CULTIVATION OF THE CHINCHONA-PLANTS IN THE NEILGHERRY HILLS, UNDER THE
SUPERINTENDENCE OF MR. McIVOR.
IN previous chapters detailed accounts have been given of the
proceedings connected with the collection of chinchona plants and seeds
in South America, their conveyance to India, and the selection of
suitable sites for their cultivation. It now only remains to record the
progress of this important experiment in the Neilgherry hills during
the last year, and to offer some remarks on the contemplated measures
connected with its future management. A very valuable Report by Mr.
McIvor, on the same subject, will be found in an Appendix.
It is a subject of congratulation that the Government should have at
their disposal the services of one so admirably fitted for the post
of Director of chinchona cultivation as Mr. McIvor. This gentleman
has superintended the Government gardens at Ootacamund for fourteen
years, and their beauty as well as their usefulness are due to
him;[499] while his periodical visits to the Conolly teak plantations
have been productive of the most valuable results,[500] and he has
successfully introduced a great number of English and other plants into
the Neilgherry hills.[501] Mr. McIvor combines with his attainments
as a scientific gardener great practical experience, and a thorough
acquaintance with the climates, soils, and flora of the hills. He has
long taken a deep interest in the question of the introduction of
chinchona-plants into India, and he brought the subject to the notice
of Lord Harris, then Governor of Madras, as long ago as 1855. Since
that time he has made himself master of the subject by a study of every
work of any importance which has appeared in Europe within the last
thirty years;[502] while the practical knowledge which he has acquired
of the requirements of chinchona-plants during the fifteen months that
he has now superintended their cultivation, in addition to his previous
qualifications, makes him fitter than any other person that could be
found for the direction of this most important experiment.
In July 1861 Mr. McIvor was appointed Superintendent of chinchona
cultivation by the Madras Government, with full and entire control
over the operations, in direct communication with the Government,
and subject to no interference from any intermediate authority.[503]
Orders to the same effect were sent out to Madras by the Secretary of
State for India in Council on July 2nd, 1861, and the same orders were
repeated both to the Governor-General and to the Governor of Madras,
in despatches dated February 1862. It was above all things important
that Mr. McIvor's position, in connexion with the chinchona experiment,
should be authoritatively defined, in order to protect him from
attempts at interference, which have been as vexatious as they have
been unnecessary, and which have more than once threatened to render
success impossible. These dangers are now, fortunately, at an end; and
the interest taken by Sir William Denison, the present Governor of
Madras, in a measure calculated to confer so great a benefit on the
people of India, ensures to it a fair trial, and is one of the best
guarantees of ultimate success.
Mr. McIvor's zeal and ability, his intimate knowledge of his
profession, of the Neilgherry hills, and of all questions bearing on
the subject of chinchona-plants, and his acquirements as a scientific
as well as a practical gardener, justify the confidence which has
thus been placed in him by the Secretary of State in Council, and
by the Madras Government. He has also had the advantage of personal
intercourse, for weeks together, with Mr. Cross, Mr. Weir, and myself,
after we had explored and carefully examined the chinchona forests in
South America; but his subsequent experience in the cultivation of the
plants under his charge has furnished him with means of observation
which now gives his opinion greater weight than those of persons whose
knowledge is derived from books, from short visits to the plantations
in Java, or even from personal examination of the South American
forests.
In offering my opinion on the best method of cultivating the
chinchona-plants, I have the satisfaction of knowing that my
conclusions substantially agree with those of Mr. McIvor--mine being
founded on experience gained in the chinchona forests, and his on
careful observation of the plants which he has reared in India. That
these views should be concurred in by Dr. Weddell, Mr. Howard, and Mr.
Spruce, is most satisfactory, as it supplies an additional presumption
of their correctness.
I will now proceed to give an account of the progress of the chinchona
cultivation in the Neilgherry hills. The first batch of seeds, being
those of the "grey-bark" species from Huanuco, arrived at Ootacamund
on the 13th of January, 1861, and those of the "red-bark" followed in
the end of February. On the 7th of April 463 plants of _C. succirubra_
and six of _C. Calisaya_ reached their destination on the Neilgherry
hills in very good condition, considering the length of time they had
been in Wardian cases, and thus the experiment was fairly commenced.
The first sowing, which took place in January, was not very successful,
because Mr. McIvor was induced to use too retentive a soil, having been
misled by the treatment of seeds adopted in Java; and only 3 to 4 per
cent. germinated. The second sowing took place early in March, the soil
used being of a much freer nature, half composed of burned earth; and
15 to 25 per cent. germinated. Encouraged by this result, Mr. McIvor
used a soil composed entirely of burned earth for the third sowing,
which took place in the beginning of April, and included the seeds of
the "red-bark" species. Of this sowing 60 per cent. germinated, and
of the seeds of _C. micrantha_ 90 per cent. It is to be remembered
that all these seeds were collected in the South American forests some
months before, and that they had passed through the perils of several
climates, and a voyage of many thousands of miles.
