bethought himself to hollow a radish, and make it his residence. After
he had removed, this new kind of lair was discovered; it was put into a
scale, and found to weigh nearly one hundred pounds.[IX-162]
It is a pity that no one preserved the seed of so remarkable a
vegetable, which no doubt was only to be found in Judea.
The Greeks had very fine radishes, but they were not of such a
surprising size. They procured them from the territory of
Mantinea.[IX-163] Mount Algidea also furnished the Romans with an
excellent kind,[IX-164] but which they esteemed less highly than those
of Nursia,[IX-165] in the country of the Sabines. These latter cost
about threepence a pound in the time of Pliny; they were sold for double
that sum when the crop was not abundant.[IX-166]
Writers of antiquity notice three distinct kinds of radishes: the large,
short, and thick; the round; and the wild.[IX-167] They fancied that, at
the end of three years, the seed of this plant produced very good
cabbages,[IX-168] which must have been rather vexatious, at times, to
honest gardeners who might have preferred radishes.
In times of popular tumult this root was often transformed into an
ignominious projectile, with which the mob pursued persons whose
political opinions rendered them obnoxious to _the majority_, as we
might say in the present day.[IX-169] As soon as calm was
re-established, the insulting vegetable was placed in the pot to boil,
and afterwards eaten with oil and a little vinegar.[IX-170]
The Romans preserved radishes very well, by covering them with a paste
composed of honey, vinegar, and salt.[IX-171]
HORSE-RADISH.
“By Apollo!” cried, mournfully, a philanthropic and gastronomic Greek,
“one must be completely mad to buy horse-radish, when fish can be found
in the market.”[IX-172] So thought the philosopher Amphis. And at Rome,
as in Greece, this reviled and despised root hardly found a place on the
table of the poor, when anything else could be had.
There were several serious causes for this fatal proscription: this
plant was found to be bitter, stringy, and of difficult
digestion;[IX-173] it was looked upon as a very common food;[IX-174] the
lowest class alone dared to feed upon it; the opulent were therefore
compelled to exclude it from the number of their dishes. And again,
certain strange customs, authorised by the Roman law, contributed
greatly to make the horse-radish an object of horror and detestation; so
true it is, that the manner in which objects are associated with our
ideas determines almost invariably our love or hatred for them.
Nevertheless, all the species of this vegetable (and there were five in
number, distinctly mentioned by Theophrastus[IX-175]) ought not to have
been condemned so severely. The Corinthian, the Leiothasian, the
Cleonian, the Amorean, and the Bœotian, were so many distinct and
separate species, each of which possessed its own peculiar property and
quality.[IX-176] The last-named, with its large and silky leaves, was
tender, and had a sweet, agreeable taste.[IX-177] The others, not so
good, perhaps, were wholesome and nourishing, and their natural
bitterness never failed to disappear, when the seeds were allowed to
soak for some time in sweet or raisin wine before they were
sown.[IX-178]
Shall we now mention the properties the horse-radish possessed, and
which ought to have been sufficient to establish its reputation, if
prejudice were not both deaf and blind?
Take, fasting, some pieces of this beneficent and despised root, and the
most inveterate poisons will be changed for you into inoffensive
drinks.[IX-179]
Would you have the power to handle and play with those dangerous
reptiles whose active venom causes a speedy and sure death? Wash your
hands in the juice of horse-radish.[IX-180]
Do you seek an efficacious remedy for the numerous evils which besiege
us unceasingly? Take horse-radish,--nothing but horse-radish.[IX-181]
It is true that this incomparable root attacks the enamel of the teeth,
and, indeed, soon spoils them;[IX-182] but why should we be so
particular when so many marvellous properties are in question?
As to its culinary preparation, Apicius recommends us to serve it mixed
with pepper and garum.[IX-183]
GARLIC.
