hot-houses and, no doubt, glass bells in their orchards and gardens, to
bring sooner to maturity some of those productions of the earth which,
by their delicate flavour and perfume, raised the insatiable desires of
a people, decidedly the greatest epicureans ever known in the history of
gastronomy to the present day.
XI.
FRUITS.
When the Creator placed the first man in the Garden of Eden, he
commanded him to nourish himself with the fruit it contained;[XI-1] and,
from that epoch, the most ancient which the sacred work records, this
kind of aliment is incessantly mentioned in the history of all nations,
and at every period of their history.
The great Hebrew legislator seems to have considered fruit trees worthy
of his especial care, for he forbad the Jews to cut them down, even on
their enemies’ lands;[XI-2] and, in order to teach his people how to
preserve them in all their vigour, he declares the fruits of the first
three years impure, and consecrates to the Lord those of the
fourth.[XI-3] He even goes further; he exempts from military service any
one who has planted a vineyard, and all fruit trees conferred the same
privilege until the first vintage.[XI-4]
Heathen nations also understood the importance of this branch of
agriculture, and invented protective divinities--such as Pomona,[XI-5]
Vertumnus,[XI-6] Priapus[XI-7]--whose sole care consisted in protecting
orchards from the inclemency of the seasons, and dispelling insects and
robbers, who would damage and plunder the crops.
Each kind had, moreover, a benevolent patron, who could not honestly
refuse to be useful to it: thus the olive tree grew under the auspices
of Minerva;[XI-8] the Muses cherished the palm tree;[XI-9] the pine and
its cone were consecrated to the great Cybele;[XI-10] Bacchus
complacently ripened the perfumed pulp of the fig[XI-11] and the rosy
grape,[XI-12] which placed him on a level with the gods.
Among the Greeks, fruits appeared on table at the second course;[XI-13]
and were eaten either cooked, raw, or in the form of preserves.
The Romans sometimes breakfasted on a small quantity of dried
fruits;[XI-14] but the third course of their _cœna_, or principal
repast, offered an incredible profusion of the productions of their own
orchards, and of those of three parts of the world.[XI-15]
Rich patricians, after they had exhausted all the immense resources of
an incredible luxury--in their garments, habitations, and
banquets--contrived to plant fruit trees on the summit of high towers,
and on the house tops;[XI-16] thus suspending forests over their
heads,[XI-17] as well as vast reservoirs, to keep alive the most
exquisite fish.[XI-18]
At Rome they had an expensive, but, as they thought, effective process
of preparing pears, apples, plums, figs, cherries, &c., &c., and which
was as follows:--
The fruit was chosen with great care, and put, with the stalks attached,
into honey, leaving to each one sufficient space to prevent their
touching each other.[XI-19]
Our housewives of the 19th century may, perhaps, be curious to try this
Roman experiment, if the quantity of honey which it requires does not
frighten them.
XII.
STONE FRUIT.
OLIVE TREE.
Throughout antiquity we find the olive tree acknowledged as something
venerable and holy, and taking precedence of all other trees, even the
most useful on account of their nourishing fruits, or the refreshing
drink they furnished. The wise Minerva gave it birth;[XII-1] and its
foliage, which adorned the brows of the goddess,[XII-2] served,
thenceforth, to crown victory,[XII-3] or to give rise to the sweet hopes
of peace.[XII-4] A green bough of olive rendered the suppliant
inviolable.[XII-5] The deadly arrows of Hercules were made of its
wood.[XII-6] From it princes borrowed their sceptre[XII-7] and the
shepherd his crook.[XII-8]
If, abandoning mythological fictions which surround the olive with a
charming but false poetry, we interrogate history for more certain
information concerning this revered tree, we shall find that Diodorus,
of Sicily, informs us Minerva discovered and made known to the Athenians
its useful qualities.[XII-9] And a writer, in whose possession the most
ancient records in the world were found--Moses--who has recounted the
birth of vegetation,[XII-10] tells us also of a patriarch pouring
purified oil on a stone altar,[XII-11] before the olive tree was known
in Athens--nay, before Athens existed.
