MYTHOLOGY AND SYMBOLISM
Traditional ornament is replete with forms and details that were
originally invested with meaning, though in the later employment this
was disregarded, being used for the sake of variety and their æsthetic
value.
Such details as the festoons, wreaths, tripods and altars as appear in
the Renaissance ornament were originally associated with victory,
sacrifice and religious observance.
_Early Symbolic Ornament_
It has previously been suggested that the early employment of natural
types was symbolic in the Egyptian treatment of the Lotus and Papyrus,
which, providing material for woven fabrics and for manuscripts, were
therefore esteemed.
These details associated as they frequently are with the zigzag line,
are symbolic of the fertilizing of the land resulting from the
periodical inundation of the Nile.
The date-palm on account of its value as food was symbolised by the
Assyrians as the tree of life in the fronding Anthemion form, which
undoubtedly influenced the later ornament.
The Palm-tree was said to grow faster for being weighted down, hence it
was the symbol of Resolution overcoming Calamity. The oriental belief
was that it sprang from the residue clay from which Adam was formed.
Symbolism, universally understood as it undoubtedly was in early times,
implied a universal interest on the part of the individual and the
general community. The absence of this interest in more modern work is
to be deplored.
A common example of the employment of such symbols, which however is
fast disappearing, is the barber’s pole, the gilt knob of which
represents the basin, and the pole the staff held by the patients in the
operation of venesection. The painted spiral stripes are to indicate the
respective bandages, one for twisting round the arm previous to
blood-letting, the other for final bindings.
_Customs_
The modern custom in salutation of shaking hands or raising the hat is a
survival--the former of the ancient custom of adversaries in treating of
a truce taking hold of the weapon hand to ensure against treachery--the
latter of the removal of the helmet when no danger is nigh, to show that
one can stand unprotected.
The custom in Courts-martial of placing the sword hilt or point towards
the accused, according to judgment, is also a survival. In ancient
times, if a stranger on arrival held the point of a spear forward, it
denoted a declaration of war; but if carried with the point behind, he
came in friendship and peace.
There are opportunities where the decorative element could be such as
to, embody or vindicate local character or purpose, but with the
decadence of symbolism much of our modern ornament fails to interest,
because it has no meaning that is understood or can be appreciated.
_Origin of Mythology_
Mythology had its origin in the superstitions of primitive man, to whom
the gods were forces of Nature improperly understood, and to whom Light
and Darkness would appeal as beneficent or malignant forces according to
how they affected his personal comfort.
The uncontrollable nature and effects of these in the absence of more
modern conditions would naturally tend toward belief in Fatalism and
Destiny, which eventuated in mythological expression.
_Nature Myths_
Early myths had their origin in processes of Nature, or aspects of
natural phenomena which, to the primitive mind, appeared supernatural.
Inducing a belief in powers invisible, infinite and divine, and in
future existence. With this belief these aspects were eventually
invested with personality.
An example is the Greek tradition of Kronos, a native myth accounting
for the separation of Heaven and Earth. Uranus (Heaven) husband to Gæa
(Earth) kept his progeny Oceanus (sea) Hyperion (Sun) and Kronos (Light
and Dark, or Time) in the hollows of the earth, in darkness. Kronos
revolted, and forcing Uranus away, kept him for ever at a distance.
A New Zealand parallel is the Maori Tree or Forest god Tani, who
effected a similar severance by lying down on the earth and pushing the
Heavens away with his feet. The native belief being that man was a tree
upside down, his hair forming the roots and his legs the branches.
_Light and Darkness_
Some myths appear in many forms, associated with rising and setting. The
Greek rendering is that Kronos (Time) married Rhea and devoured all his
children at birth except Zeus (Air), Poseidon (Water), and Hades (the
Grave), which three Time cannot consume.
An earlier tradition is that Kronos devoured all his progeny except
Zeus, for whom a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes was substituted and
promptly swallowed, the child Zeus being secreted.
