaux, whence the wine grown in the Duchy was imported into England.
Bayonne was another important port lying to the south of Bordeaux. It
was here that the Earl of Derby landed when he was sent by Edward III.
to recover the places which Philip had succeeded in winning in Guienne.
His campaign was marked with brilliant success, and he soon won back all
that had been lost.
Edward III. meanwhile determined to make another journey to Flanders, to
strengthen his alliance with the Flemings. This time he took with him
his son Prince Edward, who had now completed his education, and was to
begin, at what seems to us the early age of fifteen, to take part in the
active business of life. Van Arteveldt met his royal guests at Escluse,
and the deputies of the towns also came to discuss the state of affairs.
Froissart tells us that there was a proposal made by Arteveldt to set
aside Louis Count of Flanders and make the Prince of Wales Count in his
stead. But this statement is not supported by other evidence, and does
not seem to be in accordance with the views of Arteveldt, who never
showed any desire to put aside the rightful count. Having assured
himself of the friendship of Flanders, Edward returned to England with
his son. Only a few days after his departure his faithful friend Van
Arteveldt was murdered at Ghent, in a disturbance caused by a furious
faction of the populace. This murder was the act of a small party, not
of the country. The government and administration of affairs remained as
before throughout Flanders. The towns sent deputies to England to
express to Edward III. their freedom from complicity in this murder, and
their desire to maintain the English alliance. The close commercial
relations between the two countries, which had been established by the
wisdom of Van Arteveldt, went on as before, and the English wool was
still carried to the staple at Bruges to be sold.