THE MAHABALESHWUR HILLS AND THE DECCAN.
Journey from Bombay to Malcolm-penth--The Mahabaleshwur
Hills--The village and its temples--Elevation of the
hills--Formation--Soil--Climate--Vegetation--Sites for
chinchona-plantations--Paunchgunny--Waee--Its temples--The
babool-tree--Shirwul--The village system--Village officials--Barra
balloota--Cultivators--Festivals--Crops and harvests--Poona--The Bhore
ghaut--Return to Bombay.
THE districts best adapted for the cultivation of chinchona-plants are
those in the southern part of the peninsula, at suitable elevations,
which receive moisture from both monsoons. The Neilgherry hills are
the centre of these hill districts, and as we advance further from
that nucleus in a northerly direction the rainfall from the south-west
monsoon becomes heavier, while the climate of the winter, when easterly
winds are blowing, increases in dryness. In 14° N. lat. the hills of
Nuggur sink down into the plains of Dharwar, and from that point to
the Mahabaleshwur hills in 18° N. there are few parts of the western
ghauts which attain a sufficient elevation for the successful growth of
chinchona-plants.[481]
The Mahabaleshwurs, however, are upwards of 4000 feet above the sea,
and it was therefore possible that they might present localities
suitable for chinchona cultivation. In February 1861 I started from
the Mazagon bunder, at Bombay, in a bunder-boat, for the purpose of
examining these hills, and, crossing the harbour, coasted for a short
distance along the shores of the Concan, and then sailed up the
Nagotna river, with low jungle on either side. At Nagotna two sets
of _hamals_ were waiting for us, and we started for Mhar, a distance
of forty miles across the low country of the Concan. The _hamals_ or
palkee-bearers belong to the _Mhar_ or _Parwari_ caste, who are also
watchmen, porters, and guides, and are believed to be the aborigines
of the country. They are athletic men, with slender and remarkably
symmetrical figures when young, always working in gangs of twelve
to each palkee, three at each end, and the others relieving them at
intervals. They carry the weight with a skill which only a life-long
practice could give, and go over the ground at the rate of four miles
an hour, at a sort of trot.
The country is generally well covered with rice-fields, now in stubble;
and the numerous stacks of rice-straw, raised five or six feet from the
ground on stakes, formed the principal feature of the landscape. A few
miles beyond Mhar the western ghauts rise abruptly from the plain of
the Concan, in two gigantic steps. The first step is ascended by the
steep corkscrew road of the Parr ghaut, and between its summit and the
foot of the Rartunda ghaut, which winds up the second step, there is
a level cultivated plateau. To the left of the road, overlooking the
Concan, there is a steep conical hill, crowned by the famous robber
fort of Pertaubghur. Here, in 1659, Sevajee, the famous founder of
Mahratta power, assassinated Afzul Khan, the general of the Mohammedan
King of Beejapore's army, at an interview. We could see the dark walls
of the fort, with ruined buildings, and a tall tree rising behind them.
The ascent of the second ghaut brought us, almost immediately, into
the hill station of Mahabaleshwur. The view from our lodging embraced
a foreground of rounded hills covered with green wood, with ranges of
pointed, rounded, and flattened peaks in the distance, shimmering in
the rays of a hot sun.
The Mahabaleshwur hills are the loftiest part of the western ghauts
in the Bombay presidency. They form an undulating table-land of small
extent, terminated to the westward by a very abrupt descent, often
forming scarped precipices overhanging the Concan; and sloping down
more gradually on the side of the Deccan. The highest point, close
to the English station, in lat. 17° 59´ N., is only 4700 feet above
the sea. The English station, with a native bazar and village, was
formed by Sir John Malcolm in 1828, and has received the name of
Malcolm-penth. Several of the surrounding peaks are named after his
daughters. The roads are excellent, and are bordered by such trees and
shrubs as jasmine, figs, _Randias_, _Gnidias_, and _Crotalariæ_, with
a pretty white _Clematis_ climbing over them. The station is near the
edge of a range of precipitous mountain crags and cliffs overlooking
the Parr valley. The cliffs are broken by several profound ravines,
thus forming promontories commanding grand views of the hill fort of
Pertaubghur, the Concan, and even the sea on very clear days. Good
carriage-roads have been made to those points which command the best
views, such as Babington, Bombay, Sidney, and Elphinstone points, all
looking west. From Babington point there is a magnificent view. The
station, with numerous bungalows peeping out amongst the trees to the
north, is seen along the crest of a ridge which is separated from
Babington point by a profound ravine. The precipitous cliffs, now dried
up and barren, are scarped and furrowed by the water which deluges them
during the prevalence of the south-west monsoon; but there was one
bright green spot where some potatoes were cultivated in terraces, on
the edge of a precipice.