On arriving at adult age, Zeus compelled Kronos to disgorge, first the
stone, then the other children in succession. The literal meaning being
that of night covering up or swallowing the world, the disgorging being
the sunrise.
_Melanesian Myth_
An interesting variant is the tradition of the Melanesian hero Qat and
his brothers, who lived in perpetual day. Qat heard of Night, and
setting forth in search, was successful in his quest. On his return he
told his brothers to sit quite still, and when they felt something in
their eyes to take no notice but keep quiet; thereon they fell asleep.
When Night had lasted long enough, Qat took a slab of red obsidian and
cut the darkness and Dawn came out. A tradition reminiscent of the
“dustman” or the “sand-man” of the nursery, though the slab of red
obsidian is a touch both poetic and symbolic in its suggestion.
_Darkness as a Devouring Monster_
In the early myths, Night or Darkness is invariably a malignant
influence or a devouring monster threatening the earth or the sun,
_e.g._, the Scandinavian Wolf Fenrir or Fenris, the Python slain by
Apollo, and in Oannes the Chaldean sea-god devoured or destroyed by
darkness.
Oannes, who is represented in composite fish and man form, according to
tradition lived with mankind during the day to instruct them in the Arts
and Sciences; being immolated at night and re-incarnated at dawn.
_Season Myths_
In the Scandinavian tradition of Baldur, the god of Peace, which bears
some resemblance in respect to immolation and re-incarnation, the god
was killed by the blind Hoder at the instigation of Loki. By order of
Odin, everything that sprung from earth, air, fire and water was
forbidden to injure Baldur, but the mistletoe, not being included, was
made into an arrow and shot at random. It effected his death, but by
general request of the gods, he was restored to life.
Baldur is really a season myth, symbolizing the death of the sun at the
end of the year, with the resuscitation in the Spring. So also is the
tradition of Persephone abducted by Pluto, and allowed to revisit her
mother, Demeter, at the dawn of Summer. Another parallel is the story of
Orpheus and Eurydice.
_Sun Myths_
Of myths associated with the Dawn there is the tradition of Apollo and
Daphne, where the story of the nymph being chased by the god and
transformed into the tree symbolised the early dawn dispersed by the
Sun, or the effect of the growing power of the Sun on vegetation.
Similar in idea is the tradition of Wabun, son of Mudjekee-Wee, the
North American Indian Apollo, who chased Darkness with his arrows over
hill and valley, waking the villagers, calling the Thunder and bringing
the morning. He married Wabung Annung, whom he transplanted to the
Heavens, where she became the Morning Star.
Associated also with the sun is the myth of Clytie, a water nymph, who
for unrequited love of Apollo, was changed into a sun-flower, which
traditionally still turns towards the sun, following him through his
daily course.
_Belief in Natural Phenomena_
It has already been suggested that in primitive times intentional and
conscious life was ascribed to a host of natural objects and phenomena,
indications of which survive in the common speech of the present day.
Thus we speak of inanimate things as if they had consciousness and
intelligence. We say the Weather is good or bad, the Wind furious, the
Sea treacherous, the Seasons inconstant or the Earth thirsty. It is also
customary to speak of the “head” or “foot” of a mountain, and “arm” of
the sea and the “mouth” of a river or a cave.
Conscious action is suggested by such statement as the wind “whistles,”
“howls” or “moans”; the torrent or river “murmurs”; the fields “smile”
or the sky “threatens.”
These afford undoubted evidence of early belief in personality and
consciousness--a belief originally simple, but later becoming more
complex, monotheistic in the earlier form, developing into polytheism in
assigning different deities to the various elements.
_Greek and Roman Deities_
In Greek and Roman mythology there are twelve deities, six gods and six
goddesses.
_Greek._ _Gods._ _Roman._
Zeus. The air or the Jupiter.
living one (king)
Apōllon. Sun God. Apollo.
Ares. War Mars.
Hermes. Messenger. Mercury.
Poseidon. Sea God. Neptune.
Hephaistos. Smith. Vulcan.
_Goddesses._
Hera. Queen. Juno.