Garlic was known in the most remote ages. It was a god in Egypt.[IX-184]
The Greeks held it in horror. It was part of their military food--hence
came the proverb, “Eat neither garlic nor beans;” that is to say,
abstain from war and law.[IX-185] There was a belief that this plant
excited the courage of warriors; therefore, it was given to cocks to
incite them to fight. The Greek and Roman sailors made as great a use of
it as the soldiers,[IX-186] and an ample provision was always made when
they set out on any maritime expedition.[IX-187] It was a prevailing
opinion that the effects of foul air were neutralized by garlic; and it
was, no doubt, this idea which made reapers and peasants use it so
lavishly.[IX-188]
However, the taste for this vegetable was not always confined to the
people, in the southern countries of Europe; it gained, at times, the
high regions of the court. It is reported that, in 1368, Alphonso, King
of Castile, who had an extreme repugnance to garlic, instituted an order
of knighthood; and one of the statutes was, that any knight who had
eaten of this plant, could not appear before the sovereign for at least
one month.[IX-189]
The priests of Cybele interdicted the entry of the temple of this
goddess to persons who had made use of garlic. Stilphon, troubling
himself very little about this interdiction, fell asleep on the steps of
the altar. The mother of the gods appeared to him in his dream, and
reproached him with the little respect his breath disclosed for her. “If
you wish me to abstain from garlic,” replied Stilphon, “give me
something else to eat.”[IX-190]
The ancients, great lovers of the marvellous, believed that this
despised vegetable possessed a sovereign virtue against the greater
number of diseases,[IX-191] and that it was easy to deprive it of its
penetrating odour by sowing and gathering it when the moon was below the
horizon.[IX-192]
The Greek and Roman cooks used it but very seldom, and it was only
employed as a second or third-rate ingredient in some preparations of
Apicius which we shall hereafter mention.
“Garlic is called the physic of the peasantry, especially in warm
countries, where it is eaten before going to work, in order to guarantee
them from the pernicious effects of foul air. It would be too long were
we to relate all that has been written in favour of this vegetable; let
it suffice to say that it is employed in numerous pharmaceutical
preparations, and among others in vinegar, celebrated by the name of
_aromatic_ vinegar.”--BOSC.
ESCHALOTS.
Alexander the Great found the eschalot in Phœnicia, and introduced it
into Greece. Its Latin name, _Ascalonica_, indicates the place of its
origin, Ascalon, a city of Idumea.[IX-193] Its affinity with garlic set
the ancients against its culinary qualities, and this useful plant, too
much neglected, only obtained credit in modern times.
PARSLEY.
Hercules, the conqueror of the Nemæan lion, crowned himself with
parsley; a rather modest adornment for so great a hero, when others, for
exploits much less worthy, were decked with laurels. A similar crown
became, subsequently, the prize of the Nemæan[IX-194] and Isthmian
Games.[IX-195]
Anacreon, that amiable and frivolous poet, who consecrated all his
moments to pleasure, celebrates parsley as the emblem of joy and
festivity;[IX-196] and Horace, a philosophic sensualist of the same
stamp, commanded his banquetting hall to be ornamented with roses and
parsley.[IX-197]
Perhaps it was thought that the strong, penetrating odour of parsley
possessed the property of exciting the brain to agreeable imaginations;
if so, it explains the fact of its being worn by guests, placed round
their heads.
Fable has made it the food of Juno’s coursers.[IX-198] In battle, the
warriors of Homer fed their chargers with it;[IX-199] and Melancholy,
taking it for the symbol of mourning, admitted it at the dismal repasts
of obsequies.[IX-200]
Let us seek to discover in this plant qualities less poetic and less
brilliant, but, assuredly, more real and positive. In the first place:--
Wash some parsley with the roots adhering; dry it well in the sun; boil
it in water, and leave it awhile on one side; then put into a saucepan
some garlic and leeks, which must boil together a long time, and very
slowly, until reduced to two-thirds--that done, pound some pepper, mix
it with gravy and a little honey, strain the water in which the parsley
was boiled, and pour it over the parsley and the whole of the other
ingredients. Put the stewpan once more on the fire, and serve.[IX-201]
The following recipe is much less complicated and more expeditious:--
Boil the parsley in water, with nitre; press out all the water; cut it
very fine; then mix, with care, some pepper, alisander, marjoram and
onions; add some wine, gravy, and oil; stew the whole, with the parsley,
in an earthen pot or stewpan.[IX-202]
If the illustrious pupil of Chiron, the warlike Achilles, had known the
culinary properties of parsley as well as he knew its medicinal virtues,
he no doubt would have been less prodigal with it for his
horses;[IX-203] and the conquerors of Troy would have comforted
themselves, during the tediousness of a long siege, by cooking this
aromatic plant, and enjoying a new dish.
Parsley, according to some writers, was of Egyptian origin; but it is
not known who brought it into Sardinia, where it was found by the
Carthaginians, who afterwards made it known to the inhabitants of
Marseilles.