In May all the plants of _C. succirubra_ had taken fairly to the
soil, and were in a healthy and flourishing condition, those of _C.
Calisaya_ were doing well, but recovering more slowly from the effects
of the voyage, and the seedlings were growing fast. The temperature
given to the plants was 60° in the morning, rising to 75° in the day,
with plenty of light and air; this treatment having proved to be best
adapted for their rapid growth. Of course they would grow higher if
shaded, and consequently drawn up, according to the erroneous plan
adopted in Java; but this is not what is wanted, and, by giving them
plenty of light and air, they grew into fine strong plants, as broad as
they were long.
It was found that the chinchonæ are remarkably impatient of any damp at
their roots, all the species thrive better in rough and open than in
fine soil, and there is reason to believe that they will bear a much
drier climate than we originally supposed.
During the autumn of 1861 the work of propagation, by means of cuttings
and layers, progressed rapidly; and, whereas in June 1861 we only had
2114 chinchona-plants of valuable species at Ootacamund, in January
the number was increased to 9732 plants. The layers of _C. succirubra_
root sufficiently to be removed in five weeks, and cuttings in two
months; layers of the "grey-bark" taking a little longer time to root,
or about six weeks. Mr. McIvor has also made the important discovery
that chinchonæ strike freely from _eyes_, and make beautiful plants
exactly like strong seedlings. These _eyes_ will give about eight fine
strong plants for one that is obtained from cuttings, which is a great
advantage while there is not much wood in the young plants. In October
Mr. McIvor reduced the temperature of one of the propagating houses
to 55° at night, and 65° during the day; and, under this treatment,
which is also probably advantageous to the bark, the plants appeared
to grow faster, and the leaves became a very beautiful bright green.
The thickness of the bark, in the plants of _C. succirubra_, is very
remarkable, having been in some instances nearly one-seventh of an
inch last January, and in the smaller stems the average thickness of
the bark considerably exceeds that of the wood. Mr. McIvor attributes
the unusual thickness of the bark to the presence of a large number of
healthy leaves, exposed to bright light. These leaves throw back into
the bark a large quantity of highly elaborated matter. The experience
of a year's cultivation convinced Mr. McIvor that, although the most
suitable elevation and climate differs with the various species, yet
that they all require a rich, rough, and very open soil. In September
the erection of a new propagating house for chinchona-plants, in the
Government gardens at Ootacamund, was sanctioned, which was completed
early in December. It is 63 feet long by 21 broad, and will hold about
8000 plants.
The Dutch Government in Java, at the request of the Government of
India, arranged to forward some chinchona-plants of the species
cultivated in that island to Calcutta; and accordingly 100 of _C.
Calisaya_, 300 of _C. Pahudiana_, and 7 of _C. lancifolia_ were
transmitted. Of these 48 of _C. Calisaya_, 4 of _C. lancifolia_, and
250 of _C. Pahudiana_ arrived at Ootacamund on the 20th of December,
1861. In exchange for these plants a supply of _C. succirubræ_, and a
proportionate number of the other species, will be sent to Java, "not
more in return for the valuable accession actually received to our
stock of plants of _C. Calisaya_, than in acknowledgment of the very
courteous and liberal spirit evinced by the Dutch authorities."[504] At
about the same time Mr. McIvor also sent 100 plants of _C. succirubra_
and 50 of each of the "grey-bark" species to Calcutta, with a view to
the establishment of a chinchona plantation in the Sikkim or Bhotan
hills.
The plants which arrived from Java were drawn and weak, and had
evidently been grown without sufficient light. They were all more or
less affected by rot at their roots, and many of the roots were covered
with fungi. A few of the plants of _C. Calisaya_ died, but the others
recovered under Mr. McIvor's watchful care.
A large parcel of seeds of _C. Condaminea_, probably of two varieties
(_Chahuarguera_ and _Uritusinga_), and a smaller packet of seeds of
_C. crispa_, were despatched from England in January, and arrived at
Ootacamund in March, 1862. By this time Mr. McIvor had discovered the
best method of treatment for chinchona-seeds. He sows in very sandy
soil; and while so much water is never given as to make the particles
of soil adhere to each other, yet the soil is kept in a uniform
medium state of moisture. In this way the seeds not only germinate
soon, but come up very strong. There is every reason to expect that a
good per-centage of these seeds will germinate,[505] and that a large
number of these, the earliest known of all the valuable chinchona
species, will soon be growing luxuriantly in the upper _sholas_ of the
Neilgherry hills. Mr. Howard has also presented the Government with a
plant of _C. Uritusinga_ of Pavon (_C. Condaminea_, H. and B.), six
feet high, which he had raised from seed sent to him from Loxa. This
precious plant was embarked on board the steamer on the 4th of March,
1862, and arrived at Ootacamund early in April.
