DEVELOPMENT OF CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT
The term Convention is applied to decoration in which there is distinct
evidence of artistic restraint, which may be purely æsthetic or due to
technical conditions.
_Outline Drawing_
The rendering of any form in outline is probably the simplest form of
convention, which is generally accepted through tradition as
representation. Though the objects so depicted really depend on light,
shade, and local colour for their appearance.
Such outline drawings may be in other respects realistic, but a further
degree of convention is the desirable elimination of perspective where
it is unsuitable to the effect desired. For instance, in silhouette,
profile renderings only are intelligible, and in delicate bas-relief
modelling any foreshortening should be avoided if confusing to the
effect.
In direct personal work, such as drawing or painting, when craft
conditions other than that of the medium employed are not involved,
convention is purely a matter of discretion and consideration of the
nature and object of the work; but it is essential in design when the
material and method of production have to be considered. In painting the
artist may employ the full resources of his palette and be as realistic
in his effect as is in his power, but if the purpose be mural
decoration restraint is at once imposed.
_Undesirable Realism_
Under certain conditions realism would be out of place, and any attempt
at illusion would fail to convince. The one time fashion of painting
ceilings with sprawling deities of either sex, which cannot be seen
without a painful crick in the neck, or worse still to suggest sky with
floating amorini, occasionally framed by marble balustrading in
wonderful perspective is deplorable.
Such decoration, if it can be so termed, is not only stagey but is
foredoomed to failure in effect, as the ordinary interior lighting is
not adequate. Furthermore, it displays a lack of appreciation of
fitness, and that the purpose of a ceiling is to convey a sense of
shelter.
Realism, though desirable in portraiture, either of individuals, places
or events, is not necessarily of the greatest interest except to those
concerned. In mural decoration realism should give place to convention,
and the whole considered as a design with regard to balance of form and
colour, and recognition of the surface to which the decoration is
applied.
The first attempts at decoration were the direct results of material and
the manner of working, in which there was no attempt at representation.
This was succeeded when the early artists attained more skill by a phase
of realism, later still with acquired culture there was a deliberate
return to convention.
The dignified conception of the Egyptian rendering of the Lion, though
thoroughly conventional, reveals technical skill and anatomical
knowledge of a high order; also appreciation for desirable treatment,
and may be contrasted favourably with those by Sir Edwin Landseer round
the pedestal of the Nelson Column in Trafalgar Square, in which realism
is not subordinated to the decorative and symbolic conditions.
_Craft Restrictions_
When any craft process is involved the design is only a means to the
end, and convention is then imposed by the technical conditions of the
craft in question. The designer has to keep these conditions in view,
the desirable object being to make the greatest economic use of the
process compatible with a good result. It would be a waste of both time
and energy to depict effects that could not be realised.
In woven or printed fabrics it is impossible to produce natural effects;
even if that were possible the inevitable repetition of the unit would
be not merely unnatural but a gross absurdity. The great bulk of the
public do not understand convention, hence the popularity of textiles
and wall-papers in which the designs consist of flowers treated (however
inconsistently) in natural aspect as far as possible; in particular the
Rose which, like the poor, is ever with us.
Traditional ornament at its best has generally been conventional, the
various details of foliage being æsthetic creations, with at times,
perhaps, some suggestion derived from natural types. The scroll in the
form of volutes as employed in the Ionic capital may have been suggested
by the fossil known as the Ammonite
[Illustration: No. 228. Filagree Jewellery.
A. Hook for Jacket in Silver. Swedish, Mid. 18th Century.
B. Pendant Cross. Gold set with Garnets. Modern Italian.
C. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern French.
D. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.
E. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.
F. Pendant. Northern Portuguese. 17th or early 18th Century.
G. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.
H. Pendant. Gold. As worn by peasants in Etruria.
]
shell, so called because it resembles the ram’s horn of Jupiter Ammon.
Its traditional employment in conjunction with the undulate stem, is
certainly far from any natural suggestion in the way of growth, while
the variety known as the evolute scroll is distinctly artificial.
_Materialistic Influence_
It is probable that it had its origin in the facility with which wire
could be bent, and in early jewellery such scroll forms are conspicuous.