CHERVIL.
This plant, which Columella has described,[IX-204] furnished a relishing
dish, prepared with gravy, oil, and wine; or served with fried
fish.[IX-205] At the present day it is highly commendable in salad.
WATER-CRESSES.
The water-cress, the sight alone of which made the learned Scaliger
shudder with terror, is supposed to be a native of Crete. It was,
doubtless, the cresses of Alen (Suabia), which are cultivated in our
gardens, and not those commonly found in brooks and springs.
The Persians were in the habit of eating them with bread:[IX-206] they
made, in this manner, so delicious a meal, that the splendour of a
Syracusan table would not have tempted them.[IX-207] This is one of
those examples of sobriety which may be admired, but are seldom
followed.
Plutarch did not share the opinion of the Persians, but scornfully
ranked cresses amongst the lowest aliments of the people.[IX-208]
Nevertheless, the Romans, as well as the Greeks, granted to this
cruciform plant a host of beneficent qualities, and among others, a
singularly refreshing property. Refreshing! to say the truth, it
refreshes much in the same way that mustard and pepper do.[IX-209]
Boiled in goat’s milk, it cured thoracic affections;[IX-210] introduced
into the ears, it relieved the toothache:[IX-211] and finally, persons
who made it their habitual food found their wits sharpened and their
intelligence more active and ingenious.[IX-212]
However, it does not appear that cresses ever enjoyed, in Rome or
Athens, a culinary vogue equal to their officinal reputation; it was
said that its acrid taste twisted the nose,[IX-213] and this coarse jest
naturally did it harm to a certain degree with the rich and delicate. Be
that as it may, those who dared, ate it dressed in the following
manner:--
With garum, or oil and vinegar;[IX-214] or with pepper, cummin-seed, and
lentiscus (leaves of the mastic-tree).[IX-215]
The water-cress _par excellence_ grows in springs, rivulets, and
ditches, in Europe. Its piquant taste is rather agreeable; it is eaten
as a salad or seasoning, with poultry and other roasted meat. This plant
increases the appetite, fortifies the stomach, and possesses
anti-scorbutic qualities.
A great consumption is made of it in certain countries. It is cultivated
in running waters, either in gardens, or sown in the shade, where it is
watered abundantly. The less it sees the sun, the softer it is.--BOSC.
X.
PLANTS USED IN SEASONING.
We will point out, as briefly as possible, those plants mostly used in
the kitchens of the ancients to heighten the flavour of their dishes, or
to give them a particular taste, according as the dish or fancy might
require it. In them especially lies the secret of those _irritamenta
gulæ_, or excitements of the palate, which Apicius brought so much into
fashion.
POPPY.
The seed of this plant was offered, fried, at the beginning of the
second course, and eaten with honey.[X-1] Sometimes it was sprinkled on
the crust of a kind of household bread, covered with white of eggs.[X-2]
Some of it was also put into the panada, or pap, intended for
children[X-3]--perhaps to make them sleep the sooner.
SESAME.
This seed was used in nearly the same manner as the poppy, and it
occupied a distinguished rank among the numerous dainties served at
dessert.[X-4] Certain round and light cakes were covered with this
seed.[X-5] The Romans brought sesame from Egypt.[X-6]
SOW-THISTLE.
This plant furnished a kind of milk, which was sometimes drunk:
sometimes various kinds of meat were seasoned with it.[X-7] It was
afterwards given up to rabbits, and there is every probability that they
will retain undisputed possession of it.
ORACH.
Few vegetables have been more exposed to injurious accusations.
Pythagoras reproaches it with causing a livid paleness, dropsy, and the
scrofula, in those persons who eat it.[X-8] Nevertheless, a greedy
curiosity introduced it into the catalogue of culinary preparations, and
the guests of Apicius tasted more than once the fatal orach without
knowing its pernicious properties. History does not say that they
suffered any pernicious effects from it.
This plant is also eaten like spinach, and mixed with sorrel to soften
its acidity.--BOSC.
ROCKET.
Persons about to undergo the punishment of the whip were recommended to
swallow a cup of wine, in which rocket had been steeped. It was asserted
that this draught rendered pain supportable.[X-9] And again, that this
plant, taken with honey, removed the freckles which sometimes appear on
the face.[X-10]
Whatever may be the degree of credence accorded to these two recipes,
this vegetable enjoyed some reputation among the ancients, who mixed the
wild and the garden rocket together, so as to temper the heat of the one
by the coldness of the other.[X-11]
FENNEL.