Demeter. Tillage. Ceres.
Artemis. Moon-Hunting. Diana.
Athenē. Wisdom. Minerva.
Aphrodite. Love and Beauty. Venus.
Hestĭa. Home life. Vesta.
These are the original twelve, but four others are referred to as
follows:
Dionȳsus. The God of Wine. Bacchus.
Eros. The love lad. Cupid.
Plutōn. God of the Inferno. Pluto.
Kronos. Time. Saturn.
_Scandinavian Mythology_
In the Scandinavian mythology Ymir the personification of Chaos or first
created being, was produced by the antagonism of heat and cold,
nourished by the four milky streams from the cow Audhumla. While he
slept a man and woman grew out of his left arm, and sons from his feet,
from whom was formed the race of Frost Giants.
Odin and his two brothers slew Ymir and threw the carcase into the
Ginnungagap, or abyss of abysses. The blood formed the waters of the
Earth; the bones the Mountains, the skull the Heavens; the teeth, Rocks;
the brains, Clouds; the hair, plants of every kind; and the eyebrows, a
wall of defence against the Giants.
As in the Greek and Roman mythology, the Celestials or Æsir of the
Scandinavians were twelve in number, the chief being Odin. Each god
dwelt in his mansion in Asgard (God’s Ward), situated on the heavenly
hills between the Earth and the Rainbow.
The other gods or Asa were:
Thor. God of Thunder and War.
Tyr. Wisdom.
Baldur. Sun.
Bragi. Eloquence.
Vidar. Silence.
Hodar. The Blind.
Harnod. The Messenger
(divine intelligence)
Odur.
Loki. God of Mischief.
All these were sons of Odin--the youngest being Vale. The mansion of
Odin was Gladsheim--that of Frigga, his wife Fensalir. Baldur’s was
Broadblink or “Vast Splendour.”
The Refectory, or Hall of the Æsir, was Valhalla, in which the spirits
of warriors were entertained by the twelve Valkyries (armed and mounted
nymphs), who in battle selected those destined for death.
Supreme were the “Mysterious Three” called Har the Mighty, the Like
Mighty and the third person, who sat on the throne above the Rainbow.
The Scandinavian Fates or Nornir, representing the Past, Present and
Future, sat spinning the web of events of human life beneath the ash
tree Yggdrasil, whose roots ran in three directions, one to Asgard, one
to the Frost Giants, and the third to the underworld. Beneath each was a
fountain of wonderful virtue.
In the tree from which drops honey sit an eagle, a squirrel and four
stags; lying at and gnawing the root is the serpent Nithhöggr, while the
squirrel Ratatösker runs up and down endeavouring to cause strife
between the serpent and the eagle at the top.
_Rising and Setting Symbolised_
The Egyptian Horus, the hawk-headed son of Osiris and Isis, symbolised
the sun’s path, or the rising sun; Ra the noon-day and Osiris the
setting.
Osiris, the husband of Isis, is represented by the moon, and by an eye
at the top of fourteen steps and symbolises any waning luminary, as the
setting sun or waning moon. Isis, to whose worship the sacred cow was
dedicated, symbolises rising, becoming visible, and is represented with
two horns on a stem rising from her head.
The ancient Egyptian indulged in the supposition that the swelling of
the Nile at the annual innundation occurred on the anniversary of the
death of Osiris, and was due to the tears of the lamenting Isis.
Endymion in the Greek tradition is the setting sun, with whom the moon
is in love. He was visited and kissed every night by Selene on the
Latmian Hills, where he was condemned to sleep, and eternal youth.
_Winds Personified_
That the Winds as natural forces should become personified is easy to
imagine, as in the Roman Æolus, father of Zephyr, the West wind. Aquilo
or Boreas, son of Astræus a Titan, and Eos (morning) was the North Wind,
and lived in a cave on Mount Hermus in Thrace. The other winds were
Notus, (South), Eurus (East), Corus (North-West), Argestës (North-East),
Volturnus (South-East), and Aferventus (South-West).
