TREATMENT IN DESIGN
Appreciation of design by the individual is largely a matter of
temperament, though it may be due to some extent to acquired knowledge.
Generally, few are conscious of any guiding principle, and selection in
their case is mostly the result of fashion or custom. To others certain
colours and forms have an appeal, though they may be quite unconscious
of, or unable to explain the attraction other than it suits their taste.
In the last few years it has been recognised that colour may be employed
beneficially in curative treatment, but the normal healthy individual is
often indifferent to environment other than that of material
gratification.
When any artistic work creates pleasurable emotion, it is purely a
matter of cause and effect. To design successfully involves some
understanding of the causes or factors which constitute the appeal.
_Natural Attraction_
The attraction of colour and form is undoubtedly universal, and may be
generally understood, though there are delicate degrees of proportion
and association in both that may only be appreciated by the cultivated
eye. Early essays in drawing generally exhibit an undesirable redundancy
in curves, and in many instances the student is slow to realise that
those that approximate to the elliptic form are proportionately of more
interest than those obviously composed of segments of circles.
Undoubtedly this subtlety of line is one of the predominant factors in
appreciation of form.
A factor in pattern that is largely responsible for the charm is the
presence of small detail in juxtaposition with larger forms. This is
entailed in instances by technical conditions, such, for instance, as in
some tapestries where inhabited pattern is essential to the process of
production.
_Decorative Materials_
Some materials are employed partly for their decorative effect, such as
naturally figured woods and certain varieties of stone; and design
mainly consists of judicious selection, use and treatment. Oak and
walnut being woods extremely suitable for structural work and furniture
have always been in request when obtainable.
Polishing is to some extent a preservative, but work in oak or walnut,
especially when carved, should be kept comparatively dull, otherwise
confusion between the relief and the natural figuring would result. In
mahogany or satinwood, where the chief interest exists in the figuring
and colour, carving is undesirable and the best effects are obtained by
high polish. It may be urged that in the Chippendale period the work was
invariably carved, but the detail was always in very low relief, and the
finishing dark in colour, in which the figuring was subdued. Mahogany in
its more general employment owes its chief beauty to the development of
figuring and colour.
Certain marbles are used for their decorative effect, and the natural
colour and figuring developed by polish. Statuary marble that is
sometimes employed, is more suitable for carved details, and appears at
its best when unpolished, though in this state it is extremely subject
to discolouration owing to its absorbent nature.
Granite, so popular in our cemeteries, is often polished, when the
natural figuring is unpleasantly aggressive. An extremely hard stone and
laborious to work, it is not suitable for carving, and is best left
roughly tooled or frosted, when the natural chrystaline formation
appears to the best advantage.
_Justification of Treatment_
The softer woods used in interior structural work are generally painted,
partly as a preservative and largely because they do not possess any
figuring of particular interest.
Graining in imitation of more precious woods is often condemned as
inartistic, but it may be urged in extenuation that it is the most
economic treatment, as it helps to minimise the effect of wear and
incidental damage.
The use of pattern wall-papers and floor coverings can be justified on
the same grounds, as in those with plain surfaces any disfigurement is
readily seen. Wallpaper, however, is quite a legitimate form of
decoration and not necessarily imitative, though to some extent it is
reminiscent of the early custom of employing tapestries as wall
coverings. A more durable and artistic treatment of interiors is that of
the wainscotting of the Georgian period, but the initial cost is
proportionately great, though probably when maintenance is taken into
consideration it would be cheaper in the long run. Apart from the
question of cost, the modern tendency is favourable to change of effect
and environment, due partly to the facility afforded by the comparative
cheapness of wall-paper, but even more to the prevalent short tenancies.
_Undesirable Imitation_
Many excellent designs are produced in wall-papers, though there is a
tendency at times to reproduce textural effects which can only be
justified on æsthetic grounds. Those of the frankly imitative kind
cannot be condoned. It is still possible to have the hall and stairs
papered and varnished to resemble slabs of precious marble, or patterns
in mosaic, which were undreamt of in Byzantine times; and the orthodox
design for the bathroom is still that of tiles with the joints neatly
printed. Similar imitation is also apparent in linoleum, when the
pattern simulates the appearance of either wood parquet or mosaic, or
even worse--that of a Turkey or Axminster carpet.