It was employed but seldom in the preparation of dishes or pastry; but
it was believed that the juice of its stalk had the property of
restoring or strengthening the sight.[X-12]
DILL.
This plant, which, according to the ancients, weakened the eyes,[X-13]
was much renowned for its exquisite odour,[X-14] and its stomachic
qualities.[X-15] A much-admired perfume[X-16] was made from it; it
produced an agreeable sort of wine or liqueur;[X-17] and a small number
of choice dishes, for the enjoyment of connoisseurs, owed to it the
reputation they had acquired.[X-18]
ANISE-SEED.
The production of an umbelliferous plant, which grows wild in Egypt, in
Syria, and other eastern countries. Pliny recommends it to be taken in
the morning, with honey and myrrh in wine:[X-19] and Pythagoras
attributes to it eminent Hygeian properties, whether eaten raw or
cooked.[X-20]
HYSSOP.
The Greeks, the Romans--and before them, the nations of the
east[X-21]--believed that hyssop renews and purifies the blood. This
plant, mixed with an equal quantity of salt, formed a remedy much
extolled by Columella.[X-22] It was crushed with oil to make a liniment,
used as a remedy for cutaneous eruptions.[X-23] An excellent liqueur
was obtained from it, known under the name of hyssop wine;[X-24] and
lastly, this plant was used in a number of dishes, which it rendered
more wholesome and refreshing.
WILD MARJORAM.
Nearly the same qualities were attributed to this herb as to
hyssop;[X-25] and it was employed still more frequently in the
composition of the most delicate condiments. Dioscorides[X-26] and
Cato[X-27] make copious remarks on a much-esteemed liqueur, which they
called wild marjoram wine.
SAVORY.
An odoriferous herb, which entered into the seasoning of nearly every
dish.[X-28]
THYME.
Besides the various culinary purposes for which the ancients used this
plant, they, like ourselves, extracted from thyme aromatic
liqueurs,[X-29] the preparation of which will be given in another part
of this work.
WILD THYME.
We find it rarely spoken of by magiric writers. Pliny believes it to be
most efficacious against the bite of serpents.[X-30]
SWEET MARJORAM.[X-31]
Was much employed in the Isle of Cyprus; very little, if at all, in
Rome, where they knew little more of sweet marjoram than the oil
extracted from it.[X-32]
PENNYROYAL.
The ancients entwined their wine caps with pennyroyal,[X-33] and made
crowns of it, which were placed on their heads during their repasts, by
the aid of which they hoped to escape the troublesome consequences of
too copious libations.[X-34] On leaving the table, a small quantity of
this plant was taken, to facilitate digestion.[X-35]
Pennyroyal occupied, also, an important place in high gastronomic
combinations.
RUE.
The territory of Myra, a city of Lycia, produced excellent rue.[X-36]
Mithridates looked upon this vegetable as a powerful
counter-poison;[X-37] and the inhabitants of Heraclea, suspicious--and
with reason--of the villany of their tyrant, Clearchus, never stirred
from their dwellings without having previously eaten plentifully of
rue.[X-38] This plant cured also the ear-ache;[X-39] and to all these
advantages, it joined that of being welcomed with honour on all festive
occasions.[X-40]
MINT.
There was formerly--no matter where or when--a beautiful young girl, who
was changed into this plant through the jealous vengeance of
Proserpine.[X-41] Thus transformed, she excited the appetite of the
guests, and awakened their slumbering gaiety.[X-42] Mint prevented milk
from curdling, even when rennet was put into it.[X-43]
SPANISH CAMOMILE.
The Romans sometimes mixed with their drink the burning root of the
Spanish camomile;[X-44] and we are astonished at meeting with the name
of this formidable plant among the ingredients of some of their dishes.
CUMMIN.
The condiments prepared with cummin had a very great reputation; and
culinary authors frequently mention this vegetable, which the Greeks and
Romans invariably used.[X-45]
ALISANDER.
The same might be said of alisander, which, in the time of Pliny, passed
as an universal remedy,[X-46] and which Apicius honours by naming in
many of his dishes.
CAPERS.