The most conspicuous object in the station is an obelisk of laterite,
erected to the memory of Sir Sidney Beckwith. From this point,
immediately above the little thatched church, there is a good view
of the station, the numerous bungalows, peeping out amongst their
shrubberies, dotted about in all directions; the billiard bungalow,
sanatarium, and public library, all built of laterite, standing in an
open space; the native bazar at our feet; and a curiously shaped mass
of mountain peaks to the south and west.
One day we rode over to the native village of Mahabaleshwur, which
is three miles from Malcolm-penth. The little village consists of
a few dozen thatched huts, on the side of a wooded hill, and some
very interesting temples. By the roadside, in the hedges surrounding
the huts, there were roses, daturas, and jambul-trees (_Eugenia
jambolanum_) with heads of graceful flowers.
The chief temple, built at the foot of a steep hill, has an open space
in front. The exterior wall is faced with pilasters painted yellow,
the intermediate space being red. In the centre there is an arched
doorway leading into an interior cloister, built round a tank. No
European is allowed to enter, but, from the outside, a cow carved in
stone is visible on the opposite side of the tank, with a stream of
water pouring from its mouth. This fountain is said to be the source of
the Krishna, and the temple is considered very sacred in consequence.
To the right, and a little in front of the temple, there is a square
chapel sacred to Siva or Mahadeo. A flight of steps leads up to three
narrow arched doorways, the centre one being occupied by an image of
the bull _Nandi_ in stone, in a sitting posture, with its back to
the people, and facing the image of the God inside. The chapel is
surmounted by a very picturesque dome, with stone tigers at each angle.
Tall trees and thick bushes cover the hill in the rear immediately
above the larger temple, and on the left there is a long native
_choultry_, with a thatched roof.
These temples were built about a century ago by a rich banker of
Sattara, but they stand on the sites of more ancient structures, the
work of Gowlee Rajahs. The Gowlees are a race of aboriginal herdsmen,
scattered over the western ghauts from Mahabaleshwur to Kolapore.
Though they now speak the Mahratta language, yet a great number of
their words, their features, and many of their customs are Canarese;
and they are evidently a branch of the great Dravidian group of nations.
The temples of Mahabaleshwur possess extensive landed property, some
of it on the slopes overhanging the Parr valley. It is in charge of an
hereditary Enamdar, who lives in the Deccan, and visits the temples
once a year. He keeps them in tolerable repair, and pockets the surplus
of their revenues. From the village there is an extensive view of the
deep valley of the Krishna and Yena, to the eastward, which slopes down
abruptly from the hill on which Mahabaleshwur is built.
As in Coorg there is a curious legend respecting the origin of the
Cauvery, so in the Mahabaleshwur hills an equally wild story is
attached to the source of the Krishna. It is said that two giants,
called Mahaballee and Anteeballee, made war upon the Brahmins, until
they were destroyed by Siva. Before they died they asked a favour,
which was granted, namely, that they and their followers might be
turned into rivers. This is the fabulous origin of five rivers:--the
Krishna, named in honour of one of Vishnu's avaturs; the Koina and
the Yena, flowing to the Deccan; and the rivers Sawitri and Gawitri,
finding their way through gorges to the westward, and becoming
tributaries of the Bancoot river in the Concan. The Krishna is looked
upon as a personation of the God Krishna in a female form, and is often
called _baee_ or lady Krishna. This important stream, issuing from
the cow's mouth at Mahabaleshwur, flows down a gorge bounded by steep
barren hills, terminating in rocky cliffs. We could see the river, like
a silver thread, meandering through some cultivated land far below; but
the general aspect of the country was barren and cheerless. During the
monsoon it is doubtless quite green.
The Mahabaleshwur hills average an elevation of 4500 feet above the
sea. They are composed almost entirely of laterite,[482] overlying
eruptive rocks, such as basalt, greenstone, and amygdaloid; and the
soil is a clay resulting from the disintegration of the laterite.
On these hills October is the commencement of the dry season, but
during that month the amount of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere is
still considerable, while the temperature is cool and equable. From
November the air becomes gradually drier until the end of February;
the weather is dry and cold, and a sharp dry easterly wind usually
prevails. The mean temperature of this season is 64°, with a daily
variation of about 12°. Fogs and mists commence in March, and gradually
increase until the rain begins in the end of May. The hottest month is
April. From the end of May to September there is almost incessant rain,
and the hills are constantly enveloped in clouds and fog. The mean
temperature of the rainy season is 64.5°, but the daily variation is
only 3°. The average rainfall is 227 inches, of which nearly one-third
comes down in August.[483] (See Table, next page.)