Thus, after two anxious years, we now have all the valuable species
of chinchonæ mentioned in the second chapter, safely established in
Southern India. In the following tabular statement will be seen at a
glance the number of species, the number of each species, the number of
plants last February, their monthly increase since June, their monthly
growth, and their present dimensions. The number is now increasing at
the rate of several thousands every month. The imported plants of _C.
succirubra_ have already produced some thousands by propagation; and in
December the seedlings had attained a size sufficient to give wood for
propagation, the first of them having even then produced a few hundred
plants.
From the total number of 10,157 chinchona-plants must be deducted 425
of the worthless _C. Pahudiana_ sent from Java, leaving a total of 9732
of valuable species on the 1st of February, with the number rapidly
increasing. The increase was not so large as it otherwise would have
been during the first two months of 1862, owing to the supply of a
number of plants to Java, and the transmission of others to Calcutta,
with a view to the formation of a plantation in the Bengal hills, and
of sixteen to Mr. Maltby for the Rajah of Travancore.
[Illustration: MONTHLY REPORTS of the Number and Growth of the
CHINCHONA PLANTS on the Neilgherry Hills.[506]]
It is exceedingly satisfactory to compare these results with those
of the Dutch cultivators in Java. After _six_ years they only had
(exclusive of the _C. Pahudiana_, which is quite worthless) 8454
chinchona-plants of valuable species;[507] whereas in rather less
than _one_ year Mr. McIvor has reared 9732, without counting several
hundreds which he has transmitted to Java, Calcutta, and Travancore.
The Dutch have only introduced _two_ good species, while we have
obtained _nine_, exclusive of the four plants of _C. lancifolia_
presented by the Dutch authorities. Thus, the average increase of
valuable species of _chinchona_-plants in Java between 1854 and 1860
being at the rate of 1409 a year, the results attained in India have
been nearly seven times as great as those of the Dutch cultivators.
These facts are not mentioned in any spirit of undue exultation, but in
order to show that it is not advisable slavishly to follow the methods
of cultivation adopted by the Dutch, as two gentlemen, in official
positions, who have recently visited the plantations in Java, appear to
imagine. On the contrary, a system of cultivation diametrically opposed
to that of the Dutch has enabled Mr. McIvor to achieve his present
success; and the sites for plantations have been selected and prepared,
not with any reference to the erroneous and comparatively unsuccessful
systems pursued in Java, but on the principle of carefully comparing
the elevations, temperature, amount of humidity, and of exposure of the
mountains where the different valuable species of chinchona thrive in
South America, with analogous situations in the hills of Southern India.
The important process of planting out has now commenced in the
Neilgherry hills, and it has been a subject of careful consideration
whether the chinchona-plants should be grown under dense shade, under
the partial shade of forest-trees, or quite in the open: in other
words--what are the elevations and amounts of exposure best suited to
the growth of the plants, and the development of their alkaloids?
In Java the chinchona-plants were at first established at far too low
an elevation, in a wretched soil, and exposed to the full glare of
the sun. Dr. Junghuhn, the present Superintendent, went to the other
extreme, and, though the proper elevation has been ascertained, yet
the error has been committed of forming the plantations in the dense
shade of the forest, with the intention of allowing some trees to be
drawn up in search of light, without a branch for thirty or forty feet,
and of cutting them down for their bark in about forty years, and of
grubbing up others in search of imaginary quinine in their roots.[508]
I understand that this plan has at last been found to be erroneous,
and that Dr. Junghuhn now directs all the trees in the vicinity of the
chinchona-plants to be cut down, though faith is still maintained in
the quinine-yielding roots of the worthless _C. Pahudiana_.[509]
If the thing was not sufficiently evident in itself, the appearance of
the barks sent from Java to the Exhibition of 1862 is quite enough to
prove that chinchona-plants ought not to be cultivated under the shade
of forest-trees. The question of the proper amount of exposure to which
each species should be subjected is, however, one which requires very
careful consideration; as upon its correct solution depends the most
important point of all, namely the method of cultivation which will
be most profitable, and most suitable to the operations of private
enterprise.
Mr. McIvor commenced experiments in planting out in the spring of 1861.