The natural phenomenon of the Echo is embodied in the poetic tradition
of a nymph, who, on account of unrequited love for Narcissus, pined away
till only her voice remained.
_Predestination_
To the primitive mind disaster or affliction from quite natural causes
would be attributed to the wrath of some deity, even though there was
no personal offence. This superstition would find expression in a belief
in predestination or fatalism, as is evidenced in the tragedies of
Orestes and Œdipus, and to a certain extent in the protracted return
of Ulysses from Troy.
_The Fates_
The Greeks and Romans believed that birth, events and death were
arbitrarily controlled by the Parcæ or Fates, of which there were
three--Clotho, who held the distaff--Lachesis, who spun the thread of
life and Atropos who bore the shears and cut the thread when life was
ended.
Thus Clotho presided over birth and drew the thread of life from the
distaff, while Atropos presided over death, Lachesis spinning the thread
between life and death.
The Harpies and Furies were also responsible agents in disaster. The
former were vultures with female heads and breasts, living in an
atmosphere of filth and stench and contaminating everything they came
near. Their names Ocypeta (rapid), Celeno (blackness), and Aello (storm)
indicate that they were the personification of tumult and whirlwind.
Equally arbitrary were the reputed acts of the Furies, of whom there
were likewise three, their names being Tisiphone (avenger of blood),
Alectro (implacable), and Megæra (disputatious).
_Propitiation and Sacrifice_
Propitiation and sacrifice, to avoid such visitation would be the
natural outcome, and the various traditions are probably records of
actual occurrences, embroidered by poetic imagery and miraculous
conditions.
In later tradition, cause or justification is indicated as in the story
of Iphigenia, daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. The latter having
offended Artemis by killing her favourite stag, vowed to sacrifice the
most beautiful thing that came into his possession during the next
twelve months. This was an infant daughter, but the sacrifice was
deferred till she reached womanhood, when the combined Greek fleet
arrived at Aulis on its way to Troy. Calchas declared this would be
wind-bound as long as the vow remained unfulfilled, but Artemis
interposed at the last moment by spiriting Iphigenia away from the altar
and leaving a hind to suffer in her stead.
A similar story is that of Andromeda, rescued by Perseus from the sea
monster sent by Poseidon to devastate the land. The reputed cause was
Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda, boasting of her daughter’s beauty, and
on appeal to the oracle the sacrifice was declared necessary to save the
country and to appease the offended deity.
Similar instances in Bible history are the vows of sacrifice made by
Abraham and Jephthah. The latter has a parallel in the Greek tradition
of Idomeneus, King of Crete, who vowed to sacrifice the first being he
encountered if the gods granted him a safe return after the burning of
Troy. The first person met on landing was his son, who was sacrificed,
and in consequence Idomeneus was banished as a murderer.
_Early Burial Customs_
The ancient burial customs are evidence of an early belief in future
existence, and that not only human beings but inanimate objects have
souls.
It was considered necessary that the departed should be accompanied not
only by his weapons and personal belongings, but also by attendants or
slaves, who were immolated so that they could continue their
ministrations in the future life.
_Taboo_
The reverence with which burial places were regarded gave rise to the
belief in the spirits of the dead as guardians, and this survives at the
present day in the mysterious custom of “Taboo,” a Polynesian term which
means “consecrated” or “set apart.”
It really has a double meaning: to consecrate, and to insure penalty,
whereby dwellings are abandoned after the death of their owners in the
supposition that they are sacred to the spirits of the departed.
_Roman Lares_
The Lares of the Romans were domestic or public, the domestic Lares were
the souls of the virtuous ancestors exalted to the rank of protectors.
They took the form of images like dogs set behind the Entrance, or in
the Lararium or shrine.
There were also public Lares, whose province was the protection of
streets and roads.
This belief in the dead as guardian spirits accounts for a form of
sacrifice in which the victims were buried under foundations, a custom
modified in later times to the sacrifice of animals. It survives at the
present day in burying current coins at the ceremony of laying the
foundation-stone in public buildings.