The vegetation of these hills, as might be expected from the essential
difference in the climate, is quite distinct from that of the
Neilgherries. There is a great want of forest-trees in the jungles,
and the trees and bushes are, as a rule, poor and stunted. The hills
are covered with grass and ferns, and are dotted over with a shrub
called by the natives _rumeta_. It is the _Lasiosiphon speciosus_,[484]
with flowers something like small Guelder roses, clustered in terminal
umbels. The _Randia dumetorum_, a thorny bush, is also common. In the
thickets I observed a _Memecylon_, called by the natives _anjun_, a
melastomaceous tree, with beautiful purple flowers;[485] a small
_Crotalaria_, with a bright yellow flower; a _Jasminum_; an
_Indigofera_; the _Eugenia Jambolanum_; the pretty creeping _Clematis
Wightiana_; some willows near streams; a _Solanum_; and the _Curcuma
caulina_, a kind of arrowroot, with enormous leaves, sometimes tinged
with red,[486] in flower during the rains.[487]
MAHABALESHWUR HILLS.
Mean Mean Mean Extreme Extreme Mean Rainfall
MONTH. Tempe- Maximum. Minimum. Maximum. Minimum. daily in WIND.
rature. Variation. inches.
Jan. 63 70 56 75 45 14 None. N.E.
Feb. 64 72 57 78 46 14 0.3 N.N.W.
March 71 79 65 87 57 13 0.07 Do.
April 74 81 67 90 56 13 1.3 N.W.
May 71 78 66 88 57 12 1.45 Westerly.
June 67 70 63 82 62 6 47.9 W.S.W.
July 63 64 62 73 62 1 67.4 Do.
Aug. 63 65 63 70 61 2 81.8 Do.
Sept. 64 66 62 73 56 3 30.6 Do.
Oct. 65 70 61 73 54 8 5.5 Easterly.
Nov. 64 70 58 72 51 11 2.9 Do.
Dec. 63 68 58 73 49 10 0.2 Do.
I reluctantly came to the conclusion that the Mahabaleshwur hills
were not well suited for the growth of chinchona-plants. The intense
dryness of the atmosphere during the greater part of the year, the poor
character of the vegetation, and even the enormous rainfall during
the summer months, which more resembles the climatic conditions of
the forests of Canelos to the eastward, than the region of "red-bark"
trees to the westward of Chimborazo, all pointed to this conclusion.
Nevertheless some seeds of chinchona-plants were forwarded to Mr.
Dalzell, the Conservator of forests in the Bombay Presidency, which
are said to have come up well at Mahabaleshwur. If these plants
should really thrive it will prove that they are capable of adapting
themselves to differences of climate to an extent of which we
previously had no idea. I sincerely trust that this may be the case,
and that some at least of the species of Chinchonæ now in India may
be successfully introduced into the Mahabaleshwur hills. Mr. Dalzell
informs me that there are high hills to the eastward of the Portuguese
settlement of Goa, but not so elevated as Mahabaleshwur, where he
thinks that some of the Chinchonæ, which flourish at low elevations,
might be acclimatized. He had observed that, in the Bombay Presidency,
a difference of 150 to 200 miles southing is equivalent to a certain
elevation, that is, that plants confined to the highest ground in lat.
18° are found at a much lower level in lat. 15°; and that members of
the family of Chinchonaceæ increase in the number of genera and species
as we travel south from Mahabaleshwur, along the summit of the range,
to lat. 15°.
The road down into the Deccan, from Malcolm-penth, leads to the
eastward over hills bare of jungle, and sprinkled over with a scanty
growth of _Lasiosiphons_ and ferns. After six miles it begins to pass
along a ridge or saddle, with the deep valley of the Krishna on one
side, and that of the Yena on the other. The hills which bound these
valleys are very precipitous, and, at this season, look grey and
barren, with ridges of rock cropping out, entirely destitute of all
vegetation. The valleys and lower slopes of the hills are covered with
fields of grain, now in stubble, but which must look bright and green
during the rainy season.
At a distance of ten miles from Malcolm-penth, on a slope overlooking
the Krishna valley, there are some small experimental farms, belonging
to apothecaries in Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy's hospital at Bombay,
at a place called Paunchgunny. An application was made for some
chinchona-plants, to be raised at Paunchgunny; no doubt all possible
care and attention would have been bestowed upon them; and I,
therefore, regret that it should be a locality where they are not at
all likely to flourish. Here the road descends the Tai ghaut into the
Deccan, and in a couple of hours we reached the bungalow on the banks
of the river Krishna, opposite the town of Waee.