There is an element of priggishness in such cheap art in which, as
though ashamed of poverty of material, there is an assumption of
something better; and it is lamentable that there is not merely a market
for these shams and imitations but curiously enough they also find
appreciation.
There are phases of work where simulation may to some extent be
justified, for instance, silver is sometimes gilt. For this there is the
excuse that silver, although a beautiful metal, is subject to oxidation
and requires constant attention to keep bright. Gilding acts as a
preservative, and is therefore justified in certain forms of silver
work, which it is not convenient to clean in the ordinary way.
_Technical Considerations_
It has already been suggested that Design is not merely a question of
idea and draughtsmanship, but is also dependent upon materialistic
conditions, which, in practical work, must be understood and properly
considered.
Whether the intended design be for some form of flat pattern, such as
weaving, etc., or for any particular craft expression, it is essential
that the limitations of the process and material involved be clearly
kept in view, and that suitable elements for expression be chosen.
Convention, to a large extent, exists in the adaptation of forms,
natural or otherwise, to the exigencies of production, a proper
understanding of which will not only tend to economy in cost, but also
to more effective results, if full advantage be taken of the craft or
mechanical conditions, which should always be foreseen in design.
_Methods of Expression_
Methods of expression vary, according to position and material, and may
be Flat--either silhouette, or with appearance of relief, or in actual
relief.
[Illustration: No. 254. A. B. C. Flat Treatment, Silhouette important.
D. Relief Treatment of C.]
[Illustration: No. 255. A. Flat Treatment. B. Relief of Husk Leaf.]
Contrast exists always, thus in the Flat with or without outline the
contrast is in Light and Dark, whether colour is involved or not.
In Relief the contrast is in Light and Shade. Contrast exists also in
both treatments in lines straight and curved--in the variety of the
latter, in lines with mass forms, and in dominant forms with smaller
detail.
In the treatment of Flat Ornament the most important considerations are
play of line and silhouette, and forms should be displayed in
interesting profile; perspective and foreshortening being eliminated
whenever they would result in distorted or inharmonious shapes.
In Relief treatment the designer is concerned with the effect of Light
and Shade in harmonious arrangement of mass and line.
Perspective and foreshortening are permissible to some extent, but are
largely dependent upon the work, greater license being allowable in high
than in low relief.
_Treatment of Leaves_
In Flat ornament, leaves are invariably in profile, but in Relief
expression they may be folded, that is, wrapped round the stem. Greater
freedom is possible in the turn-overs.
Relief ornament should recognise ground by details being occasionally
displayed in lower relief.
Whether expressed in Flat or Relief, the composing lines should always
be emphatic, and their direction traceable through the details, floral
or otherwise.
_Surface Interest_
In addition to the foregoing, a further consideration is that of
interest of surface, which may consist of contrast in textures of rough
surface with smooth, of patterning on form, veining and striation of
leaves and flowers, and of the employment of trellis or imbricated
pattern. The latter in conjunction with other details, occur in the
decorative work of the later French Renaissance.
_Painted Decoration_
The technical means of obtaining the interest of surfaces is, of course,
incidental to the process involved. If the decoration be the result of
painting, the design is free and untrammelled by any other than purely
æsthetic conditions. Such, for instance, as the desirable recognition of
surface, and the pattern sense suggested by recurrence, if a decorative
rather than a pictorial effect is desired.
When the decorations consist of ornament, wholly or partly, they are
occasionally rendered in a conventional manner, based upon the
appearance of Relief, as in the Pompeian wall decorations and the
painted work of the Italian Renaissance. There is ample precedent for
this treatment in traditional painted decoration, but deliberate
attempts at realistic effects are not only undesirable but to be
deplored.
The interest in Painted Decoration, apart from colour, design or
subject, would be that of the individual manifestation of the designer
and painter.
_Stencilled Work_
Stencilled decoration is a compromise between painting and mechanical
printing, and is restricted by the unit. The repetition of this is
practically mechanical, though considerable license is possible in the
treatment of colour, which has to be personally applied and is therefore
amenable to controlled variation.