_Typical Legend_
Many of the legends of the Middle Ages associated with Architecture are
reminiscent of the early customs of sacrifice in the oft-repeated
traditions of demoniacal aid. The story generally deals with some
difficult problem in design or construction for the solution of which
the architect or builder enters into the usual compact with the evil
one, the terms being that the latter party to the contract shall take
possession of the first living being that enters into or crosses the
structure.
Invariably the enemy of mankind is outwitted, a dog or some other animal
being the first to enter, the builder’s sense of caution being in every
instance greater than his vanity.
Similar in idea was the Hebrew custom of the scapegoat, which also
anticipated and symbolised the Atonement.
With the Greeks the cock was not sacrificed, it being sacred to the Sun
and Moon, as it announced the hours.
The cock was also sacred to the Goddess of Wisdom and to Æsculapius.
Therefore it represented Time, Wisdom and Health, none of which should
be sacrificed.
_Early Spiritual Belief_
Experience due to the involuntary action of the brain in dreaming, when
the ordinary laws of time and space are modified could hardly fail to
impress the primitive imagination and suggest the duality of
being--physical and spiritual.
In some savage communities at the present day there is a belief that the
soul or spirit is absent during sleep and that it would be dangerous to
wake the sleeper, as, should he close his mouth, the soul would be
unable to return. This belief that the soul should be free to go and
come is evidenced in the aperture that has been found in Kist-vaens and
other forms of tombs.
_Prehistoric Treatment of Epileptics_
Prehistoric skulls have been found bearing evidence of the operation of
trepanning, arising from the belief that the patient was possessed by
devils which would be released by making a hole in the head. This
treatment was apparently applied to epileptics. With the primitive
instruments and ignorance of anæsthetics in that remote period it could
hardly have been a pleasant experience.
The Greeks and Romans believed that the souls escaped with life through
the aperture of the death wound, and the Moslems had a superstition that
it was necessary in strangling a victim to relax the cord before death
occurred, so as to allow the soul to escape.
Even to modern times it is customary to open a window of a death
chamber.
_Prohibition_
A form of taboo in legend and tradition is prohibition either as to act
or question.
The Biblical instance of Lot’s wife has its parallel in Eurydice, wife
of Orpheus, who, killed on her wedding night, was redeemed on condition
that Orpheus should not look back till she had reached the upper world.
Forgetting the prohibition, he turned to see if she were following, and
Eurydice was instantly caught back into Hades.
The story is a poetical rendering of the capture of Eurydice by
Aëdonius, King of Thresprotia, called Pluto, on account of his cruelty.
Orpheus obtained her return on conditions that were not fulfilled;
therefore he lost her a second time.
The prohibition of Persephone to Psyche to look at the casket of Divine
beauty until she reached the upper world and the consequence, is similar
in idea, though the sequel is the result of feminine curiosity and
devotion.
As examples of the forbidden question, the stories of Cupid and Psyche
and Lohengrin may be quoted; in both instances curiosity as to name and
origin was interdicted. Disregard of the command resulted in
abandonment.
A more modern tradition is that of Melusina, who for her sins was
condemned to become every Saturday a serpent from her waist downwards.
She married Raymond, Count of Lusignan, and made him vow never to visit
her on that day.
Excited by jealousy, he hid himself on one of the prohibited days and
saw her in her transformed state, whereupon she was obliged to quit, and
wander about as a spirit till the day of doom.
_Belief in Magical Qualities._
The ancient belief in the supernatural was not confined to the spiritual
world, but also extended to inanimate objects which were sometimes
invested with magical qualities, as for instance, the Helms of Perseus
and Pluto, which rendered their wearers invisible. The same virtue was
possessed by Albric’s cloak, Tarnkappe, which also invested the wearer
with the strength of twelve men; by means of which, and the invisibility
conferred, Siegfried was able to overcome Brunhild, the martial queen of
Iceland.