The town on the other side of the river, with its numerous temples,
was by far the most interesting place, in an architectural point of
view, that we had yet seen. Long flights of stone steps lead up from
the waters of the sacred Krishna to the paved platform on which the
temples are built. Crowds of women and children in blue dresses, and
men in white cotton cloths and red turbans, were washing their clothes
in the river, or sitting on the steps and gazing into the water, while
naked Brahmins employed themselves in scrubbing the copper utensils of
the temples. The largest and most imposing temple is that dedicated
to Ganesa, or Gunputty as he is called in the Deccan. It is a mass of
solid masonry, whence a wide flight of stone steps leads down to the
Krishna. The shrine itself is a plain stone building, with a large
vestibule in front, consisting of four arched entrances on each side,
and three at the end. The ceiling of this porch is very curious. It
is formed of square flagstones fitted into each other, and clamped
together above, so as to make a flat surface exactly resembling the
pavement below. From the porch a square doorway leads into the shrine,
which is a small chamber without ornament or decoration, with the
colossal figure of Gunputty facing the entrance. The idol, with a huge
elephant's head, the trunk of which it holds in one of its four hands,
an enormous belly, and cross legs, is hewn out of a solid block of
black stone.
The temple of Gunputty is surmounted by a very remarkable spire,
consisting of broad concave flutings rising out of a circlet of
lotus-leaves, and approaching each other slightly as they ascend, until
they finally terminate in another circle of lotus-leaves, out of which
a fluted dome rises and crowns the spire. The whole effect is very
good, and forms the principal feature in the view of Waee from the
right bank of the Krishna.
A little further back there is a small temple dedicated to Siva or
Mahadeo, surrounded by a high wall. Within the enclosure, and in
front of the shrine, there is a canopy supported on sixteen stone
columns, the inner four being under a small dome, and the rest of
the roof consisting of a very curious pavement-like ceiling, exactly
similar to that in front of Gunputty's temple. Advancing through this
vestibule, which is a plain but perfect piece of masonry in very good
taste, we came to a large image of Siva's bull, called _Nandi_, under
a _mandap_ or canopy, supported by four pillars. The image, which is
in a sitting posture, with its head turned towards the door of the
shrine, has numerous ornaments carved about its head and neck, amongst
them a necklace of bells. It is hewn out of an immense block of stone.
Immediately in front of _Nandi_ is the shrine itself, but the interior
was too dark to enable us to discern the god. The lower part of the
building is of plain masonry, with two small square windows in fretted
stone-work; but the upper part is surmounted by a richly-carved spire
and dome, while on the cornice of the roof there are niches containing
stone figures. The spire has three tiers of gods round it in niches,
and is crowned by a fluted dome, resting on a circlet of lotus-leaves.
There is another temple on the platform facing the river, dedicated to
Parvati, Siva's wife.
By the time we had completed the examination of these temples, we were
surrounded by a great crowd of Brahmins, _hamals_, girls and boys, who
continued to follow us about.
We then went up one of the streets of this most devout little town,
and came to a temple dedicated to Vishnu, the enclosure of which is
also surrounded by a high wall, with lean-to grain-shops outside. The
interior of the enclosure is lined with betel-nut palms, and paved with
large flags, on one of which the figure of a tortoise is carved. The
temple stands in the centre, with a richly ornamented spire above it.
The interior consists of a nave, with aisles on each side, and at the
end, opposite the doorway, there is an open grating, within which is
the deity. The temple was crowded with nautch-girls, and numbers of
people were passing in and out, doing _poojah_. They first prostrated
themselves at the entrance, then before the grating, and finally
touched a bell overhead before giving place to other devotees. Nearly
opposite Vishnu's temple is another to his wife Lakshmi.
We afterwards walked through the bazar, a busy interesting scene,
crowded with people. We saw exposed for sale grains of all kinds in
baskets, heaps of red ochre for painting Gods and the sect-marks on
the forehead,[488] sweetmeats, cotton cloths, muslins, and chatties of
clay and copper. Near the river there are five smaller temples to Siva,
each with its _Nandi_ outside the door, and many sacred peepul-trees,
surrounded by walls of solid masonry.