A reasonable conjecture is that the similar forms in early repoussé
work, such as that of the gold ornaments found at Enkomi, Cyprus and the
painted decoration of the Greek vases, were inspired by the treatment
which was the outcome of the use of metal in the form of thin wire.
Similar details occur in Peruvian and New Guinea work, which is
certainly coincidental as it is difficult to imagine these people having
any communication with the Old World.
Scandinavian and Keltic art was to a certain extent influenced by
Eastern tradition through the medium of the Phœnician merchant
adventurers; but no such conjecture is feasible in the Maori incised
work and tattooing in which similar details occur.
The scrolling line alone may be used, generally in decoration of small
scale, as in the Greek vases. In this form it frequently occurs in
pottery, either incised or painted, and in filagree jewellery. Wrought
iron partakes largely of the scrolling character, but this, as in
filagree, is the direct result of the material employed.
Scandinavian and Keltic ornament consisted mainly
[Illustration: No. 229. The Evolute Scroll.
A. Pottery (painted) Archaic Greek.
B. Pottery (painted) Cyprus, 800 B.C.
C. D. F. Gold Ornaments from Tombs at Enkomi, Cyprus.
E. Pottery (painted) Ancient Mexico.
G. Early Greek Stone Carving. Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenos,
Boeotia.
H. Assyrian Stone Carving. Sacred Hom or Palm.
]
[Illustration: No. 230. The Evolute Scroll in Savage Art.
A. B. C. Spatula Handles, Carved Wood, New Guinea.
D. Detail on Paddle, Carved Wood, New Guinea.
E. Maori Chief’s Staff Handle, Carved Wood.
F. Detail from Tattooed Maori Head.
G. Engraved Bamboo, Borneo.
H. Carved Wood Detail, New Guinea.
]
of a series of scrolling forms, as also did much of the ornament of the
illuminated Gothic work and mural decoration. The desire for variety and
mass lead eventually to the employment of diverse elements, arising in
many instances from different treatment of existing details; thus,
during the Renaissance, the side view of a poppy-like flower suggested
and became a profile mask, and the husk leaf was frequently elaborated
into the form of a dolphin.
[Illustration: No. 231. Scroll & Anthemion Ornament from Greek Vase
Paintings.]
_Early Renderings_
The evolute scroll which plays so conspicuous a part in Greek art, was
employed at earlier periods by the Egyptians and Chaldeans, and the
widespread appreciation and use of this form of detail is plainly
indicative that it was not disseminated from any one centre.
In the early employment of these curved forms there is no evidence of
natural suggestion, but later, leaves and floral details were added
conveying the idea of growth. In Egyptian and Assyrian art certain
natural types occur, such as the Lotus, Papyrus and the Palm, but these
were utterly denaturalised, all realism being eliminated.
These conventions, though incidentally decorative, were invested with
symbolic meaning with which their employment was concerned rather than
with the imitation of natural form.
_The Anthemion_
[Illustration: No. 232. Greek Anthemion. Relief Treatment.]
The Anthemion alone or in conjunction with the scroll or evolute line,
appears in a painted form in the Greek vase decoration. Examination of
these will reveal evidence of brush-work, the separate details being the
result of direct flexion. In sculptured form it appears in the Antefixe,
also as a cresting or finial to the stele heads, the separate radial
features being channelled with sunken grooves or with ridges in relief.
[Illustration: No. 233. Greek Scroll from Choragic Monument of
Lysikrates, Athens. Carved Stone.]
It is conceivable that the attenuated effect of the mere scrolling line
suggested the desirability of the occasional mass and variety that would
be obtained by employing leaves.
_Greek Sculptured Ornament_
[Illustration: No. 234. Wrought Iron Scroll. Detail of Hinge, Notre
Dame, Paris. Early French Gothic.]
Greek sculptural ornament is comparatively devoid of natural suggestion,
the branching scrolls with sheath leaves being æsthetic rather than
imitative. The leaves employed bear little resemblance to those of the
later Roman period, and consist generally of a succession of radial
grooves with undulating or prickly edges, and are obviously adapted from
the anthemion detail.
In the scrolls employed on the Choragic monument at Athens the desire
was evidently play of line and silhouette.