[Illustration: No. 256. Inhabited Details from Woven Fabrics. Interest
imparted by patterning on forms.]
The design in stencilled work is not limited to one unit, and is not
subject to hard and fast rules, the plates being of a size convenient to
handle. Alternate units, or a series can be employed, the interest,
apart from colour and subject consisting mainly of contrast in detail,
and in the individualism expressed.
_Mechanical Production, Printed and Woven_
In textiles, where such mechanical processes as printing and weaving are
involved, the design is restricted to the unit, the repetition of which
is infallible both as to form and colour.
Apart from colour, the surface interest consists of suggested or actual
contrasts of texture, the result of veining and striating leaves and
flowers or of patterning forms or backgrounds with smaller details.
_Needlework_
Needlework, being a personal performance, has no such mechanical
restriction; the design can, and should be, complete within the area,
and the expression perfectly free. Beside Design and Colour, the surface
interest is that of contrast in the different textures resulting from
the various stitches, and the employment of darning, knots, laid-work,
etc.
_Appliqué_
In Appliqué work, interest is imparted by the mass effects enriched by
embroidery, the large shapes entailing detail of the inhabited variety
to keep them from puckering. In all needlework the effect is due to some
extent to light and shade, particularly in Appliqué, where a corded edge
is employed.
[Illustration: No. 257. Needlework, contrasting effect of various
stitches.
(Photo: V & A Museum).]
[Illustration: No. 258. Needlework Appliqué. Interest due to contrast of
material, effect of relief imparted by corded edges, and to embroidery
on applied details. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
[Illustration: No. 259. Lace. Surface interest due to contrast of
various fillings. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
_Lace_
In Lace, the interest consists solely of textural contrast, not only in
the treatment of the various details, but in the patterning of intervals
due to the necessary fillings. Design may be complete, or a repeated
unit, according to the purpose and variety of lace.
_Wood Inlay_
[Illustration: No. 260. Wood Inlay. Geometric arrangement.]
Design for Inlays in Wood-work may be free in expression, or a unit, at
discretion. The latter variety frequently takes the form of lines spaced
with regard to good proportion, forming borders, chequers and geometric
shapes of various kinds. Floral or other forms simple in character and
profile may be used, the design being expressed in silhouette.
[Illustration: No. 261. Wood Inlay.]
[Illustration: No. 262. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette depending on
natural colour.]
_Intarsia_
In the Intarsia detail of the Italian Renaissance, the inlaid forms were
elaborated by surface markings and graduated effects were obtained by
means of hot sand; but the natural contrast in the varied colour and
fibres of the material employed probably form the more legitimate
interest in all inlaid work.
[Illustration: No. 263. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette.]
_Veneer, Marquetry_
In Veneer work and in Marquetry, where the work is quartered and
juxtaposed, the interest consists in the patterning of the figured
woods, particularly when these are arranged to form reciprocal shapes.
_Boule Work_
The interest of Buhl or Boule work, an inlay of metal employed in the
French Renaissance in the decoration of furniture, often in conjunction
with tortoiseshell, is that of contrast of texture.
[Illustration: No. 264. Italian Intarsia. Forms elaborated by incised
lines.]
In the design, profile or silhouette is the primary consideration, being
used:
1. As a form of framing,
2. In angles or centres on table-tops,
3. In panels in furniture:
[Illustration: No. 265. Louis XV Cabinet with Ormolu Mounts.
Marquetry, veneer quartered and inlaid with floral detail. (Photo: V & A
Museum).]
[Illustration: No. 266. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.]
The design can invariably be complete within the area. Coloured grounds
are employed as well as tortoiseshell.
_Mosaic_
Mosaic designs may be complete in themselves or be the result of
repetition, according to attitude and purpose, and with regard to
variety and colour, only restricted by æsthetic considerations.
[Illustration: No. 267. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.]
Owing to technical limitations, modelling can only be broadly suggested;
therefore forms should be generally in silhouette except when on a large
scale.