In April he planted out three plants of _C. succirubra_, two under
shade, and one in an open spot surrounded by brushwood and undergrowth.
On the 29th of the same month the S.W. monsoon set in, and the plants
under dense shade assumed a weak climber-like habit, and were injured
from the leaves being cut to pieces by the constant drip from the
forest-trees;[510] while the plant shaded by the brushwood continued
in the most luxuriant state of health, with its leaves uninjured. In
September 1861, six plants of different species were planted out in
cleared spots on the highest and most exposed points of the Neddiwuttum
site, and all of these have not only borne the cold and drought without
injury, but their growth has never even been checked, and at present
they are in the finest possible state of health. Their leaves are of
the deepest green, some of them measuring 12 inches by 9.
Between May and August fifteen "red-bark" plants were planted out at
Ootacamund. The unusual cold of December checked the growth of these
plants, but did not injure them in the least, and the leaves still keep
their deep-green colour, and measure from 7 to 9 inches.[511]
Early in January 1862, the formation of a nursery was commenced at
Neddiwuttum, large enough for 300,000 or 400,000 Chinchonæ; and 2400
were planted out. 150 acres are to be planted, at the Neddiwuttum
site, during the year; of which 75 acres will be planted under
various degrees of shade from forest-trees, in order to ascertain
the results of this method by actual experiment; and 75 quite in the
open, the young plants being protected from the direct rays of the sun
by artificial shade during the first year or two. The original stock
will be retained in the gardens at Ootacamund, for the purpose of
propagation, and the propagated plants will be used for stocking the
nurseries and plantations.
With regard to the question of whether the chinchonæ should be planted
out in dense shade of forest-trees or in the open, it will be well to
recapitulate some of the information which has been collected in their
native habitat in South America.
In the forests of Caravaya I observed that the plants of _C. Calisaya_,
when in dense shade, were tall and weak, with few branches, and without
any sign of ever having flowered or fruited. When very slightly shaded,
as on the ridge of rocks above the Yanamayu, or scarcely at all, as
on the precipice of Ccasa-sani, they spread more, have a more healthy
appearance, and are covered with capsule-bearing panicles; while the
most thriving and healthy-looking young plant that I met with, was
growing in the open, without any shade whatever. It is quite certain
that an abundance of light and air is an absolute necessity for the
full development of the alkaloids in the bark of _C. Calisaya_, and
that the trees must either grow at the edge of the forests, or else
find their way to the light, by overtopping all other trees: otherwise,
as is too often the case, they assume a weakly, straggling habit under
the baneful influence of dense shade.
Dr. Weddell is of opinion that, during the first year or two, the soil
and trunks of young trees of _C. Calisaya_ should be protected from the
direct influence of the scorching sun, as he had observed that plants
so exposed generally appeared to have a stunted growth. He refers of
course to the _Josephiana_ or shrub variety of _C. Calisaya_, but their
dwarfed habit must be attributed to the less fertile soil of the open
grass-land in which they grow, and partly also to the great altitude,
and consequently cold climate, rather than to effects of exposure to
light and air.
With respect to the "red-bark" species, there cannot be a doubt
that they should be planted in the open. On this point Mr. Spruce's
observations are quite conclusive. He says--"The trees standing in
open ground, pasture, cane-field, &c., are far healthier and more
luxuriant than those growing in the forest, where they are hemmed in
and partially shaded by other trees; and while many of the former had
flowered freely, the latter were, without exception, sterile. This
plainly shows that, although the red-bark may need shade whilst young
and tender, it really requires (like most trees) plenty of air, light,
and room, wherein to develop its proportions."[512]
The "grey-bark" species all bear the marks of exposure to free air,
cold, and sunshine; and the overspreading thallus of various _Grapideæ_
on their barks indicates that the trees have grown in open situations,
exposed to rain and sunshine.[513]
The _C. Condaminea_ trees, in the neighbourhood of Loxa, grow
sometimes in little clumps, and sometimes solitary, but always in dry
situations.[514] Dr. Seemann, who visited Loxa when serving on board
H.M.S. Herald, informs me that those which he saw, bearing ripe fruit,
were on the edge of thickets, entirely exposed to the influence of air
and sunshine.
Dr. Weddell assures me that he would never recommend that any of the
chinchona-trees should be planted in the dense shade of the forest,
as in such a situation the greater number would evidently soon be
smothered. He is of opinion that the Chinchonæ, in India, should be
planted in open ground; but he considers it important that the trunks
and soil should be shaded during the first year or two. He proposes
to effect this object either by planting the chinchonas at convenient
distances in a quincunx, alternately with some more fast-growing trees,
which might be cut away when no longer required;[515] or by planting
the chinchonas themselves close enough to oblige each other to run up,
sufficient space and air being gradually provided by judicious pruning
and thinning out. The former method might be a good one if it were
not for the faster-growing trees taking up a great proportion of the
nourishment from the soil, which would be more profitably reserved for
the chinchonas; and probably the efficient shading of the trees, while
young and tender, will be more easily and effectually provided for by
simple artificial means.