The flexible and open form, though possible in bent metal or in painted
work, is unsuitable to carving in stone. Adequate support being
essential, the scrolls had to be united by the leaves, which were
necessarily massed in form and decorated by channellings or grooves to
give further detail and interest.
A development of the leaf treatment was the division into lobes, each
lobe being channelled with a group of radial grooves ending in
serrations. The lobes were divided by holes, or, as they are generally
termed, eyes, more or less circular in shape, and these were connected
with the base of the leaf by pipes or Tines in relief, conforming with
the general radial distribution.
_Acanthus Leaf_
[Illustration: No. 235. Acanthus Leaf. Composed of groups of Anthemions.
Brush-work.]
Leaves of this type are known as Acanthus, and it is a tradition that
the leaf in its original employment was derived from a natural source.
The anthemion, too, is often mis-called the honeysuckle owing to the
supposed resemblance; but it is much more probable that both were purely
artistic creations developing as previously suggested from the painted
anthemion details. Elaboration and relief expression were the natural
outcome of material, and desire for surface interest. The honeysuckle
origin is completely confuted by comparison of the Greek anthemion with
the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, by which it was evidently inspired.
In Greek ornament such flowers as occur are mostly of the rosette type,
quite conventional in character, though in the painted decoration such
natural forms as the ivy and vine are evident; but these were always
conventional in treatment and symbolic in interest.
[Illustration: No. 236. Acanthus Scroll. Brush-work.]
The Greeks were not creative in art either in their architecture or
ornament, and were evidently indebted to the earlier culture of
Mesopotamia for many of their details. As they based the anthemion on
the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, so they borrowed the Ionic capital
from Persia and the Corinthian variety had its prototype in the Egyptian
Papyrus capital. Even their architecture was no advance in principle on
that which previously existed.
Their treatment, however, was extremely artistic, and they invested all
their work with great refinement and delicacy of detail. At a later
period under subjugation the Roman art development was practically in
the hands of Greek designers and craftsmen, and acquired great freedom
of expression marked by exquisite workmanship in the Græco-Roman period.
_Roman Development_
The details and treatment of ornament developed rapidly in the Roman
period, in the variety and forms of the elements employed. The principal
exponents were Greek, but the original austere character of expression
underwent considerable modification.
_The Scroll_
In Roman art the scroll, which constituted the chief decoration of the
friezes and panels, was greatly developed and rendered with more freedom
and variety of treatment; assuming the form of a growing or climbing
stem, bearing flowers and clothed with leaves. A treatment which is
fairly consistent with such types as the Vine and other climbing growths
in nature.
The undulating stem with branching scrolls is prominent, both in friezes
and panels; the character of the foliage became more varied, the stiff
and formal acanthus leaf being only used in the capitals of columns and
in structural features.
The version employed in more decorative positions
[Illustration:
Photo]
No. 237. Detail of Roman Frieze, in Carved Stone.
[E. Richter.
]
exhibited greater freedom in form, attitude and section. Natural types
for the sake of variety were used, generally in subordinated positions,
and there is occasional evidence of the influence of these in the
treatment of the acanthus detail.
_Græco-Roman_
The development of art during this period cannot be attributed to native
talent, the Romans being content to borrow their art as they did their
religion. It was rather due to the opulence of the times, though the
practical character of the race resulted in a great advance in
architecture.
The later Roman, generally termed Græco-Roman, varied from the more
robust treatment and reverted somewhat to the earlier Greek manner;
tending to delicacy and refinement, but retaining the variety of
character and detail.
_Byzantine_
The State recognition of Christianity had a great influence on art in
that there was a return to symbolism. Various pagan elements associated
with the earlier decoration that were unsuitable to the feeling of the
time were eliminated. Eastern influence is evident, in not only the
architecture but in the treatment which is known as Byzantine, of the
foliage, which resembles that of the archaic Greek, the leaves being
more stiffly lobed, and severely channelled with V-shaped grooves, in
place of the subtle modelling of those of the Roman period.
The stem or growth line is comparatively absent, and the prevalence of
the circle as a shape or in the arrangement of details is evident.
Decoration displays more regard to profile than to variety of relief,
which was practically uniform.
[Illustration: No. 238. Gothic Spandril. Carved Stone. Geometric basis
obvious in central circle uniting angular shape with minor circular
forms occupying angles.]