Profane historians honour Aristeus, son of Apollo, and King of Arcadia,
with the invention of oil mills, and the manner of procuring the
precious fluid,[XII-12] the abundance of which was such, in the East,
that it was used in lamps,[XII-13] in anointing,[XII-14] in seasoning of
dishes,[XII-15] and in numerous other instances too long to
enumerate.[XII-16]
Thus the most important culture among the Jews was that of the olive
tree. There were large plantations of it in all the provinces: Galilea,
Samaria, and Judea, were full of them.[XII-17] It must not, however, be
thought the Hebrews used olives only to make oil; they knew how to
preserve them in brine, to be eaten at table, and for sale to strangers.
Pliny particularly extols those of Decapolis, a province of the Holy
Land: “They are very small,” he says, “not larger than capers; but are
much esteemed.”[XII-18]
Among the Greeks, the oil of Samos was considered to be the purest and
finest:[XII-19] next to it they gave preference to that of Caria or of
Thurium.[XII-20]
As regards olives, the _Colymbades_, or floating kinds were more
esteemed than any other, on account of their size and taste;[XII-21]
they had an exquisite flavour imparted to them by being placed with
different herbs in pots of oil:[XII-22] the _Halmade_ olives were
preserved in brine.[XII-23]
The cultivation of the olive tree was carried to a great extent in
Greece; a host of poets sang in honour of this tree,[XII-24] which
produced so sweet a fruit; and Theophrastus speaks of it very frequently
in his celebrated treatise on plants.[XII-25]
The Romans were not acquainted with it until later; and even in the year
249 B.C., they possessed so few olive trees that a pound of oil sold for
twelve _As_, or three shillings; less than two centuries after (74
B.C.), ten pounds of it only cost one _As_; but Italy had so far
increased its plantations at the end of a few years (52 B.C.) that it
was able to furnish olive trees to the neighbouring countries.[XII-26]
Its olives and oil were thought excellent; however, those of Grenada and
Andalusia were preferred to them, even in the time of Pliny,[XII-27] on
account of their sweetness and delicate flavour. That illustrious
naturalist has transmitted to us particulars of the highest interest on
the cultivation of the olive tree, and the various preparations which
its fruit requires, or rather, to which it is necessarily subjected for
the luxury of the table.[XII-28] Those who are curious on this subject
may also consult Cato (the first among the Romans who has written on
this tree),[XII-29] Varro,[XII-30] and Columella,[XII-31] concerning the
art of raising the plants, of gathering the olives, of extracting the
oil, and of preserving the olives themselves. This latter operation was
performed as follows:--
They took twenty-five pounds of olives, six pounds of quick-lime, broken
very small and dissolved in water, to which twelve pounds of oak ashes
and water in proportion were added. The olives were left to soak for
eight or ten hours in this lye; then taken out, washed with care, and
immersed for eight days in very clear soft water, which was changed
several times. They then took hot water in which some stems of fennel
had been infused; this plant was taken out, and the same water saturated
with salt until an egg would float. When it was quite cold, the olives
were put into this pickle.[XII-32]
As regards the large olives, or _colymbades_, they were sometimes
crushed after the first operation, that the brine might penetrate more
easily; and odoriferous herbs were added to give them a better flavour.
This was the way they prepared those from the marshes of Ancona--the
only ones admitted at the tables of _gourmets_.[XII-33]
At Rome, olives made their appearance in the first course, at the
beginning of the repast; but sometimes, after their introduction, the
gluttony of the guests caused them to be served again with the dessert:
so that they opened and closed the banquet.[XII-34]
The distributions of oil, to which Latin authors often allude, were
somewhat rare for a long period. The people looked upon this fluid more
as an object of luxury than a necessary of life, and it was only on
extraordinary occasions that they were gratified with it. Thus, when
Scipio Africanus began his curule edileship, each citizen received a
measure of oil.[XII-35] After his example, Agrippa made similar
distributions, in the reign of Augustus. They became more frequent under
the Emperors; and Severus ordered that an immense quantity should be
brought into Rome.[XII-36]
Venafra, a town of Campania, supplied excellent oil.[XII-37] Pliny says
that it surpassed that of all the rest of Italy.[XII-38] However in
those days, as at present, much was consumed of a very bad quality: for
instance, that which was served by a clumsy Amphytrion to Julius Cæsar,
and with which this prince seemed perfectly satisfied--a proof that the
celebrated warrior was either a man of exquisite politeness or an
epicure of very scanty ability.[XII-39]
Independently of the culinary preparations in which oil was abundantly
used, the ancients also employed much of it for anointing themselves;
and, when at the bath, a slave always carried some in a vase,[XII-40]
with which they were rubbed. It was believed that the vital heat was
thus concentrated, the strength increased, and health preserved.