Mr. Howard, the author of '_Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_,' whose
knowledge on all questions connected with chinchona-plants is not
surpassed by that of any botanist in Europe, is clearly of opinion that
they should be planted in the open, without shade from other trees,
and that they should be cultivated as shrubs; when their branches will
yield an ample and remunerative supply of bark.
On the other hand, Dr. Junghuhn, in Java, has planted his chinchonæ
under the dense shade of forest-trees, where they must necessarily
be watery and unhealthy, where they will not flower or bear fruit,
and where he does not expect that they will yield quinine for fifty
years, when he contemplates the entire demolition of the plantations
by felling all the trees. Now, if such a system as this is to be
adopted in India, the chinchona-plants might as well never have been
introduced. The plantations would be a wasteful expense to Government,
with a remote chance of some profit, forming but a small fraction
of the outlay, about twice in a century; and the idea of chinchona
cultivation ever being undertaken by private enterprise, on this
system, is quite out of the question; for what planter in his senses
would commence the cultivation of a product which would yield him no
return for forty or fifty years?
When planted in the open chinchonæ grow luxuriantly, yield abundant
supplies of seed, and form fine thick bark, which, owing to the free
exposure of the leaves to the influence of light and fresh air,
contains a large per-centage of alkaloids; while, in the shade of
forest-trees, they run up into tall, weak, straggling plants, with
little chance of either bearing fruit, or elaborating much quinine in
their bark, until, after nearly half a century, some of them at length
overtop the other trees, and reach that essential sunshine of which
they had been so long deprived.
I not only think, with Mr. Spruce, Dr. Weddell, Mr. Howard, Mr. McIvor,
and Mr. Cross, that the chinchona-plants must be planted in the open,
and freely exposed to the influence of fresh air and sunshine; but I am
most strongly of opinion that, if the opposite system was unfortunately
adopted, it would have been far better if the expense and trouble of
introducing these precious trees into India had never been incurred.
It is true that, when planted in the forest, the chinchonæ will
look well to the casual observer, and that their cultivation can be
conducted without skill or care, as all will be left to nature; while,
in open ground, it will require great skill and constant attention to
get the young trees over the first year or two. The cleared ground
will be exposed to the full effects of evaporation and radiation, and
much judicious management will be necessary in applying artificial
shade, and in adopting other precautions. The open spaces should not, I
think, be of very great extent, without being broken up by clumps or
irregular lines of trees; and care must be taken that the supplies of
moisture and of water are not prejudiced by too much felling. But these
details may safely be left to Mr. McIvor, who now has the assistance of
two well-instructed English gardeners, named Batcock and Lyall; and he
will be able to obtain uniform and constant yearly supplies of bark,
without any damage to the trees, which, when once full-grown, will
thrive luxuriantly, and yield abundance of seeds.
The most suitable positions for chinchona-plants, as regards elevation
and climate, having been pointed out, and the best method of treatment
with respect to exposure being decided in favour of planting out in
open ground, two other questions remain to be discussed which are
intimately connected with the above,--namely, the conditions under
which the largest per-centage of febrifugal alkaloids will be formed in
the bark,[516] and the method of cultivation which is likely to yield
the largest and most remunerative supplies of bark in the shortest time.
One well-established fact, which is proved by universal experience,
is that all the species of chinchona-trees produce the thickest bark
and the largest per-centage of alkaloids when growing at the highest
elevation at which they respectively flourish. Thus, all other
circumstances being favourable, the _C. Calisaya_ and _C. succirubra_
species will yield more profitable crops when growing at an elevation
of 6000 feet, than at one of 5000 feet. The shrubby varieties of
chinchonæ are specially good when their stunted growth is owing to the
altitude of the locality.[517] Mr. Spruce ascertained, with regard to
the "red bark," that the greater the height at which the tree grows,
the larger is the proportion of alkaloids contained in the bark;[518]
and that, although the trees growing nearest the plain were generally
much larger, yet their bark was by no means so thick in proportion to
their diameter as in trees higher up. He adds that, in cutting down
trees in the hot plains, he has often been struck with the thinness of
the bark compared to that of trees growing in temperate climates.[519]
There are several other conditions under which the largest amount
of alkaloids is formed in chinchona-barks, which are as yet little
understood. Dr. Karsten suggests that the content of alkaloids in
the same species of chinchona-trees, growing in different ravines,
is affected by unceasing mists in one, and constant sunshine resting
on the vegetation in the other; the former impeding, and the latter
promoting, the formation of quinine.[520] In the Loxa region a great
difference has been noticed in the bark of _C. Condaminea_, according
as the tree has grown on the sides of the mountains most exposed to
the rays of the morning or of the evening sun: and Mr. Spruce remarks
of the "red-bark" trees that the ridges on which they grow all deviate
from an easterly and westerly direction, and that the trees are far
more abundant on their northern than on their southern slopes. The
northern and eastern sides of the trees had also borne most flowers,
and scarcely a capsule ripened on their southern and western sides,
except on one tree of more open growth than the rest. This phenomenon
is due to the fact that the trees receive more sunshine from the north
and east, during the summer mornings,[521] the afternoons being usually
foggy.