When employed on walls and vaults, gold is frequently used in the
backgrounds. This not only serves to define detail, but affords contrast
to the general surface, the inevitable joints in the tessaræ adding also
to the interest.
_Byzantine Use of Marble_
Associated with Mosaic decoration in the Byzantine Period was the
employment of marble in shafts of columns and for lining walls by
banding or slabbing, frequently quartered, so as to display the markings
in reciprocal forms. Such marbles were chosen for figuring and colour,
the former in its variety being an important factor in the surface
interest.
Similar employment of slabs occurs in the treatment of floors, where
contrast in colour is the chief consideration. It is sometimes
associated with Mosaic of small tesseræ, also in marble, whereas that
used on walls and in vaults was frequently of glass.
The foregoing is a broad summary of ornamental expression in the Flat,
with the exception of Book Decoration.
_Book Decoration_
In Black and White, which is chiefly employed, the designs may be in
tone or line with suggestion of rotundity or relief; or line
decoratively employed, according to subject, or purely decorative.
The same applies to renderings in colour. Designs for covers are
controlled by the processes involved, whether printed, stamped or
tooled.
[Illustration: No. 268. Mosaic Borders.
A. From Carthage.
B. & C. Withington, Gloucester.]
[Illustration: No. 269. Mosaic Border, Roman.]
[Illustration: No. 270. Roman Mosaic. Woodchester, Gloucester.]
[Illustration: No. 271. Roman Mosaic. Treatment in Light and Shade
suggestive of relief. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
[Illustration: No. 272. Tooled Bookbinding in Leather. Repetition due to
tools or stamps. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
[Illustration: No. 273. Modelled Plaster, shewing relatively large
ground area. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
[Illustration: No. 274. Wood Carving. Grinling Gibbons. Attention
devoted to detail with elimination of ground. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
[Illustration: No. 275. Wood Carving. French, Louis XIV. (Photo: V & A
Museum).]
_Bindings_
In the two latter the ornament should be in profile or silhouette. In
tooled bindings, repetition of unit or motif is essential, the design
being the direct result of available tools.
In such bindings further interest may be imparted by gilding either the
detail or by introducing gold as powdering on shapes or backgrounds, or
by the so-called inlaying of other colours.
_Relief--Economic Result of Method_
In Relief ornament, design and character should be the result of
technical expression. If considered from an economic point of view, the
tendency would naturally be to obtain the maximum effect with the
minimum of labour; and this would invariably result, when the decoration
is built up or applied to an existing ground as in modelled work, in
slight occupation, with comparatively large intervals.
In carving, where the original surface forms the highest relief, and has
to be cut back to form the ground, the result would be reversed, the
individual worker being more attracted to the treatment of detail than
to clearing away uninteresting spaces. Carving, whether in wood or
stone, is employed in various decorative positions, and except in the
enrichment of friezes or mouldings--when the repeating unit is
desirable--the design should be complete in itself.
_Desirable Treatment in Carving_
The treatment should evidence the direct employment of the tool, any
attempt to efface or soften will result in loss of character and
suggest the plastic effect incidental to modelling.
For convenience, and possibly in the absence of more desirable examples,
students are often allowed in their early attempts at carving to
reproduce casts of plastic origin. This is undoubtedly pernicious, as
the model is probably unsuitable, and the student is thereby biassed.
Examples should be selected in which the characteristic treatment is
sufficiently evident if a true and thorough appreciation of the craft is
to be instilled.
[Illustration: No. 276. Simple Jacobean Wood Carving. Direct gouge
work.]
In the design--which may occupy or fill the shape and can be
symmetrically arranged on a central axis, or balanced--the effect is due
mainly to Light and Shade. Further interest may be imparted by the
sectional form or modelling of the details, groovings, striations or
other textural suggestions.
_Backgrounds_
The employment of punched grounds in carved work is to be deprecated as
mechanical in effect. Sufficient interest is obtainable by the process
of cutting back, in the perfect levelling of which the carver need not
be too concerned. Suspiciously uniform grounds are suggestive of work
fret-sawed and applied.
[Illustration: No. 277. Wood Carving. English. Late Elizabethan or Early
Jacobean.]
