Cressy.
During the years between the campaign in Flanders, which was ended by a
truce on September 25th, 1340, and the campaign of Cressy, in 1346,
Edward had been principally occupied in preparations for renewing the
war. Peace negotiations had been carried on before Pope Clement VI. by
commissioners appointed by the two kings; but as neither party wished
for peace, it could not be expected that these would lead to any result.
The Parliament that sat at Westminster in 1343 had, as we have seen,
relieved Edward III. from his pressing want of money by granting him new
supplies, and he had been able to redeem his great crown from pawn. But
he had borrowed so largely from the great Florentine merchants, the
Bardi, that his failure to pay his debt of 900,000 golden florins at the
right time brought about their bankruptcy; and as they were the largest
bankers in Florence, the whole city suffered greatly through their
failure.
Once supplied with money, Edward had to turn his attention to raising
levies for the war. The royal armies had long ceased to consist merely
of the feudal militia, as this could not be used for any long campaign.
According to feudal customs, the levies were only obliged to serve for
forty days. Hence, though they could be used for a sudden attack upon a
neighbouring prince, they were of little use to a king who wished to
carry an army across the seas to invade a foreign country. The custom of
commutation therefore had grown up; that is, of receiving money payments
instead of personal service. With this money the King could then hire
soldiers to fight for him as long as he chose to keep them. These hired
soldiers were raised in the following way: the government appointed a
contractor for every district, who agreed to furnish from that district
a given number of men for a fixed pay. Sometimes the men enlisted
voluntarily; but so many complaints were made by the Commons during
Edward's reign of forced levies, that it seems as if compulsion was
often used to obtain enlistments.
To raise soldiers for the campaign on which he was about to engage,
Edward III. ordered the sheriffs throughout the country to summon every
man-at-arms in the kingdom to attend personally, or else send a
substitute. All landholders were to furnish men-at-arms, hobblers, and
archers, in proportion to their incomes. All these men were paid for
their service, and the rate of pay was much higher then than it is now.
From this it appears that probably even the private soldier was taken
from the smaller gentry or the rich yeomanry. This helps to account for
the efficiency of Edward's army. It was through the valour of the common
soldiers rather than through the prowess of his knights that Edward won
his victories. On this occasion pardon was promised to criminals on
condition of their serving in the war. Edward Prince of Wales was to
collect 4,000 men from Wales, half lancers and half bow-men. All these
levies were to meet at Portsmouth on October 9th, ready to embark. Let
us try and get some idea of the nature of the troops collected at
Portsmouth to form the army which was to invade France.
First in rank and importance were the men-at-arms. These were the
knights with their esquires and followers. The esquires were the
attendants upon the knights, and were generally young men of rank,
serving their time till they should be raised to knighthood. The knights
with their esquires and followers were all equipped alike in plate
armour, and formed the heavy cavalry. Their chargers also were protected
by plates of steel, and their armour was made so impervious that no
weapon then known could pierce it. But its weight was so great that only
to carry it exhausted the strength of the knights and crippled their
power. Their arms were the lance, the sword, the battle-axe, or the
mace, and they bore a shield for defence. Each knight who brought his
esquires and followers into the field might bear his pennon, which was
a long narrow ensign. Some knights who were rich enough to have other
knights in their service carried square banners. We can imagine the
brilliant effect of a company of these knights in their burnished steel
armour, often beautifully chased and inlaid with other metals, with
their gay banners streaming in the wind. Many of them might be seen
bearing a falcon on their wrist, so that amidst the fatigues of war they
might occasionally refresh themselves with the chase. To them was
reserved the place of honour in the battle; theirs are the deeds of
prowess which the chroniclers delight to record. War was to them only a
vast tournament, in which they might display their valour and strive to
surpass their adversaries.
Next came the hobblers, the light cavalry, who were recruited from a
rank inferior to that of the knights. Their horses also were inferior,
and they were not so heavily armed.