All these points will receive careful attention from Mr. McIvor, in
conducting the cultivation; and his observations will soon enable him
to decide many points connected with the formation of quinine in the
bark, and to ascertain the most advantageous conditions under which the
plants should be cultivated.
The sites have been selected at Neddiwuttum and Dodabetta with
reference to the similarity of elevation and climate in those
localities to the native mountains of the species which it is intended
to cultivate in them, and because they have plenty of deep loamy soil.
It has also been determined that the best method of cultivation will be
found in planting out the chinchonæ in the open, for reasons already
given; and not only will the luxuriant and healthy growth of the
plants be provided for by this treatment, but it is also essential for
the formation of an abundant supply of alkaloids in their bark. This
process depends on the vigorous action of the leaves, and the healthful
condition of the leaves is due to a sufficient supply of sunshine. Dr.
Lindley says,--"It is to the action of leaves,--to the decomposition
of their carbonic acid, and of their water; to the separation of the
aqueous particles of the sap from the solid parts that were dissolved
in it; to the deposition thus effected of various earthy and other
substances, either introduced into plants as silex or metallic salts,
or formed there, as the vegetable alkaloids; to the extrication of
nitrogen; and, probably, to other causes as yet unknown--that the
formation of the peculiar secretions of plants, of whatever kind, is
owing. And this is brought about principally, if not exclusively, by
the agency of light. Their green colour becomes intense, in proportion
to their exposure to light within certain limits."[522]
Under cultivation the chinchona-plants must either be raised in their
shrubby form in the open, or as tall trees under the shade of the
forest. The latter system, which has been adopted by Dr. Junghuhn in
Java, is defended on the ground that, in their natural localities in
the Andes, the chinchonæ "grow in damp forests overshadowed by trees."
There are two things to be said against this. Firstly, that it is not
the case; for though it is true that some species of chinchonæ do grow
in damp shady forests, yet they never flourish in such positions, but
only when supplied with plenty of light and air; and secondly, even if
it was the case, such an argument would be worth nothing. In their wild
state, and in localities where they are indigenous, all plants find
certain conditions which are favourable to their perfect development;
but they have to struggle for existence with a multitude of neighbours.
Every condition is not supplied by Providence for the special behoof
of one particular genus, and, in virgin forests, all trees suffer more
or less from being overcrowded and overshadowed. But under cultivation
the case is different. The cultivator endeavours to combine all the
conditions best calculated to ensure the perfect development of a
particular plant, and does not subject it to the baneful influences of
too much shade, merely because it suffered from overshading in its wild
state. Mr. McIvor has very aptly illustrated this point, by mentioning
that Bruce found wheat growing wild in Upper Egypt, struggling for
existence with rushes and other weeds. An English farmer would be
surprised if he was told to sow his wheat in the hedges, instead of in
the fields, because in its wild state it is found amongst weeds and
briars!
The facts that it will be necessary to wait for thirty years before any
return can be expected; and that it will have a most injurious effect
on the formation of alkaloids in the bark, are sufficient arguments
against planting the chinchonæ in the shade of the forest, and waiting
for them to run up until the survivors overtop the surrounding trees.
It has been necessary to bring these points prominently forward,
because attempts have been made to introduce the erroneous system,
adopted by the Dutch cultivators, into India.
We now come to the other alternative, that of raising the chinchonæ in
their shrubby form, on plantations in open clearings, with plenty of
fresh air and sunshine. It is the system of cultivation which I, in
common with Mr. Howard and Mr. McIvor, consider to be the most likely
to lead to successful results, because it is the only one by which
remunerative harvests of bark can be obtained year by year, without
injuring the plants.
Two questions require consideration before adopting this method: first,
whether the chinchonæ in their shrubby form will yield a sufficient
annual supply of febrifugal alkaloids to make the cultivation
remunerative; and secondly, whether it will be possible to take the
required quantity of bark every year, without checking the growth of
the trees.