When carving in wood is in very high relief, it is occasionally, as in
the Grinling Gibbons work, built up. This may not be a matter of great
objection if properly attached, and the grain of fibre matched, but is,
however, better avoided.
_Reproduction Processes_
Modelled ornament is generally employed in reproduction processes, such
as moulding of Terra-cotta, plaster, etc. The design can be free in
expression, or a unit of repetition according to requirement.
The detail which is applied to an existing surface is invariably more
open, with a resulting display in the background.
The surface interest consists of contrasts in texture, the result of
veining, striating and patterning forms. The relief is not, as in carved
work, controlled by an original surface, but, being built up, is
susceptible to greater variation. Mouldings may be broken by lapping and
overlapping details, and though in some traditional work similar
treatment occurs in wood-carving, it must be remembered that such
details are too suggestive of, and more proper to, plastic renderings.
In economic moulded work undercutting of details should be avoided as
this is only possible in piece or elastic moulds. In wood-carving,
however, there is no restriction.
_Metal Repoussé_
Freedom and variety in detail are possible in Metal Repoussé, but as the
light and shade is considerably modified by the nature of the surface,
the design which is plastic in character incidental to method of
working, should have regard for silhouette or profile display, and not
be dependent upon surface modelling. The principal factor in effect is
Light, both direct and reflected. Surface interest is the result of
imparting by chasing various textures in striations or matt.
[Illustration: No. 278. Wood Carving from Fontainbleau. Early French
Renaissance.]
Excellent effect can be obtained by outlining with the tracing tool,
leaving the surface of detail plain and uniform in height, and imparting
texture with the matt tools in the intervals for the sake of contrast.
[Illustration: No. 279. Economic Wood Carving.]
The method of working is simple, entailing manipulation from the face of
the metal only, and the detail is left in slight relief by the ground
being set back in the texturing. This treatment is only suitable where
the ornamented area is enclosed. When the design is freely displayed on
a ground without enclosing lines, it should appear in relief, the result
of raising from the back; and texturing should be employed only on the
details in contrast to the smooth ground. As in all applied work, the
economic result is slight occupation.
[Illustration: No. 280. Oak Box decorated with flat carving. Icelandic.
18th Century.]
_Metal, Cast_
Cast metal is produced in sand moulds, a model or pattern being employed
of which the casting is a reproduction. The
[Illustration: No. 281. Repoussé Work.
A. Pattern defined by tracing tool and interest imparted by different
textures of ground.
B. Pattern raised from back, and defined and enriched by tracing and
matt tools on face, affording textural contrast with plain ground.
(Photo of A. V & A Museum).]
pattern may be originally modelled or carved, and this determines the
character of the metal result, though it is a matter of indifference
when the necessary finishing is by turning or filing.
Castings in iron are left as they leave the mould, but in bronze, except
in Cire Perdu casting, the surface has to be entirely worked down. In
common work, however, this is accomplished by means of small files or
riffles and by chasing the more elaborate details.
[Illustration: No. 282. Wrought Iron, simple form enriched by use of
punches.]
_Character of Cast Work_
[Illustration: No. 283. Gondola Prow. Wrought Iron, comparative flat
surface enriched by chiselled work.]
As a matter of opinion it is consistent that the
[Illustration: No. 284. Surface Interest in Metal.
A. Blade of State Battle-axe, damascened with silver, Indian.
B. Blade of Khyber Knife, engraved, Indian.
C. Hilt of Tulwar, damascened with gold, Indian.
D. Vase, Bidri Ware, pewter inlaid with silver, Indian.
E. Scabbard End, gold inlay, Indian.
F. Ornament on Gauntled Sword, damascened with gold, Indian.]
character of cast work should be plastic, and if the original pattern is
the result of carving, care should be taken to impart the desired
feeling, the pattern being merely a means to the end.
Much depends upon the final finish; if this is to be bright, surface
modelling should be a secondary consideration to surface interest
resulting from contrast of textures. It, however, becomes of
proportionate importance as the work is dull or toned, and therefore is
subject to the ordinary conditions of Light and Shade.