The Byzantine influence is evident in the succeeding Romanesque.
_Romanesque_
Early Gothic detail, the closely curled foliage of which is suggestive
of lobes though without serrations, is reminiscent of debased Roman
tradition, evident also in the general shape and disposition of leaves
in the capitals of columns. The floral ornament of the Middle or
Decorated period, though freely adapted from natural types, shows traces
at times of the earlier tradition in the treatment of lobed and serrated
leaves.
_Italian Renaissance_
The Italian Renaissance was not merely a revival of Classic architecture
adapted to more modern conditions, but was in its earlier stages a frank
reproduction of the Roman ornament in design and rendering. In later
development in Italy and other parts of Europe it acquired local
character differing materially from the original. Fresh elements were
adopted and details originally significant were introduced for purely
decorative reasons.
[Illustration: No. 239. Early Pointed Gothic Stone Carving. Ely
Cathedral.]
_The Husk Leaf_
A feature of the foliated scroll is the Husk Leaf, either Acanthus, that
is--lobed and serrated, or compounded of water leaves with smooth and
undulating edges somewhat similar to the hart’s tongue fern.
The Husk either grows tangentially from the stem which it sometimes
envelopes in the sheath form, or has at its base a floral-like feature
known as the Bract; this, however, was seldom employed in Greek
ornament, a boss-like annulet being more general. The Husk is largely
employed to mask or cover branching, and either, as previously stated,
grows tangentially from the stem, or takes a bulbous form with a broad
and rounded base when it appears to be threaded on, rather than
articulated to, the stem.
_The Rosette_
[Illustration: No. 240. Italian Renaissance Scroll, shewing Acanthus
husks with bracts, sheath leaves and floral terminals.]
[Illustration: No. 241. Types of Rosettes.]
Such flowers as were employed in the earlier ornament displayed little
regard to nature, being mostly of the rosette form with petals radiating
from the centre; as a rule these were composed of simple leaf-shaped
petals in one, two or more tiers arranged concentrically; in this form
of rosette the petals are symmetrical in shape. The number of petals is
a matter of scale and taste, but an unequal number will invariably be
found more interesting. Arrangements of five or seven in preference to
four, six and eight. Frequently the spaces between the outer tier are
occupied by narrow leaves suggestive of the sepals in natural flowers,
and these serve the double purpose of giving variety and preserving the
circular shape.
Further variety can be imparted by the arrangements of the petals on a
revolving instead of a straight axis, either consistently in one
direction or symmetrically disposed from a centre in a palmate form.
The Rosette in ornament is useful as a pause point, giving repose, but
where it is desirable to continue the flow of line, other floral forms
can be employed, such as the tulip or the lily, which are displayed to
the best advantage in profile or perspective.
In conventional ornament the flower petals should be in contrast to the
leaves employed on the scrolling stem.
The Pistil in nature is reflected in the various sprouting forms which
emerge from the conventional flowers of the Renaissance, and at times
develop into further stem growth. On æsthetic grounds this may be
excused in cases where flow of line is of greater importance than
consistency. The Pistil takes many forms, being frequently composed of a
series of diminutive husks. Flower buds of similar husk form occur, the
petals being similar to those of the flowers employed.
_Tendrils_
Tendrils serve a useful purpose in giving unity to the design, for which
there is ample suggestion in such natural growths as the Vine, Pea, etc.
Too often in traditional ornament they are employed to merely occupy
obviously awkward spaces. In Roman ornament flowers articulated on
tendril-like stems were often used apparently to occupy the
spandril-like spaces resulting from the branching scrolls.
[Illustration: No. 242. Ornamental Treatment of Tendril from Roman
Frieze.]
_Nature Influence_
During the Roman development greater variety was introduced in the
treatment of leaves and flowers which in many instances display evidence
of natural suggestion. The main stems are sometimes twisted, a
characteristic of some strongly growing natural types, but this was only
a variant of the earlier treatment of decorating the scrolling stem with
channels or hollow flutes.