Young buds of the caper tree, a shrub--native of Asia, where the species
are in great varieties. It was but little thought of at the tables of
the higher classes, and therefore was left to the people.[X-47]
The buds of the caper are gathered, and thrown into barrels filled with
vinegar, to which a little salt is added; then, by means of several
large sieves made of a copper plate, rather hollow, and pierced with
holes of different sizes, the different qualities are separated, and
classed under different numbers. The vinegar is renewed, and the capers
are replaced in the barrel, ready for exportation.
ASAFŒTIDA.
This plant, which we have excluded from our kitchens, and whose nauseous
smell is far from exciting the appetite, reigned almost as the chief
ingredient in the seasoning of the ancients. Perhaps they cultivated a
kind which in no way resembled that of modern times. If it were the
same, how are we to explain the extreme partiality which Apicius shows
for it? and which he says must be dissolved in luke-warm water, and
afterwards served with vinegar and garum.[X-48]
It is certain that the resin drawn by incision from the root of this
plant is still much esteemed by the inhabitants of Persia and of India;
they chew it constantly, finding the odour and taste exquisite.
“The neck of the root is cleared of the earth it is covered with, and
replaced by a handful of herbs. At the end of forty days the summit of
the root is out transversely; then a small bundle of herbs is laid over,
so as not to touch it. A whitish liquor exudes from the cut, and every
other day it is gathered; the cut is renewed until the root is quite
exhausted. The result of this crop is laid on leaves, and dried in the
sun.”--BOSC.
SUMACH.
The Romans made use of the seed to flavour several kinds of
dishes.[X-49]
GINGER.
This root was known at Rome under the Emperors, and many persons have
confounded ginger with pepper, although they in no way resemble each
other. Pliny refutes this error, and represents it as a native of
Arabia.[X-50] It was used with other condiments.[X-51]
“The Indians grate this root in their broth or _ragoût_; they make a
paste which they believe is good against the scurvy. The inhabitants of
Madagascar eat it green, in salad, cut in small pieces, and mixed with
other herbs, which they season with salt, oil, and vinegar. In other
places ginger is taken infused as a drink; it fortifies the chest, and
awakens the appetite. It is preserved in sugar after it has been
stripped of its bark, and soaked in vinegar. Delicious preserves are
made of it with much perfume, and which keep a very long
time.”--DUTOUR.
WORMWOOD.
The Egyptians had a great respect for the wormwood of Taposiris,--no
doubt on account of the medicinal properties which physicians attributed
to it.
Heliogabalus often regaled the populace with wormwood wine,[X-52] and
the Romans gave it to the victorious charioteers. Pliny thinks this
plant so salutary that nothing more precious could have been presented
to them.[X-53] This explanation appears to have had but little
plausibility, and it has been more rationally supposed that this liquor
prevented or counteracted any giddiness they might feel. “You can cure
yourself of dizziness,” says Strabo, “with the bitter leaf of
wormwood.”[X-54]
The Roman wormwood wine was composed in the following manner:
They bruised one ounce of this vegetable, and mixed it with three
scruples of gum, as much spikenard, six of balm, and three scruples of
saffron; to which was added eighteen _setiers_, or 180 gallons English,
of old wine. This mixture was left to stand some time, but was not
heated or subjected to any other process.[X-55]
In pharmacy, wine is made of wormwood; also a syrup, a preserve, an
extract, oil by infusion, an essential oil, and wormwood salt. It is
supposed that several brewers on the Continent substitute the leaves and
flowers of this plant for hops, in the manufacture of beer. It is,
perhaps, a calumny, and we only repeat it in a whisper.
“The leaves of wormwood are used in salad to make it more digestible and
heighten the flavour. They are preserved in vinegar, and to season
dishes. Lastly, they are considered by some persons as a remedy, and the
frequent use of them to be indispensable for the preservation of their
existence.”--BOSC.
* * * * *
In concluding this chapter, it will be necessary to anticipate a
question which naturally presents itself: did the Romans know the art of
forcing fruits, and of procuring, at one season, the various vegetables
or plants which belong to another period of the year?
Some verses from Martial will leave no doubt on the subject:--
“Whoever has seen the orchards of the King of Corcyrus (Alcinous), dear
Entellus, must have preferred thy rural habitation. Thou knowest how to
preserve from the rigours of winter the purple grapes of thy vine bower,
and prevent the cold frost from devouring the gifts of Bacchus. Thy
grapes live enclosed under a transparent crystal, which covers without
concealing them.
“What can avaricious nature refuse to the industry of man? Sterile
winter is constrained to give up the fruits of autumn.”[X-56]