At sunset the view of Waee from the opposite side of the river, with
the temples reflected in the water, the thickets of trees behind, and
the crowds of people in snow-white cotton dresses and red turbans, was
enchanting. Waee derives its great sanctity partly from being on the
banks of the sacred Krishna, and partly from the tradition that it was
the residence of the five Pandus, the favourite mythical heroes of
the Hindus, during part of the time of their exile. The people still
have many tales respecting their deeds, especially those of Bhima, who
was the biggest and strongest of the five. A peak rising above the
dried-up barren line of mountains behind the town is called after them
_Pandughur_. The temples of Waee were chiefly built, about a century
ago, by the head of a wealthy Mahratta family named Rastia.
From Waee we travelled over dried-up plains, with arid desolate hills
in the distance, and reached the village of Shirwul at early dawn.
There were a few banyans near the road, and some babool-trees (_Acacia
Arabica_) dotted about over the plain. The babool-tree in the Deccan
has the same uses as the carob in Peru. The hard tough wood is
extensively used for ploughshares, naves of wheels, and tent-pegs; its
necklace-shaped pods are favourite food for sheep and goats, and the
bark is used for tanning.[489] It flourishes on dry arid plains, and
especially in black cotton-soil, where other trees are rarely met with.
The hedges round Shirwul are of prickly pear or milk-bush (_Euphorbia
tirucalli_[490]).
Shirwul is one amongst many of those village communities of the Deccan
which have retained their peculiar customs and organization from time
immemorial. The Hindu Rajahs have been succeeded by Mohammedan Kings,
who in their turn have been followed by Mogul Subadars, Mahratta
Peishwas, and English Collectors, but the village communities have
continued unchanged through all these revolutions, and thus the
great mass of the people still live under institutions which excite
veneration from their immense age. The cultivator of the Deccan obeys
precisely the same rules and has the same customs as were followed
by his ancestor before the period of history commenced; and, as
the land-assessment has now been established for thirty years, on
remarkably easy terms, his condition may not disadvantageously be
compared with that of any other peasantry in the world.
The village-system of the Deccan is so curious in itself, and so
interesting from its unknown antiquity, that some account of one of
the villages a few miles from Poona, similar in all respects to that
of Shirwul, will not be out of place. I have taken it from an article
written thirty years ago.[491]
The land belonging to the village comprises 3669 acres, 1955 arable
and the rest common pasture, with hedges of milk-bush (_Euphorbia
tirucalli_) enclosing the garden-grounds. The village, which is
surrounded by a mud wall with two gates, includes 107 dwelling-houses
of sun-dried bricks with terraced roofs, a _chowree_ or town-hall, and
three temples. The houses have _wosurees_ or open porticos in front,
and the interiors consist of three or four small dark rooms with no
windows. The temples are of hewn stone and _chunam_.
The boundaries and institutions of the village have undergone no
alteration from time immemorial, and its offices are hereditary.
They consist of that of the _Pattel_ or chief magistrate, his deputy
the _Chowgulla_, the _Koolcurny_ or accountant, and of the _Barra
Balloota_, or twelve subordinate servants.
The _Pattel_ holds his office, which is hereditary and saleable, from
Government, under a written obligation specifying his duties, rank,
and the ceremonies he is entitled to. He has to collect the Government
dues from the cultivators, punish offences, redress wrongs, and settle
disputes. In important cases he summons a _Punchayet_ or sort of jury,
and when they are of a serious nature he refers them to the _Amildar_
or Collector of revenue.
The _Koolcurny_ or accountant keeps the records and accounts,
comprising a general measurement of village-lands, a list of fields, of
the inhabitants, and a detailed account of the revenue. He is generally
a Brahmin, and has lands or fees allotted to him by Government.
The _Barra Balloota_ offices are hereditary, and the holders, called
_Ballootadars_, are bound to their services to the community for a
fixed proportion of the produce of the soil, from each cultivator. They
are twelve in number, namely, the _Sutar_ or carpenter, who repairs all
wooden instruments; the _Lohar_ or blacksmith, who keeps all iron-work
in repair; the _Parit_ or washerman, who washes all the men's clothes;
the _Nahawi_ or barber, who shaves and cuts the nails of the villagers,
and kneads the muscles and cracks the joints of the Pattel and
Koolcurny; the _Kumbhar_ or potter; the _Potedar_ or silversmith; the
_Goorow_ or dresser of idols; the _Koli_ or water-carrier; the _Mang_
or ropemaker, who makes ropes of _Hibiscus cannabis_, and is of very
low caste; and the _Mhar_ or _Parwarree_, an outcast whose dwelling is
outside the village--he acts as watchman, carries letters, and gives
evidence as to village rights, before Punchayets; the _Tsamhar_ or
cobbler, and _Gramjosi_ or astrologer.