Birds and animals were also used in antique ornament--grotesque
combinations of foliage with human and animal forms, and such symbolic
monsters as the Gryphon and the Sphinx, were employed with little regard
to the original significance. Other symbolic elements, such as wreaths,
garlands, festoons, altars, tripods, and urns were also introduced
merely for their decorative value and to afford variety.
_Symbolic Employment_
The modern mind is naturally out of sympathy with forms that have no
direct appeal, but it should be considered that these elements were
originally not merely the expression of the art of the period, but were
also invested in many instances with symbolic meaning. The Roman citizen
saw nothing incongruous in decorating a triumphal arch with the chaplet
of the victor and trophies of arms.
The later misuse of symbolic elements can only be defended on æsthetic
grounds, and is probably undesirable. Without these there is still left
sufficient material for beautiful effects. Dull slavish reproduction is
not only without interest, but displays lack of inventiveness. It is
possible in good hands to utilise the past tradition so as to appeal to
modern appreciation.
_Consistency in Growth_
However arbitrary traditional ornament may appear, there is consistency
in the best examples, which display in many details some general
observance of the principle of natural growth. There may be no attempt
to exploit any known type, the creation being purely artificial; still
the association of stem, leaves and flowers is suggestive of natural
growth.
The arrangement is generally progressive, as in nature a plant develops
outwards and onwards from the root, and the orthodox scroll ornament may
be considered as a stem of undulate form (constituting the growth line)
with branches, elaborated with leaves and flowers which are arranged
successively.
_Branching_
In traditional ornament the most general form of branching is
tangential, the scrolls and leaves emerging radially from the main
stem, with slight divergence; but in nature many varieties of branching
may be observed and applied with advantage in design.
[Illustration: No. 243. Types of Branching. A. Tangential. B.
Acute-angular. C. Right-angular.]
Generally natural branching may be classified into Tangential, typical
of grass growth and water-plants; Acute and Right-angular. The latter is
sometimes usefully employed in ornament, as it conveys a sense of
strength and vigour, though as a concession to the rhythmic flow of line
it should follow for a short distance the curve of the main stem.
[Illustration: No. 244. Formal Opposite Branching suitable for Vertical
Borders & Pilasters.]
Independent of the angle, branches may occur opposite, that is, grow
simultaneously each side of the stem, Alternate, or spirally round the
stem. The distances between the branches may be equal, or, as in some
instances, in alternate long and short distances. The opposite
arrangement of branches is most suitable where rigidity of effect is
required, but the alternate branching is susceptible of greater freedom
and license.
The stem, as it throws out each branch, may gradually diminish in
diameter, each branch being less than the parent stem; the length of
each successive branch may also diminish and the leaves on these be
subordinate in size to those of the main stem.
[Illustration: No. 245. Branch and Scroll Terminations.]
_Leaves_
The detail of these smaller leaves may be less complex as they approach
the terminals, a characteristic in natural growth where the necessary
energy to produce the flowers results in restricted development of the
leaves on the flower stalk.
Equally consistent from the nature point of view is the employment of
the large husk leaves which generally cover the points of branch
emergence. As already stated, these are not articulated, but either
spring tangentially from or are threaded on the main stem in contrast to
the smaller leaves, which are often provided with individual stems.
Occasionally the scroll terminals are not furnished with flowers but
develop into sprays of small leaves radially disposed.
_The Start_
An essential condition in panel ornament is the Start or commencement,
which should at least be consistent. The natural root is not in every
case sufficient, though at times it may be employed with effect.
The start point of the growth line or lines varies in position according
to attitude. In panels in a horizontal plane, the start is frequently
central and the traditional treatment is usually some form of rosette
from which the other details radiate.
In some positions, particularly pilaster panels, the ornament is
suspended, which is consistently rendered by the employment of knobs and
ribbons. Ribbons are not only logical, but interesting on account of the
variety afforded and are also of service in giving unity to a
composition. Extremely amenable to harmonious arrangement and
susceptible of great variation, the ribbon can be twisted, folded or
arranged in groups of pleatings, the ends being occasionally scrolled or
split.
The start mostly in evidence in ornament is that known as the Cup or
Nest, which is composed of leaves arranged somewhat in the form of a
tulip, with generally an inverted cup leaf below. It is composed of
leaves either of the Acanthus or water type, but for the sake of variety
one of these may appear in the upper part of the cup and the contrasting
form in the lower. The proportion between the two parts as to height and
width should also be varied, and when the cup leaf is used in pilaster
panels it generally occupies the whole width of the base.