The trunk or _tabla_ bark naturally yields a much larger per-centage of
alkaloids than the _canuto_ or small bark of branches; but as a supply
of the former could only be obtained once in forty years, and then at
the cost of destroying the plantations, while the latter will yield an
annual harvest without any injury to the trees, this point is not of
much consequence.[523]
The fact is that very little _tabla_ or trunk-bark comes from
South America, and that nearly the entire bark trade is supplied
by quill-bark from the branches of shrubs. Some Calisaya bark from
Bolivia, some "red bark," and "West-coast Carthagena," from the trunks
of _C. Palton_, arrive in the form of large slabs of _tabla_-bark; but
a great deal of the Calisaya and succirubra bark, the whole of the
"crown-bark" from Loxa, and all bark from other quarters, is found only
in the form of quills from small branches. I have measured several
of the quills which come into the London market, and find that none
of them have bark equal in thickness to that already attained by some
of the young plants reared by Mr. McIvor at Ootacamund.[524] These
quills are evidently taken from small shrubs, and they yield a very
good per-centage of quinine. Several samples of quill Calisaya bark,
sold in London in March 1862, contained four per cent. of quinine.
Their bark was one-eighth of an inch thick, and the quills were just
under an inch in circumference. In a cultivated state the yield will of
course be much greater, and Mr. Howard, judging from the usual yield of
quill-bark, is of opinion that a large produce may be annually realised
by growing the chinchonæ as shrubs.[525]
In cultivating the chinchonæ in rows on cleared plantations it will
probably be found advisable to grow them to a height of ten or twelve
feet, and about twelve feet from each other, so that they may be
able to spread out until they are nearly as broad as they are long;
and they should be induced to branch as near the ground as possible.
A certain number of the branches should be lopped annually for the
quinine harvest; shoots would immediately be thrown out below the cuts,
from which one or two should be selected to take the place of the
lopped branch; and in about six years the new branches, thus formed,
would be sufficiently grown to be again removed. In the mean while
the same operation would have been going on with other branches, and
thus an annual harvest of quill-bark may be obtained for any number of
years. Mr. McIvor considers that this treatment will ensure a quick,
uniform, and constant supply of bark; and if the lopping and pruning is
judiciously conducted, the trees will be benefited rather than injured
by the annual removal of a few branches.[526] Chinchona-plants, like
oaks and willows, might also be cultivated as pollards.
By cultivating the chinchona-plants on these principles, forming
plantations in cleared open ground, giving the plants plenty of
light and air, and obtaining annual harvests of quill-bark from
the shrubs, quinine-yielding chinchona-bark will become an article
of commerce within eight years from the first introduction of the
plants into India. After the first harvest the supply will rapidly
increase. Extensive Government plantations of the different species at
Neddiwuttum and Dodabetta on the Neilgherries, will be in a position to
supply any number of chinchonæ for private enterprise, and it is to be
hoped that the Government will establish other chinchona nurseries on
the Pulney hills, in Coorg, and eventually on the Anamallays.
As quinine-yielding bark is a more valuable product than coffee,
there is every reason to believe that, as soon as the Government
plantations are proved to be successful, many planters will undertake
the cultivation; and I understand from Mr. McIvor that several persons
have already expressed a desire to give the chinchonæ a trial, and that
he expects to be able to distribute plants by June 1862.[527] Thus
another important product will be added to the resources of India,
while the Government will have an abundant and cheap annual supply
of the most indispensable of all medicines to Europeans in tropical
climates, which is now only obtained at immense expense, and in
quantities quite insufficient to meet the demand.
In a commercial point of view the introduction of chinchona-plants
into India is likely to prove very beneficial, by adding another
valuable article of export to the numerous products of that favoured
land; but an equal if not a greater result will be derived from this
important measure, in the naturalisation of these healing plants in a
country the inhabitants of which suffer so severely and constantly from
intermittent and other fevers. From motives of humanity, as well as
from personal interest, every coffee-planter, as I have before said,
ought to cultivate a few rows of chinchona-plants in the upper part of
his clearing. Even if it is not intended to rear them on account of
their commercial value, yet such a measure recommends itself as a duty,
in order to have a supply of this inestimable febrifuge constantly at
hand for the use of those who are employed on the plantations.