_The Shirt of Nessus_
More malignant in character was the Shirt of Nessus as the source of
misfortune from which there was no escape. According to tradition,
Nessus the Centaur, while conveying Dejanira across a river, was shot by
Hercules for his rudeness. The dying Centaur bequeathed his tunic to
Dejanira, assuring her that to whomsoever she gave it, they would love
her exclusively. Believing this, she presented it to Hercules, who on
wearing it was subjected to such torture that, being unable to remove
the garment, he immolated himself on a funeral pyre.
Similarly malignant was the poison-cloak sent as a present to Arthur by
Queen Morgan la Fay.
_Swords_
Swords at all times have been possessed of magical qualities, but the
belief possibly indicates stages of development. The description of the
sword of Perseus as a form of diamond, suggests that the story had its
origin in the Stone Age. It is reasonable to presume that the later
improvements were such an advance that they suggested supernatural
origin; _e.g._, the sword of Siegfried, the name of which was Balmung
or Gram (literally “grief”).
The sword was reputed to be made by Wieland Smith, the Vulcan of the
Scandinavians. To test the blade he tried it on Amilias, a brother
smith, cleaving him through helm and armour down to the waist, but the
cut was so fine that Amilias was not aware that he was wounded until he
attempted to move, when he fell in two pieces.
Arthur’s sword Excalibur (liberated from the stone) is a later
development, as the magical property was in the sheath, which rendered
the wearer immune from injury. Arthur’s undoing was the result of losing
the sheath, though he retained the sword.
_Invulnerability_
Associated with this is invulnerability, variously bestowed or acquired.
In the tradition of Achilles, he was immersed in the river Styx by his
mother Thetis, but the immersion did not extend to his heel, in which he
received his mortal wound from the arrow of Paris.
Jason was rendered invulnerable in his battle with the giants that
sprang from the sowing of the Cadmean teeth by being anointed by Medæa
with the Promethean unguent.
Siegfried, the horny, made himself similarly proof from injury by
bathing in the dragon’s blood, but one spot on his back, where a linden
leaf had stuck, escaped. Through this only vulnerable spot he met his
death, being killed by Hagan the Dane while drinking in a pool.
This probably is a poetic allusion to early employment of defensive
armour, in which the back, as compared to the front, would be
unprotected.
_Belief in Numbers_
Certain numbers have at all times been invested with mystic
significance, _e.g._, “Three” the “perfect” number, expressive of
Beginning, Middle and End; also symbol of Deity. An earlier term of
Trinity is Triad, and almost every mythology has a three-fold deity.
That of the ancient Greeks consisted of Zeus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the
Egyptian being Osiris, Isis and Horus. The Romans believed the world to
be under the rule of three gods--Jupiter (Heaven), Neptune (Ocean), and
Pluto (Hades). The first has three thunderbolts--Neptune, the Trident,
and Pluto, Cerberus, the triple-headed dog.
Three in number also were the Fates, Furies, Graces, Harpies and
Sibylline Books. In the underworld the three judges of hell were
Rhadamanthos, Minos and Æacos.
_Muses_
The Muses were three times three as follows:
Calliope. Epic Poetry.
Clio. History.
Melpomene. Tragedy.
Euterpe. Lyric Poetry.
Urania. Astronomy.
Terpsichore. Dancing.
Polyhegmnia. Religious service.
Erato. Erotic Poetry--Geometry.
Thalia. Comedy.
The world is compounded of three elements--Earth, Water and Air.
Man also is three--Body, Soul and Spirit; and the kingdom of
Nature--Mineral, Animal and Vegetable.
There are three Christian Graces--Faith, Hope and Charity, and three
enemies of mankind, the World, Flesh and Devil.
The number “Four” symbolises the quarters of the World--the Winds--the
Gospels--the Evangelists and the four sacred Rivers.
“Five” signifies the Cross and the Five Wounds.
“Seven” has also been regarded as a mystic number, as in the Days of
Creation, the days of the week, the Spirits before the Throne, the Ages
in the life of man, the seven-armed candlesticks of the Hebrews; the
sleepers of Ephesus; the champions of Christendom and the Wonders of the
world.