[Illustration: No. 246. The Nest or Cup-leaf Start.]
[Illustration: No. 247. Italian Renaissance Foliated Figure Start.]
Such artificial objects as vases and baskets form fairly consistent base
starts for floral detail, others as Altars and Tripods are not quite so
logical, though useful in conveying a sense of support. Shields and
Labels, generally employed centrally in wide panels where the ornament
is displayed laterally, are effective in the contrast they afford to the
floral details.
[Illustration: No. 248. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St.
Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.]
The employment of half figures as starts cannot be defended; the
illogical association of life, either human or animal, with foliage as
employed by the designers of the later Italian Renaissance, is too
incongruous to be excused on æsthetic grounds. Such were due to change
in taste and desire for variety, and probably were suggested by the much
earlier employment of compound animal forms as furniture supports.
[Illustration: No. 249. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St.
Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.]
The Acanthus leaf prominent in Renaissance detail, was at first
deliberately reproduced from Roman examples, and its architectural
employment as in the capitals of the Corinthian order, has survived to
modern times as the most suitable rendering for such structural
features. In more decorative positions marked changes are evident in the
later phases, the Cinque Cento renderings being perhaps the high water
mark of the Italian designer. In these the lobes were angular in general
outline, with beautifully balanced minor lobations and the surface
contours delicate and subtle in modelling.
_Renaissance Influence_
The early examples of Italian Renaissance in France and England are
generally pure in style, being in most instances of Italian design and
execution. Later work by native exploiters in emulation of the style is
invariably quite different, until the new style was better understood
and assimilated; eventuating in versions that were distinctive and
local.
[Illustration: No. 250. Early French Renaissance Carving. Francis I.]
In the early French Renaissance the acanthus leaf was generally
displayed in profile, the lobe being elliptic and pointed in shape, with
clearly defined minor divisions; the sectional form was comparatively
simple. Similar treatment, without the precision and grace of line
characterised the Jacobean work in England; the relief work of which,
being rather in the category of flat carving, consisting mainly of
incised lines and grooves by which leaf form was expressed in profile or
silhouette. These were invariably archaic and crude, though in view of
the direct and simple execution not without individuality and interest.
_Jacobean._
A characteristic feature of the Jacobean style is the ornamental
interlacing strapwork, with foliated or
[Illustration: No. 251. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.
A. Greek. B. Roman. C. Byzantine. D. Romanesque. E. Decorated Gothic. F.
G. Italian Renaissance. H. French Renaissance, Period of Francis I.]
scrolling ends. This doubtless was in emulation of the French work of
the period of Henry II, when strapping composed of straight and curved
lines entered largely into ornamental detail. In the period of Louis
XIII
[Illustration: No. 252. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.
I. French, Louis XIV. J. English, Grinling Gibbons. K. French, Louis XV.
L. English, Adam. M. French, Louis XVI. N. Louis XVI (Salombier). O.
English, Late 18th Century.]
shield and cartouche shapes were much in vogue, on account probably of
their mass value and the contrast afforded with the subordinate detail,
which developed into the foliated strap frame of the Louis XIV style.
The details of this latter period were expressed in bold relief, the
decorated areas being well filled, in contrast to the earlier Italian
style in which the background frequently predominated over the ornament.
The sectioning or modelling of the leaves, which by this time were
typically French, was elaborate but well considered as to harmonious
play of line. Shell forms were employed and were effective, both as mass
shapes and for the radial elaboration of their surfaces.
In conjunction with artificial details, natural foliage was employed in
the form of wreaths and festoons, composed of leaves and appropriate
flowers; the conventional stem was little used, the foliated strap being
more often evident.
_Régence_
The immediate successor of the style of the Grand Monarch was the phase
known as Régence, in which the strap frame was moulded in section, and
the whole detail became much lighter, resulting in more open or plain
spaces.