Many of the natives are already fully aware of the febrifugal virtues
of Peruvian bark, and it is to be hoped that, in all the hill-districts
where there is a suitable elevation and climate, they will grow
chinchona-trees in their gardens, just as is now generally done with
coffee in all the villages in Coorg. For the use of the natives there
will be no necessity to go to the expense and trouble of extracting the
alkaloids, as the green fresh bark is itself very efficacious. After
the natives have once used this unfailing remedy, and experienced the
power it has over the fevers from which they suffer, they will, like
Dr. Poeppig in the wilds of Peru, approach the beautiful healing trees
with warm feelings of gratitude,[528] their fame will spread far and
wide, and the cultivation of chinchonæ will, I trust, be extended to
its utmost limit throughout the peninsula of India.
So far as my observations extended, the impression which I had
previously received, that the natives can with difficulty be induced
to undertake the cultivation of any new plants to which they have not
been accustomed, was not confirmed. Not to mention the potato, maize,
tobacco, and capsicums, which originally came from America, and are now
generally cultivated in India, it is a fact that in Wynaad upwards of
2000 acres are taken up for coffee cultivation by the natives; and in
Coorg, where coffee was only introduced about six years ago, I scarcely
saw a single hut to which a small coffee-garden was not attached.
The extent to which the cassava (_Jatophra Manihot_), only lately
introduced, is now cultivated in Travancore, is quite remarkable; and
there is every reason to suppose that the natives will be equally ready
to cultivate a plant possessing such extraordinary febrifugal powers as
the chinchona, the value of which they will soon appreciate.
Thus will the successful cultivation of the quinine-yielding
chinchona-plants confer a great and lasting benefit upon the people
of India, as well as upon the commerce of the whole world; and the
concluding words of Dr. Weddell's Introduction[529] may, therefore,
with strict propriety, be applied to Mr. McIvor and his assistants:
"Reste la ressource de la culture, et il faut l'employer. S'il est
un arbre digne d'être acclimaté, c'est certes le Quinquina; et la
postérité bénirait ceux qui auraient mis à exécution une semblable
idée."
While speaking of the incalculable value of _quinine_-yielding
chinchona-plants, it must be understood that I include those of the
"grey-bark" species, which yield _chinchonine_; and it is the more
important to dwell upon this, because a sentence in the Introduction to
Mr. Howard's valuable work is perhaps calculated to give a different
impression.[530] It is true that chinchonine will not command so
remunerative a price in the London market; yet it produces effects
on the system precisely analogous to quinine. To stop intermittent
fever, doses of chinchonine require to be one-third larger than doses
of quinine; but it is absolutely certain that the former is as good
a febrifuge as the latter, and it costs infinitely less. Planters
will of course, in the first instance, undertake the cultivation
of those species which yield quinine, such as _C. succirubra_, _C.
Condaminea_, _C. lancifolia_, and _C. Calisaya_; but the grey-bark
species will yield barks which will afford valuable supplies to the
Government hospitals; and their naturalisation all over the plateau
of the Neilgherries and other hill districts will be a great boon
to the natives. Hereafter the latter species will well repay the
outlay and labour of cultivation. Even now there is a great demand
for chinchonine; the chinchonidine of _C. Condaminea_ is considered
by Mr. Howard to be scarcely if at all inferior to quinine, and Dr.
J. Macpherson thinks so highly of the value of chinchonine that he
considers it to be of little importance whether the species introduced
into India are rich in quinine or chinchonine. This gentleman speaks
from experience acquired by long practice in the East Indies.[531]
The following is a table of the largest amount of alkaloids extracted
from, and the price in the London markets of the barks of species of
chinchonæ now introduced into India:--
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Largest amount of alkaloids Price in London per lb.
SPECIES. extracted from the bark. of dried bark,
in March, 1862.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
C. Uritusinga |{ 3.8 per cent. of quinine }|} _s._ _d._
|{ and chinchonidine }|}
| |}
C. Chahuarguera | 3.5 per cent. |} 2 6
| |}
C. crispa | 3.5 per cent. |}
| |
{ tabla |{ 8.5 per cent., of which }| 8 0
{ |{ 5 per cent. was quinine }|
C. succirubra { | |
{ quill |{ 5 per cent. of quinine }|
|{ and chinchonine }|
| |
{ tabla | 5 per cent. of quinine | 4 6
C. Calisaya { | |
{ quill | 3.5 per cent. of quinine |
| |
C. nitida | 2.2 per cent. of chinchonine }|
| }|
C. micrantha | 2.7 per cent. of chinchonine }| 1 6
| }|
C. Peruviana | 3 per cent. of chinchonine }|
| |
C. lancifolia |{ 5 per cent. of quinine and }|
|{ chinchonine }| 1 6
----------------------+--------------------------------+--------------
Price of quinine 8_s._ per oz. } in London in March 1862.
" chinchonine 1_s._ " }
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Under cultivation the barks may be expected to yield a much larger
per-centage of alkaloids than they ever do in their wild state.