But the real strength of the army lay in the third body of men, the
archers, who of course fought on foot. It was to their skill and courage
that Edward was to owe his victories. Shooting with the long-bow was a
thoroughly English recreation. On holidays it had long been the custom
for the yeomen to meet together to practise their skill by shooting at a
mark. The kings did their utmost to encourage this pastime. In the
thirteenth century every person possessing a revenue of above one
hundred pence in land was obliged to have a bow and arrows in his
possession. Edward III. feared at one time that the skill of the English
archers was declining. He sent a letter to the sheriffs of London, in
which he said, that "the skill in shooting arrows was almost totally
laid aside for the pursuit of various useless and unlawful games, such
as quoits, cock-fighting, football," &c. He commanded the sheriffs,
therefore, to see that the leisure time on holidays was spent in
recreations with bows and arrows; so highly did Edward value the
archer's skill. Of course, as there was no standing army, there could be
no body of regularly-trained archers. The archers, like the other
soldiers, were recruited from the people; and if the mass of the people
were not practised in archery, there could be no hope of obtaining
skilful archers. The bows used by them were six feet long, their arrows
three feet. In shooting they drew their arrows to the ear, and could
send them with good aim a distance of 240 yards. They carried their bows
in canvas cases, so that they might not be wetted by the rain, or
cracked by the sun. Edward III. had a body-guard of archers, 120 in
number, chosen from the stoutest and most skilful men in the country.
The fourth body of men consisted of the remaining foot soldiers, who
were mostly armed with lances. Besides these a large number of labourers
of various kinds had to be engaged to follow the army. These men were
pressed by the sheriffs, and in most cases were obliged to go against
their will; for it could hardly be to their profit to leave their homes
and their business to meet all the dangers of a distant expedition.
There were the blacksmiths to repair the armour and shoe the horses; the
masons to build the bridges; the rope-makers, carpenters, wood-cutters,
miners, and many others.
All these men began to gather together at Portsmouth in the beginning of
October. The great lords came ready to serve without pay in this war.
They were a noble assembly of seven earls, thirty-five barons, and many
other gentlemen--all the flower of the English nobility. Thither came
the King with all his personal followers. He brought with him thirty
falconers on horseback, so that in the intervals of war he might indulge
in his favourite pursuit of hawking for water-fowls along the courses of
the streams. Besides his falcons, he took with him sixty couples of
staghounds, and as many harehounds, that he might hunt when wearied of
hawking. Many of the great lords also had their hounds and their
falconers with them. Almost every day during the campaign Edward III.
and his lords are said to have found time for hunting or hawking.
We can imagine with what feelings Edward, the young Prince of Wales,
prepared to start on this his first enterprise. He had been brought up
amidst the ideas of chivalry, and regarded war and adventure as the only
true vocation of a gentleman. Now at last he was to be allowed to go
out into the world himself, and fight the enemy and win his spurs. His
father was as enthusiastic as himself. He was then in the flower of his
manhood, just thirty-four years old, while the prince was sixteen. They
were more like two brothers than father and son.
The destination of the expedition was kept secret. The King's first
intention is supposed to have been to sail to Guienne, to aid the Earl
of Derby in opposing the French army which had been sent against him.
But on board Edward's ship there was a Norman gentleman, Sir Godfrey de
Harcourt, who represented to him that Normandy was the richest and most
fertile province in France; that it was quite undefended, and that the
English would be able to land there without resistance, gain great
booty, and subdue many towns before the French army could return from
Gascony to oppose them. Edward yielded to his persuasions; and this
change of destination shows us that he undertook this expedition without
any decided plan. His success was not so much owing to a skilfully
arranged campaign as to the personal valour of his troops, and to his
own genius as a commander.
The English army landed at La Hogue on the 10th of July, 1346. It is
supposed to have numbered 32,000 men. Edward's first act on landing was
to confer knighthood on his son. He found, as Sir Godfrey de Harcourt
had said, that his coming was quite unexpected. There was no French
army to resist him, and he marched into Normandy without opposition. He
divided his troops into three battalions; so arranged they went through
the country, pillaging and even burning many of the towns and villages
on their way. The fleet meanwhile burnt such ships as it found in the
harbours. The rules of chivalry were not concerned with the treatment
which a peasant or burgher might receive from the hands of a knight. A
knight was bound to treat his equal with courtesy, but his refinement
was only onesided; to the low-born he acknowledged no duties. The
chivalrous army of Edward III. spread devastation on every side of the
rich and fertile province of Normandy.
At Caen they found a garrison which attempted in vain to defend the
town. It was one of the richest towns in Europe, full, as Froissart
tells us, "of draperies and all sorts of merchandise, of rich citizens,
noble dames and damsels, and fine churches." All its wealth fell into
the hands of the English. They stayed in the city for three days, and
the plunder they collected was sent down the river in barges to the
fleet. The ships were laden with cloths, jewels, gold and silver plate,
and merchandise of all kinds. Edward sent orders for all this wealth to
be convoyed to England, together with a number of prisoners.