Augustus inquiring one day of Pollio what ought to be done to preserve
health in extreme old age: “Very little,” was his answer; “drink wine,
and rub yourself with oil.”[XII-41]
We sall conclude this article by transcribing the recipe of an
odoriferous oil for which the Liburnians were celebrated, and which
Apicius considered worthy of his attention.
Pound some alder and cyperus (sedges) with green laurel leaves till they
are reduced to a very fine powder--put this powder into Spanish oil, add
a condiment of salt,[XII-42] and stir this mixture with great care for
three days or more, then let it remain for some time.[XII-43]
Olive oil was little known in France under the two first races of her
kings. In the reign of Charlemagne it was drawn from the east and
Africa, and was so rare that the Council of Aix-la-chapelle (817)
allowed the monks to make use of the oil from bacon. In 1491 the Pope
allowed Queen Anne (of Bretagne), then afterwards the whole province,
and successively the other French provinces, the use of butter in
seasoning on fast days.
PALM TREE.
The poet Pontanus has related, in beautiful Latin verses, the history of
two palm trees cultivated in the kingdom of Naples. For a long time
there had been a fine one growing in the environs of Otranto, loaded
every year with flowers, and yet producing no fruit, in spite of the
vigour of the tree and the heat of the climate. But one summer every one
was much surprised at seeing this same tree produce a quantity of
excellent and very ripe fruit. Astonishment changed into admiration when
it was discovered that another palm tree, cultivated at Brindes (fifteen
leagues distant), had that same year blossomed for the first time. From
that period the palm tree of Otranto continued to yield fruit every
year, notwithstanding the distance between it and the one at
Brindes.[XII-44]
The palm tree, which mythologic ages consecrated to the Muses,[XII-45]
was very common with the Hebrews,[XII-46] to whom it supplied an
exhilarating beverage called _sechar_, which is often mentioned with
wine of the grape.[XII-47]
Moreover, everything was useful in this tree.
The wood was employed for constructing buildings and for fuel; the
leaves were used to make ropes, mats, and baskets; and the fruit served
as food for man and cattle.[XII-48] From the dates a great quantity of
honey was extracted, but very little inferior to ordinary honey;[XII-49]
and those which were not consumed were sent abroad with so much the more
ease that they keep well.[XII-50]
According to Pliny, this fruit was in reputation in Greece and Rome; and
he names several excellent species which came from Judea, and
principally from Jericho and the valleys of Archelais, Livias, and
Phasaelis.[XII-51]
Two Greek writers[XII-52] inform us that the favourite of Herod, Nicolas
of Damascus, a poet, philosopher, and historian, much liked by Augustus,
sent to the Roman Emperor every year a peculiar kind of date from
Palestine; and that the monarch, who became very partial to them, gave
them the name of his friend. Bread and cakes were also made with them.
We shall often have occasion to remark that dates were frequently
introduced in the composition of the most exquisite dishes of the
Romans.
Dates not quite ripe, if exposed to the sun, become in the first place
soft, then pulpy, and lastly acquire a consistency similar to that of
French plums; they can then be preserved, and sent to foreign markets.
Riper dates are squeezed to draw out a sweet juice, very pleasant, and
which is put, together with the other part, in large vessels, and kept
in that state, or buried in the earth. These are the ones commonly used
by the rich as food; the others are given up to the poorer class.
Dates are eaten either with or without preparation, or mixed with
different kinds of viands. Their syrup is used as a sauce to various
dishes.
They are also completely dried for exportation; when reduced into flour,
the caravans in the Desert employ them as food. By crushing them in soft
water wine is made, which produces a strong spirit, very agreeable.
The best dates are yellowish, semi-transparent, odoriferous, and sweet.
CHERRY TREE.
When on a very hot summer day some inviting cherries deliciously quench
our burning thirst, we very little think of offering to Mithridates a
souvenir of affection and gratitude. Such is man: he enjoys his wealth,
and cares very little for the benefactor who has procured it for him.