Besides the above duties, the Ballootadars have certain perquisites.
The carpenter furnishes the stool on which the brides and bridegrooms
are bathed in the marriage ceremony; the blacksmith sticks the hook
through the flesh of devotees who swing; the barber plays on the pipe
and tabor at weddings; and the potter prepares the stewed mutton
at harvest-homes. In addition to the Ballootadars there are some
other lower officials called _Alutadars_, consisting of a watchman,
gatekeeper, betel-man, gardener, bard, musician, and host of the
Ganjams of the Lingayet sect.
The cultivators of the Deccan are lean short men, with black straight
hair, kept shorn except on the upper lip, bronze complexions, high
cheek-bones, low foreheads, and teeth stained with betel. They are
temperate and hard-working, warmly attached to their children, frugal,
and not improvident, but deceitful, cunning, and false. Their food
consists of grains, pulses, greens, roots, fruits, hot spices, and oil;
together with milk and ghee. No liquor is sold in the villages. Their
every-day fare is first a cake of _bajree_,[492] or _jowaree_,[493]
baked on a plate of iron; secondly green pods or fruits cut in pieces,
and boiled with pepper, garlic, or turmeric; and thirdly a porridge
of coarse-ground _jowaree_ and salt. They have three meals daily. For
breakfast they eat a cake with spiced vegetables, and a raw onion;
their wives bring them their dinners in the fields at noon, consisting
of two cakes and green pods boiled; and porridge and milk form their
suppers. The holiday fare is cakes of pulse and sugar, and balls of
split gram and spices.[494]
These hard-working people generally wear nothing but a dirty rag
between their legs, and another round their heads. On holidays,
however, they come out in a white turban, a frock of white cloth coming
down to the knees, a cloth round the waist, and a pair of drawers. The
furniture of their dwellings generally comprises two wooden pestles
and a stone mortar, earthenware and copper utensils, a wooden dish for
kneading dough, a flat stone and rolling pin for powdering spices, two
iron cups for lamps suspended by a chain, and two couches laced with
rope; the total value being about 40 shillings.
The men, as well as the women, are very fond of attending annual
pilgrimages at the temples, and several festivals break the monotony of
their working days, the chief of which are the _Hooli_, the _Dussera_,
the _Dewallee_, and another in honour of the cattle. The _Hooli_ is
held at the full moon in April, and lasts five days. The _Dussera_,
to celebrate the destruction of the Demon Mysore by the Goddess Kali,
is in October, and the _Dewallee_ twenty days afterwards. The cattle
festival is in August, when the oxen are painted and dressed up, fed
with sugar, and worshipped by their owners. In the hot dry months the
cultivators hunt deer, hares, and wild hogs.
The agricultural implements used in the Deccan are the same as were in
use upwards of 3000 years ago. They consist of a plough, which makes
a mere scratch, made of babool-wood; a rude cart on two solid wheels;
a harrow with wooden teeth; and a drill-plough.[495] The oxen do most
of the work; and the sheep are black and white, with long hanging
ears. There are two crops, called the _Khereef_ and _Rubbee_. In the
_Khereef_ crop the sowing takes place in June and July, and the harvest
in October. _Bajree_ is sown with a drill-plough in rows, mixed with
_toor_ and other pulses. It is the chief food of the people. Next comes
the other common grain _jowaree_. Italian millet, _raggee_, _badlee_,
and the _amaranthus_ are sown in smaller quantities. All land, whether
ploughed or not, is subjected to the drag-hoe, first lengthways and
then across, loosening the surface and destroying weeds: and crops of
millets are alternated with those of pulses. When the harvest begins,
a level spot is chosen for a threshing-floor, and made dry and hard.
A pole, five feet high, is fixed in the centre, the grains are heaped
round the floor, and the women break off the ears and throw them in.
Oxen are then tied to each other and to the post, and driven round,
to beat out the corn. Winnowing is done by a man standing on a high
stool, and pouring out the grain and chaff to the winds. Ceremonies are
then performed in honour of the five Pandus, and the grain is stored
in large baskets. The pulses which are sown in the _Khereef_ crop are
_toor_ raised in _jowaree_ and _bajree_ fields, the pods of which are
detached by beating the plant with a log of wood; _moong_, sown by
itself, and when ripe pulled up by the roots; _ooreed_; _mutkee_; and
_lablab_.
Plants from which cordage is made, namely the _sun_ (_Crotalaria
juncea_) and _ambadee_ (_Hibiscus cannabinus_) are also raised. They
grow to a height of five or six feet, and are then pulled up, steeped
for some days in water, and the bark stripped off.