The resistance of Caen had been in vain, and the other cities opened
their gates at once to the English. At Louviers, a rich mercantile city,
they again won great wealth. Meanwhile Philip had heard of Edward's
landing in Normandy, and was hastening to meet him. Edward's intention
was to cross the Seine at Rouen, and advance northwards to meet his
Flemish allies, who had crossed the frontier. But at Rouen he found the
bridge broken down by the French, who, having as yet collected no
regular army wherewith to confront him, wished at least to prevent him
from crossing the river. Edward continued his march up the left bank of
the Seine, hoping to find some place where he could cross; but all the
bridges were broken down. His situation was becoming critical; retreat
was impossible, as he had devastated all the country through which he
had passed, and he had no supplies to fall back upon. His one desire was
to draw Philip into battle. Philip, on the other hand, wished to gain
time; for time reduced the power of Edward, but brought new levies daily
to Philip. So Edward continued his course of devastation to Poissy,
almost under the walls of Paris. The French peasants, driven from their
burning homes, and seeing all their goods carried off by the English
soldiers, cried out in despair, "Where is Philip our king?"
It was August when Edward reached Poissy. Philip was encamped with a
large army at St. Denis; but Edward failed to draw him out to battle,
and did not venture to attack him. The English found the beams of the
bridge at Poissy still floating in the river, and Edward determined to
wait here whilst his workmen repaired the bridge. He stayed five days in
the nunnery at Poissy, where he celebrated the feast of the Assumption
of the Virgin Mary, and sat at table in his scarlet robes, trimmed with
fur and ermine. When the bridge was rebuilt, the English army crossed
the river on the 16th August, dispersing the French on the opposite side
with showers of arrows, and marched towards the Somme. They passed the
city of Beauvais, but Edward did not venture to stop and besiege it. His
army was beginning to diminish. The men suffered from the heat and the
rapid marches. They subsisted only on plunder, as they had no supplies
with them. Their boots even were beginning to wear out, and there was no
means of replacing them. Philip was in their rear with a force greatly
superior in numbers. Edward contented himself with burning the suburbs
of Beauvais, and passed on towards the Somme.
At Airaines he stopped three days, whilst the Earl of Warwick and Sir
Godfrey de Harcourt looked for a place where they might pass the river;
but they found all the bridges strongly defended by French troops, and
returned in despair to Edward. Philip was now close at hand at Amiens,
and the English, hemmed in between the great French army and the river,
were thus without way of escape. It was necessary at least to leave
Airaines. Edward was thoughtful and silent. He ordered mass to be said
before sunrise, and the trumpets sounded for marching. At ten the
English left Airaines, and at noon the French entered the town. They
found it full of provisions left by the English; the meat was still on
the spits, there was bread in the ovens, wine in barrels, and even
tables laid ready for dinner. Here the French took up their quarters.
The English meanwhile had taken the little town of Oisemont, and
established themselves there for the night. Edward caused some prisoners
who had been captured on the march to be brought before him, and
promised that if any one of them would show him a ford in the river, by
which the English army might pass over, he and twenty of his companions
should have their liberty.
A peasant, Gobin Agace by name, stood forth, and said he knew of a ford
where, when the tide was low, the army might cross in safety; for then
the water was only knee-deep, and the bottom was made of gravel and
white stones, so that the carriages might pass over without danger. This
ford was called Blanquetaque, and was defended by Sir Godemar du Fay
with 4,000 men. On the morning of the 24th August, the English waited
eagerly for the tide to go out. On the opposite side, the forces of Sir
Godemar du Fay were drawn up to defend the ford. Edward gave the word of
command in the name of God and St. George, and the English knights
plunged into the stream. The French met them in the water, and
desperate deeds of valour were done by the knights on either side as
they struggled in the river. Meanwhile, the archers on the banks did
much havoc with their persistent showers of arrows. At last the French
broke and fled. The English army crossed in safety; but the last of
their troops had hardly reached the opposite bank when the light
cavalry, who formed the advance guard of the French army, arrived, and
succeeded in capturing some loiterers. When Philip himself reached the
river the tide had risen, and the ford was impassable. He had to retire
to Abbeville, and cross by the bridge there.