_Sacred Trees and Flowers, etc._
Certain flowers and trees were in ancient times dedicated to the
Deities.
The cornel cherry tree and the laurel were sacred to Apollo; the Cypress
and Maidenhair to Pluto; the Dittany to the Moon; the Lily to Juno; the
Myrtle to Venus; the Narcissus and Poppy to Ceres; the Oak to Jupiter;
the Olive to Minerva; and the Vine to Bacchus. The Laurel wreath was
given to the victor in the Pythian games. The victor in the Olympic
games had a wreath of wild olive--of green parsley in the Nemean games,
and of dried parsley or green pine in the Isthmian games.
The Ancients believed that the laurel communicated the spirit of
prophecy and poetry; hence the custom of crowning the Pythoness and
poets. In modern times the laurel is a symbol of Victory and Peace.
The Olive, sacred to Pallas Athenē, was anciently a symbol of peace,
an olive twig in the hands of kings, as represented on medals indicating
a peaceful reign. The Palm also symbolised Victory, and in Christian Art
is generally borne by the martyr--indicating victory over Death. The
Lily--which, according to tradition, sprang from the repentant tears of
Eve as she went forth from Paradise--is the emblem of Chastity,
Innocence and Purity and is associated with representations of the
Virgin. The Daffodil or Lenten Lily, which it was customary to plant on
graves, was once white, the tradition being that Persephone, daughter of
Demeter, delighted to wander about the flowering meads of Sicily. One
springtime she tripped over the meadows, wreathed her head with wild
lilies and, throwing herself on the leaves, fell asleep. Pluto, god of
the infernal regions, fell in love with her and carried her to the
nether world. At his touch the white flowers changed to a golden yellow.
In Christian Art the apple is symbolical of the fall of man, and
represents original sin; the rose symbolises Christian ecstacy, the
Pomegranate (generally burst open with the seeds displayed) is the
symbol of the future life and immortality. The vine and ears of corn are
symbols of Christ, and the Wine-press an emblem of the Passion.
The Passion-flower is emblematical of the Crucifixion--the leaf
symbolising the spear; the anthers, the five wounds; the tendrils, cords
or whips; the column or oviary, the hammer; the three styles, nails;
the fleshy threads within the flower the crown of thorns, and the calyx,
the nimbus. The white tint indicates “purity,” the blue “Heaven,” and
the flower keeping open three days symbolises the three years’ ministry.
_Sacred Animals_
Animals were also dedicated to special deities, the wolf, gryffon and
crow being sacred to Apollo; the dragon and panther to Bacchus; the stag
to Diana; the serpent to Æsculapius; the deer to Hercules; the heifer to
Isis; the eagle to Jupiter; the peacock and lamb to Juno; the dog to the
Lares; the horse and vulture to Mars; the cock to Mercury; the owl to
Minerva; the bull to Neptune; the dove, swan and sparrow to Venus; and
the lion to Vulcan.
The lion also is the emblem of the tribe of Judah and is symbolical of
the Resurrection. According to tradition the lion whelp is born dead,
and so remains for three days, when the father breathes on it and it
receives life.
_Evangelist Symbols_
Mark, the Evangelist, is symbolised by a lion, because he begins his
gospel with the scene of John the Baptist and Jesus in the Wilderness.
Matthew, whose gospel commences with the humanity of Jesus as a
descendant of David, is the only one of the Evangelists represented as a
man.
Luke is symbolised by a bull or calf, and John by an eagle--the former
because his gospel opens with the priests sacrificing in the Temple,
and the latter because he soars high and begins his gospel with the
divinity of the Logos.
In Greek and Roman art the lion’s head is used particularly on
fountains. The Egyptians employed the lion, to symbolise the annual
inundations of the Nile, which happens when the sun is in Leo.
_The Serpent_
The serpent in ancient times was symbolical of wisdom and subtlety, and,
considered as a guardian spirit, is depicted on altars. It was also the
symbol of Hygeia, the goddess of Health, from the tradition that
Æsculapius assumed the form of a serpent during a pestilence in Rome.