In the _Rubbee_, or cold season crop, the sowing takes place in October
and November, and the harvests in February. At this time wheat is sown
in rich black or loamy soil, well manured; _gram_ (_Cicer arietinum_)
in the best black soil; and flax, generally raised on the edge of
wheat-fields, in strips of four rows. The land is only ploughed once in
two years, to the depth of a span.
As the Indians of Peru live chiefly on roots, so the natives of the
parts of India which I visited find their chief sustenance in numerous
kinds of millets and pulses. Rice is certainly their favourite food;
but, from the expenses attending the necessary irrigation, it is
dearer and not so easily attainable as the other cereals, and the
great mass of the people live on dry grains and pulses. All these
cereals contain less nourishing matter than wheat, being comparatively
poor in nitrogen, but this deficiency is made up by the pulses which
are generally eaten with them. It is a most remarkable fact that the
natives habitually combine these two different kinds of food, in their
dishes, in about the same proportions as science has found to be
necessary in order that the mixture may contain the same proportion of
carbonous to nitrogenous matter as is found in wheat.[496]
Every one who has travelled much, in different parts of the world, or
who has reflected at all on the subject, well knows that there is
far more happiness than misery on this earth, that the good outweighs
the evil, and that the wars and revolutions of history are but specks
on the long periods of tranquillity which remain for ever unrecorded.
The village system of the Deccan is a venerable monument, reminding us
how little the turmoils and civil wars, invasions, and revolutions,
of which history is composed, affect the mass of the people. The
endless conspiracies, treasons, massacres, and battles which fill the
narrative of Briggs's Ferishta might not have happened in the Deccan
at all, for all the change they have effected in the institutions and
customs of the bulk of the population. The Ballootadar still holds the
same office which was filled by his ancestor centuries ago, performs
the same service, and receives the same perquisites. The cultivator
uses the same implements, raises the same crops in the same way, and
practises the same customs. As it was centuries ago, so it is now;
nothing is changed, and these time-honoured institutions continue to be
admirably adapted to the simple wants and habits of the people who live
under them. These Deccanees now enjoy their land for a very trifling
assessment unalterable for thirty years, their means are sufficient to
supply themselves and their families with all they require in the way
of clothing and furniture, they have a considerable variety in their
food, days of relaxation and festivity are not of rare occurrence,
their immediate superiors are of their own race and religion, and there
is little to remind them of the presence of foreign rulers. On the
whole, in their own simple way, they probably enjoy as much happiness
as the peasantry of most other countries in the world, while their
wants are fewer and their desires more easily attainable.
In the country between Shirwul and Poona the harvest had already been
reaped when we crossed it. In one or two places there were avenues of
mango-trees by the road-side, but generally the country was bare and
treeless. The great city of Poona, once the seat of Mahratta power,
still retains the signs of its former splendour. In the narrow crowded
streets there are many large houses of two stories, with much richly
carved wood about the balconies and doorways, and frescos painted
on the walls of Gods and Goddesses, and scenes in the lives of the
Pandus or of Krishna. The bazar is generally thronged with Brahmins,
Moslems, Lingayets, Bohrahs, Parsees, men, women, and children, while
the shops are occupied by silversmiths, workers in copper, brass, and
wood; sellers of grains, drugs, oils, and ingredients for curries; of
sweetmeats, of cloths, of blue and green bangles for women, and of
endless other wares. The temples are numerous, but none of them are
remarkable either for size or beauty. The old palace of the Peishwas
forms one side of an open space, and is surrounded by a high wall with
semicircular bastions. The entrance is by an archway, flanked on either
side by solid Norman-looking towers, with a balcony over it, extending
from one tower to the other, from which the young Peishwa Mahadeo Rao
threw himself in 1795.
In 1773 the Peishwa Narrain Rao was murdered in this gloomy-looking
castle by his uncle Ragonath Rao, and many another deed of darkness has
been done within its walls.
Leaving the town, we drove past the _Hira Bagh_ or "diamond garden,"
where there is a large tank with a wooded island in the centre, to the
foot of the rocky hill of Parbutty, on the summit of which there is a
temple to Siva. The ascent is by a well-cut flight of steps, and the
temple,[497] which crowns the hill, is surrounded by a wall of very
solid masonry, with a covered gallery having quaintly carved wooden
balconies, and an open rampart above. From one of these balconies Bajee
Rao, the last of the Peishwas, watched the defeat of his army at Kirkee
in 1817; when Poona, and all its territory, became an integral part of
British India.