The English army marched on into Ponthieu, and took up their position on
the hills near the little village of Cressy. Here Edward determined to
halt, and await in an advantageous position the coming of the French. He
determined to hazard all on the result of one engagement, though his
forces were greatly inferior to the French. Even then, Philip was
awaiting at Abbeville the arrival of new troops. But this delay was
really advantageous to Edward, as it gave him time to recruit his weary
troops, and to make preparations for battle. He had chosen his position
with consummate skill. The army was encamped on the rising ground on the
right bank of the little river Maye, in front of the town of Cressy. The
left wing was protected by the river; in front of it palisades had been
erected, and the baggage had been piled together to cover the troops.
The right wing was protected by a little wood. The front of the army
commanded a ravine on a gentle slope, called la Vallée des Clercs. This
arrangement prevented the French from using their cavalry with success,
except against the right wing of the English army.
On the evening of Friday, the 25th August, the soldiers were busy
furbishing and mending their armour, so as to be quite ready for the
battle. The king gave a great supper to all the earls and barons of the
army. They feasted with great cheer, not discouraged by the thought that
on the morrow they would have to fight against terrible odds. When his
guests had left him, the King retired to his oratory, and kneeling down,
prayed to God "that if he should combat his enemies on the morrow, he
might come off with honour." It was midnight before he lay down to
sleep.
Early the next morning the King and his son heard mass and communicated;
the greater part of the army confessed, and did the same. Then the King
ordered the men to arm and assemble. He divided his army into three
battalions. The first battalion was under the command of the Prince of
Wales, who was aided by the Earls of Warwick and Northampton. Stationed
in its front was a large body of archers, arranged in the form of a
harrow. Behind it, a little to its flank, stood the second battalion,
commanded by the Earl of Arundel. The King commanded the third
battalion, which formed the reserve, and was stationed on the summit of
the hill behind.
[Illustration: Plan of the BATTLE of CRESSY 26^{th} August 1346.]
When all was arranged, the King mounted a white palfrey, and carrying a
white wand in his hand, surrounded by his marshals, rode through the
ranks, encouraging the men, and bidding them guard his honour and defend
his right. "He spoke to them so sweetly, and with such cheerful
countenance," says Froissart, "that all who had been dispirited were
directly comforted by seeing and hearing him." He bade them eat and
drink, that they might be strong and vigorous in fighting. There was no
hurry or anxiety. When they had eaten, they packed up their pots and
barrels in the carts, and put everything in order. Then each man going
to his post seated himself on the ground, with his helmet and bow before
him, that he might be fresh when the enemy arrived. All the knights had
dismounted, intending to fight on foot.
The French had left Abbeville at sunrise. The army, made unwieldy by its
size, was weary and disorganised by the long march. The lords who had
been sent forward to reconnoitre, came back and advised the French king
to let his men rest that night, and not engage battle till the morrow.
But the French knights, in proud confidence of their own superiority,
were impatient to fight. They pressed forward in a disorderly mass, and
when King Philip caught sight of the English his blood began to boil,
and he ordered the Genoese archers to form. Just then a fearful
thunderstorm swept over the country; the rain fell in torrents; and
large flights of crows, startled by the storm, hovered over the French
army, and seemed birds of ill-omen in the eyes of the soldiers. After
the storm the sun shone out brightly, and shining in the eyes of the
French, dazzled them by its brilliancy; but the English had it at their
backs. The rain also had wetted the strings of the Genoese cross-bow
men, and by slackening them made it difficult to shoot; but the English
kept their long bows in canvas cases, and so they were not harmed by the
rain.
The English soldiers were seated on the ground awaiting the approach of
the enemy. When the French came in view, the trumpets sounded the note
of alarm, and the men sprang to their feet and seized their arms.
Evening was drawing on when the two armies met face to face; for it was
not till five o'clock that the French army drew near to Cressy. When the
Genoese had formed, they advanced with a loud shout, hoping to frighten
the English, who stood still and neither moved nor shouted. Then the
Genoese set up a second cry, and again a third; but still the same
immovable silence on the part of the English was maintained. Only when
they presented their cross-bows, and began to shoot, did the English
answer; then their answer was a shower of arrows, poured with such force
and quickness that it seemed as if it snowed. The Genoese threw down
their arms in terror, and tried to seek safety in flight. The Duke of
Alençon, who was commanding the French battalion in the rear, enraged at
seeing them fly, shouted to his men, "Kill me these scoundrels, for they
stop up our road without any reason." The French men-at-arms pressed on
through the flying Genoese, killing all who came in their way. But the
shower of English arrows never ceased. With sure and steady aim the
archers penetrated into the French ranks. Together with Alençon
advanced the blind King of Bohemia, who rode between two knights, to
whose bridles he had caused his horse to be fastened, that they might
lead him into the thickest of the fray.