This ancient King of Pontus, of toxologic memory, and better known by
physicians than gardeners, did not, however, pass the whole of his life
in composing poisons and their antidotes; for his royal hands planted,
and sometimes grafted, and it is to this useful pastime that we are
indebted[XII-53] for the sweet fruit, the name of which recalls to mind
the city or country which was its birth-place.
Ancient authors have told us, it is true, that Europe is indebted for
its cherries to Lucullus,[XII-54] and that he made use of the cherry
tree to ornament his triumphal car; honour is therefore due to the Roman
general, but on condition that Mithridates shall lose nothing of his
glory, or be eclipsed by the renown of this great conqueror.
The researches of several naturalists lead us to believe that cherry
trees already existed at that period in Gaul. This tree delights in cold
climates; and the wildest forests of France contain almost the whole of
its varieties. Perhaps at Rome they knew no other than the wild cherry
tree, which on that account was very little sought after, and Lucullus
probably brought it to notice by bringing some grafts or fruits from
Cerasus. In this manner the passage of Pliny[XII-55] and that of
Virgil[XII-56] can very well be explained, which present the cherry tree
as a new guest.
Moreover, the Milesian, Xenophanes, and the physician, Diphilus of
Siphne, have spoken of cherries long before Lucullus was in existence.
Diphilus praises them in the strongest terms; he says they are
stomachic, and have a delicious flavour.[XII-57] This certainly cannot
apply to the sour wild fruit which is to be met with in the woods, and
with which the most inexperienced palate is never twice caught.
At all events the authority of Theophrastus would be sufficient to
remove all doubts, if any still remained. He informs us that, in his
time, the good cherries of Mithridates passed from Lower Asia into
Greece,[XII-58] where they were gladly received as in all other nations,
on account of their form, taste, and qualities. This happy gastrologic
event was accomplished 300 years before the Christian era, whereas the
introduction of cherry trees by Lucullus took place 228 years later.
The capital of the world knew not, at first, how to appreciate this
present as it deserved: the cherry tree was propagated so slowly in
Italy, that more than a century after its introduction it was far from
being generally cultivated.[XII-59]
The Romans distinguished three principal species of cherries: the
_Apronian_, of a bright red, with a firm and delicate pulp; the
_Lutatian_, very black and sweet; the _Cæcilian_, round and stubby, and
much esteemed.[XII-60]
This fruit embellished the third course in Rome, and the second at
Athens.
“The fruit of the cherry tree is eaten raw, cooked, preserved with
sugar, and in brandy; it is also preserved dry, or made into ratafia. By
fermentation, the juice of cherries, with the kernel, by adding sugar,
makes a very agreeable liquor, which is called cherry wine; a brandy is
produced with fermented cherries drawn by the alembic, very powerful;
that named _kirschen wasser_, in the province of German-Lorraine, is a
spirituous liquor, obtained by the distillation of various species of
wild cherries.”--BOSC.
APRICOT TREE.
The apricot tree was called by the Romans _Armeniaca_, the tree of
Armenia, where it originated. It must be looked upon as a useful
monument of the valour of the masters of the world, if it be true that,
after their conquest, they brought it from that province into
Rome.[XII-61]
The Latins also named the apricot _præcocia_ (precocious), because it
ripens at the beginning of summer (in June) before other fruits.[XII-62]
At the time when Pliny wrote (A.D. 72) the apricot tree had only been
known at Rome for 30 years; and apricots, still very rare, cost one
_denarius_, or sevenpence halfpenny each:[XII-63] they were only to be
found in the first-rate shops of the fruit market or emporium of the
third region, near the _Metasudante_, which was only open every ninth
day; or near the Naval Camp, outside the Trigemina Gate. Some years
later the agriculturists of the Roman suburbs brought into the city some
excellent ones at a very low price; but the fashion and the taste for
them had gone by.
“The green apricot is preserved before the stone becomes hard; when ripe
it is eaten raw, cooked, or stewed in marmalade; preserves are made of
it, as well as a dried paste, which keeps a long time; they are also
preserved in brandy. The stone as it is, or broken, is used in ratafia
of Noyau. Lastly, the kernel produces oil.”--DUTOUR.
PEACH TREE.