The view from the Parbutty hill is very extensive. At our feet was
the _Hira Bagh_, with its broad sheet of water, and numerous groves
of trees; beyond was the great city almost hidden by trees, the roofs
of houses showing here and there, but no conspicuous towers or lofty
building. Further still we could see the windings of the rivers Mula
and Muta, tributaries of the Krishna. To the left was the village of
Kirkee, and to the right the churches, numerous bungalows, and other
buildings of the English cantonment. At this time of year the whole
mass of buildings and gardens forming and mingling with the city
and cantonment, is surrounded by brown dried-up plains, and rocky
arid-looking mountains, which furnish a sombre frame to the picture.
This magnificent view was exceedingly interesting, because it seemed
more than probable that, in a not far distant future, the city of Poona
might become the capital of British India--the seat of Government of a
vast Empire, united for the first time in history under one firm and
beneficent rule, enjoying a universal peace unknown for centuries, and
rapidly advancing in material prosperity. Calcutta must be given up
as the most distant from England, the least conveniently situated as
regards other parts of India, and the most unhealthy place that could
be selected for a capital. This point once granted, the old Mahratta
capital recommends itself as combining all the advantages in which
the pestiferous banks of the Hooghly are deficient. Poona is within
a few hours' journey of the port of Bombay by railroad; situated on
an elevated table-land, its climate is healthy and suitable both for
Europeans and natives; and it is in a central position as regards all
the Presidencies of India.
The railroad from Poona to Bombay stopped at Khandalla, on the summit
of the Bhore ghaut, where a portion of it is still unfinished. The
village of Khandalla is perched on the edge of a deep chasm, mountains
rise up into sharp peaks to the right and left, and there is a very
extensive view over the Concan plains. Here the passengers had to get
out of the train, and go down the ghaut by the excellent road made by
Sir John Malcolm, in bullock-_gharries_ or in _palkees_, on ponies or
on foot. The works of the railway were, however, progressing fast; and
when finished, the railroad up the Bhore ghaut will be one of the most
remarkable works of the kind in the world. The station at Khandalla is
1800 feet, and Kampuli, at the foot of the ghaut, barely 200 feet above
the sea. For a distance of 220 miles there are no passes for wheeled
vehicles from Bombay to the interior, except the Bhore and Tal ghauts,
so precipitous is the volcanic scarp which forms this portion of the
western mountains.
The railroad incline down the Bhore ghaut is upwards of fifteen miles
long, the rise being 1831 feet, and the average gradient 1 in 48.
In this distance there will be 2535 yards of tunnelling, besides an
immense amount of cutting and embanking, eight viaducts, and eighteen
bridges. The best known work of this kind in Europe is at Semmering,
across the Noric Alps; but that of the Bhore ghaut exceeds it in
length, in height, and in the steepness of the gradient.
At the foot of the Bhore ghaut is the village of Kampuli, whence the
railroad runs across the plains of the Concan, over an arm of the sea,
past Tannah, and through the island of Salsette, into the town of
Bombay.
I had now personally examined the Neilgherry hills, the Koondahs, the
Pulneys, Coorg, and the Mahabaleshwurs; and collected information
respecting the hills near Courtallum, the Anamallays, the Shervaroys,
Wynaad, the Baba-Bodeens, and Nuggur. After a careful consideration of
the conditions which each of these districts offer, and a comparison of
their elevations, climate, soil, and the character of their vegetation,
with those of the South American chinchona forests; I was fully
confirmed in the opinion that the mountains of the Indian peninsula
offered a splendid field for the cultivation of this new and most
valuable product.
The different species thrive in different localities, and require
various modes of treatment, but I am inclined to the belief that one
species or another will thrive in all the hills from Cape Comorin to
the parallel of 14° N. This view may prove to be too sanguine, and it
may be that the droughts at one season, and the excessive rainfall
in another, in several of the hill districts, will prove prejudicial
to successful cultivation. Under any circumstances, however, there
can be no doubt that the climates of the Neilgherries, Anamallays,
Pulneys, and probably Coorg, are admirably adapted to the production
of quinine in these precious trees. On the other hand, it is possible
that, under cultivation, the chinchonæ may be able to adapt themselves
to conditions of climate differing as much from those of their native
habitat even as the Mahabaleshwur hills, and that their cultivation
is capable of far wider extension than I am now able to expect. It
would be a source of gratification if chinchona plantations could
be established in any part of the Bombay Presidency; and while Mr.
Dalzell, the able Conservator of forests, superintends any experiments
which may be made, it will certainly not be from a want of botanical
knowledge or intelligent care, if his anticipations of success are not
realised.[498]