In the period of Louis XV restraint was thrown overboard, panels and
enclosed areas were framed with mouldings irresponsible in curvature,
and without regard to structural conditions. The growth line
disappeared, the leafage and other details being arbitrarily disposed on
the framing mouldings, which were generally in flattened and elongated
curves opposed to each other in flexured lines. In comparison with the
preceding Louis XIV style the ornament is thin and liney in character,
the leaf, still of the acanthus type, is greatly modified both in form
and detail, the ends of the lobes being curled and twisted spirally.
_Rococo_
In minor floral details natural types were employed, also such
artificial features as canopies or hammercloths; rock and shell forms,
and stalactite details suggestive of icicles are comprised in the later
phase to which the term Rococo is applied.
_Louis XVI_
As a natural revulsion from the license of this period in the succeeding
Louis XVI style there was a distinct reversion. The curved framings were
abandoned and panels and other areas were enclosed by mouldings with
regard both to structural and materialistic conditions. Great refinement
is evident, not only in the mouldings but in the details throughout.
In contrast to those of the Louis XIV period, panels were occupied
rather than filled, the dominant details being placed at the upper and
lower extremities and connected by vertical features either centrally or
at the sides, steadily arranged as to alignment both horizontal and
vertical. Familiar details thus employed are such amorous emblems as
quivers, torches, trophies of musical instruments and bouquets and
festoons of natural flowers.
The artificial leaf reverted somewhat to the earlier Italian type, and
was mostly displayed in profile with the lobes and serrations carefully
composed. The detail though comparatively low in relief, was boldly
modelled, and the direction and emphasis of the lobes and veinings of
the leaves considered with regard to the composing lines.
_Grinling Gibbons School of Carving_
In England the work of the school of Grinling Gibbons was productive of
a phase of ornamental expression distinctive for its artistry and
technical skill. Conventional details were combined with natural forms
of all kinds, the conspicuous arrangement being interlacing scrolls, and
festoons and pendant swags.
In the artificial leaf, with its boldly grooved surface and accentuated
lobes, the evidence of the tool is manifest throughout.
The tradition established by the Grinling Gibbons school had a lasting
effect upon the native carving, which endured throughout the Georgian
period, though largely influenced in detail by French taste--Rococo in
particular.
_Adam Style_
The designs of the brothers Adam, which were in vogue in the reign of
George III, though peculiarly individual and distinctive, were based
upon the study of Græco-Roman details. In the Adam style the ornament is
delicate in relief, and mostly displayed in profile. Panels and enclosed
spaces are occupied, the decorative elements being carefully disposed
with regard to balance and stability, with large areas of plain
surface.
The characteristic and prevailing details are the fan and delicate
festoons of leaves or husks, at times of beads.
The anthemion is much used on friezes and borders, and compound animal
forms, such as the Sphinx, were borrowed from the antique, the same
source doubtless inspiring the employment of vases, altars, and tripods.
Medallions occur occupied by figures after the manner of the Greek
vases. In some instances these were in pottery, the work of Wedgwood.
The general structural form was architectural, the mouldings slight in
projection and refined in their profiles being decorated by orthodox
enrichments.
The foliage is mostly artificial in character, the leaf lobes in those
of the acanthus type being orderly in arrangement with regard to profile
and radial display, with comparatively little modelling.
_Empire_
A similar revival of the Antique succeeded the Revolution in France, in
the Empire style, which, more literal in reproduction than the Adam
work, is characterised with, at times, undesirable severity and
precision of detail, particularly in the treatment of the human figure.
_System of the Acanthus Leaf_
The system of the acanthus leaf is based entirely on radiation, the
tines and veinings being arranged in consistently diverging directions
from a common base or start-point. Whether the whole leaf be displayed
or merely the half leaf used, the shape should be bounded by general
lines controlling the lobes and their serrations--the mass shape forming
a satisfactory silhouette.
The length of the lobes should be relative to the breadth of the leaf,
the maximum length agreeing with the maximum width, and the others in
proportion.
The edges or outlines of serrations and lobes should also be controlled
by radial lines from the base.
[Illustration: No. 253. Construction of the Acanthus Leaf.]
In turn-overs and curling or twisting lobes the silhouette shape and
composing line must be considered.
The apex of leaf terminates with a central lobe balanced by side lobes
repeated throughout. In treatment these may be displayed clear of each
other, or they may overlap, but care must be taken to avoid confusion in
effect.