This fruit tree, originally from Persia, was first transplanted into
Greece,[XII-64] where it existed a long time before it passed into
Italy. It was still quite a novelty in Rome towards the middle of the
1st century of the Christian era, and the rich alone could eat peaches,
for they cost no less than £11 13_s._ 4_d._ the dozen, or 18_s._ 9_d._
each.[XII-65] This is rather dear fruit, however good it may be. But the
bill of fare of certain banquets will show us, by-and-by, whether the
Roman gastronomics knew how to spend their gold profusely, when they
wished to satisfy a caprice or enjoy some dainty curiosity.
It was believed in Rome that the peach contained a deadly poison when
gathered in Persia;[XII-66] but that, once transplanted to another soil,
it lost its injurious properties. This singular opinion, still held by
many persons in the present day, has been refuted by Pliny, who treats
it as a ridiculous idea;[XII-67] at any rate, Galen[XII-68] and
Dioscorides[XII-69] assert that this fruit is indigestible, unwholesome,
and that it often causes fevers.
The high price of peaches, and the short duration of their freshness,
caused amateurs to seek the means of preserving them for the longest
possible time. The following is the recipe given by Apicius:--
“Choose the finest of this fruit, and place them in water, saturated
with salt. The next day take them out, dry them with the greatest care,
and then put them into a vessel with savory, vinegar, and
salt.”[XII-70]
PLUM TREE.
Plum trees were known in Africa from time immemorial; and Theophrastus
speaks of the great number of these trees which were to be found at
Thebes, Memphis, and especially at Damascus.[XII-71] Athenæus, also,
praises the excellent plums of this last-named city;[XII-72] and we know
that time has not lessened their ancient reputation.
Asia and Egypt sent a great quantity to Europe; and, in order that they
might keep better during this long voyage, a part of them were dried,
and the rest were preserved--that is to say, the best--in honey and
sweet wine.[XII-73] These were the only kind known in Rome in the time
of Cato (150 years B.C.), but the Romans, then novices in the art of
good living, would have but ill-appreciated the delicate and perfumed
pulp of Damascus plums, at the moment when, hardly plucked from the
tree, their fresh and velvet-like bloom delights the eye and tempts the
palate of epicures. Two centuries later the science of good living made
incredible progress. A magiric atmosphere enveloped the capital of the
universe with its delicious fragrance, and the joyous free livers of
Italy cultivated in their gardens plums of the most beautiful purple and
gold,[XII-74] far superior to the much-extolled fruit from Damascus and
Memphis. The fields everywhere offered such luxuriance of plum trees
that Pliny, the opposition man, or _juste milieu_ of that time,
complained of their number,[XII-75] and grieved at what he fancied a
useless and expensive profusion of them.
The ancient Counts of Anjou transplanted the plums of Damascus into
their province; and the good King René of Sicily, Duke of Anjou and
Count of Provence, introduced them into southern Europe.[XII-76]
The plums of _Monsieur_ are thus named because Monsieur, the brother of
Louis XIV., was very fond of them.[XII-77]
The plums of _Reine Claude_ owe their name to the first consort of
Francis I., daughter of Louis XII.[XII-78]
The plums of _Mirabelle_ were brought from Provence into Lorraine by
King René.[XII-79]
XIII.
PIP FRUIT.
QUINCE TREE.
This tree appears to have been a native of Cydon, a city of Crete; from
hence it passed into Greece,[XIII-1] and soon became the delight of its
voluptuous inhabitants. The environs of Corinth, above all, were noted
for the sweetness and beauty of their quinces,[XIII-2] which the
enlightened luxury of Attica preferred to all others.
Rome did not fail to enrich itself with a fruit[XIII-3] to which the
ingenuity of culinary art was to give a new flavour. Young plants were
first imported from abroad, and put in boxes;[XIII-4] but the Romans
knew not how to rear them, and were obliged for a long time to content
themselves with excellent quinces preserved in honey, and sent from
Iberia and Syria to the great capital.[XIII-5]
At last they learned how to cultivate the quince tree,[XIII-6] and
subsequently introduced it into Gaul, where it succeeded admirably.
They, too, could then enjoy, with a certain pride, preserves nothing
inferior to those of Spain,[XIII-7] and which the confectioners in the
“market of dainties,”[XIII-8] kept in reserve with quince wine[XIII-9]
for the tables of the patricians; and also the stomachic exhilarating
liqueur extracted from the fruit of sweet Cydoneum,[XIII-10] which even
a _petite maîtresse_ would not have disdained at a light morning repast.