And now the time was come for the English knights to meet the French.
Prince Edward, followed by his knights, sprang forward from behind the
ranks of his archers, and rushed upon Alençon and his followers. Then
ensued a terrible mêlée. Knight struggled with knight in hand to hand
combat. The Prince's Welsh foot-soldiers made great havoc amongst the
French with their short knives. Over all fell a ceaseless shower of
arrows from the unshaken ranks of the English archers. The second
battalion of the English army came to the aid of the first. The numbers
of the French seemed so overwhelming, that a knight was sent in great
haste to the King of England, who was still posted with his reserve near
the windmill on the hill. He begged the King to come to the Prince's
assistance. "Is my son dead," asked the King, "unhorsed, or so badly
wounded that he cannot support himself?" "Nay, thank God," answered the
knight, "but he is in so hot an engagement that he has great need of
your help." The King only said, "Let the boy win his spurs; for I am
determined, if it please God, that all the glory and honour of this day
shall be given to him, and to those into whose care I have entrusted
him."
Truly the young Prince won his spurs. He and his knights fought with
such desperate valour that soon the French began to break in disorder,
though not before many of their bravest knights had been slain on the
field. It is said that 1,600 barons, 4,000 esquires, and 20,000 common
soldiers fell on the French side; whilst the English loss was
inconsiderable. It was a ghastly scene upon which the moon shone down
that night. On all sides the French were flying. Some knights and
squires still wandered over the field amongst the dead and dying,
seeking their masters whom they had lost. They attacked the English in
small parties, but were soon destroyed; for no quarter was given that
day. Late in the evening Sir John Hainault led King Philip from the
field by force. The King fled through the night to Amiens, and then on
to Paris.
The English were left victors on the field. King Edward came down from
his post, and hastened to his son. Kissing him with enthusiasm, he said,
"My fair son, God Almighty give you grace to persevere as you have
begun." A deep mist rose, and the battle-field was enveloped in the
blackest darkness. The English only knew that their enemies had fled by
the silence which had succeeded the hooting and shouting of the French.
Pursuit was impossible in the darkness. They kindled great fires and lit
torches, which shed a weird light on the battle-field. The battle had
lasted from five o'clock on Saturday evening till two o'clock on Sunday
morning. The night passed quietly; for all rioting had been forbidden.
When morning dawned, Edward gave orders that the mass of the Holy Ghost
should be solemnly sung by the soldiers in thanksgiving for this great
victory. The thick mist still continued. Two bodies of French soldiers,
who came upon the field ignorant of the battle, and hoping to join the
French army, were entirely routed by the English, and many of them were
slain.
Edward III. remained two days upon the field of battle, to superintend
the numbering and burial of the dead. He granted a truce for three days,
that the peasantry might come and aid in the task. "What think you of a
battle," said Edward to his son, as they wandered over the field, "is it
a pleasant game?" Orders were given to attend to the wounded, some of
whom were given shelter by the monks of a neighbouring abbey. The bodies
of the dead nobles were taken to be buried in the surrounding churches,
mostly in the church at Cressy. The body of the blind King of Bohemia
was sent away to Luxembourg, to be buried by his son. For the burial of
the common soldiers the peasants dug long, deep ditches, traces of which
may be seen to this day.
So was won the battle of Cressy, the first of England's great series of
victories upon the Continent. It showed the powerlessness of chivalry
before the strength of the people. The proudest knights of France had
fallen helpless before the English yeoman, with his bow and arrows. It
showed that the strength of a nation no longer lay in the brilliant
appearance or the boasted bravery of its knights, but in the
steadfastness and sturdy courage of its people. The death-knell of
chivalry was sounded. Its pomp and pageantry might still continue for
awhile, and meet with encouragement from Edward III.; but he was wise
enough to recognise the truth, and know that it was to his archers, and
not to his knights, that he owed this victory. Cressy was not only a
triumph of the English over the French; it was a triumph of the people
over the nobles.