In later art the serpent appears as a tempter. The Brazen Serpent of the
Hebrews that gave newness of life to those who, bitten by the fiery
dragon, raised their eyes to it, is an anticipation of the Crucifixion.
_The Dragon_
The mythical dragon is a Middle Age symbol of sin in general and
Paganism in particular. The Celtic use of the word for “a chief” is the
source of the legendary dragon slayer, as a knight killing a chief
thereby slew a dragon.
The dragon, which appears as a guardian, as in the garden of the
Hesperides, watching the tree bearing the golden apples of Hera, is also
a poetic allusion to flood or inundation.
The tradition of the Python and Apollo is an instance of poetic allusion
to the power of the sun drying up the overflow, as also the deliverance
of the city of Rouen by St. Romanus from the dragon Gargouille
(waterspout) which lived in the Seine.
_Poetic License in Tradition_
In Art and Literature traditions and legends dealing with probable
occurrences have been handed down--in many cases completely
transformed--by reason of this poetic license; _e.g._, the legend of
Marsyas the Phrygian flute-player, who, challenging Apollo to a contest
of skill and being beaten, was flayed alive for his presumption.
The story is not without its moral, as the flute on which he played was
one thrown away by Athenē, and, filled with the breath of that
goddess, still discoursed sweet music. The story is based upon the
respective superiority of the instruments--the Dorian mode in the
worship of Apollo employing the lute or lyre, and the Phrygian mode in
the worship of Cebele the flute, the reeds of which grew on the banks of
the river Marsyas.
Another example is the tradition of the Danaides, daughters of Danaos,
King of Argos, who, fifty in number, married the fifty sons of Ægytos.
All but one murdered their husbands on the wedding night, and were
punished in the infernal regions by having to draw water everlastingly
in sieves from a deep well.
The literal explanation is that the followers of Danaos taught the
Argives to dig wells and irrigate the land in the Egyptian manner. The
soil of Argos, being dry and porous, resembling a sieve.
The extreme of poetic license is perhaps reached in the tradition of
Geryon, a human monster with three bodies and three heads, whose oxen
fed on human flesh and were guarded by a two-headed dog--both slain by
Hercules. This is a fanciful account of the defeat of Geryon, who
reigned over three kingdoms and had an ally who was at the head of two
tribes.
Another fantastic tradition relates that Xerxes inflicted three hundred
lashes on the sea, and bound it in chains--a Greek myth based on the
peculiar construction of the second pontoon Xerxes employed to cross the
Dardanelles. This consisted of three hundred boats, secured by chains to
two ships which acted as supporters.
A more modern instance is Cleopatra’s pearl, which she is reputed to
have dissolved in wine at the banquet, the costliness of which excited
the wonder of Antony. It is probable that the pearl was sold either to
defray the cost or to provide a bribe for Antony.
_Animals in Christian Art_
The Dog in Mediæval Art symbolises Fidelity and appears on monuments at
the feet of women, signifying affection and faithfulness; and at the
feet of men, signifying courage and magnanimity. When the dog appears on
the tombs of Crusaders, it is to indicate that they followed the
standard of the Lord as a dog follows its master.
Other animals in Christian Art symbolise respectively:
The Ant. Prudence.
“ Ape. Malice, lust and cunning.
“ Ass. Sobriety.
“ Asp. Christ, or Christian Faith.
“ Bee. Industry.
“ Camel. Submission.
“ Cock. Vigilance.
“ Fox. Fraud and cunning.
“ Hog. Impurity.
“ Lamb. Innocence.
“ Leopard. Sin.
“ Ox. Pride.
“ Dragon, Serpent, } Satan and his crew.
“ Swine. }
“ Lamb. }
“ Pelican. } Symbols of Christ.
“ Unicorn. }
The Lamb, which is reminiscent of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus,
appears on Church plate and decorations, and is usually depicted
carrying a banner bearing the Cross, sometimes with blood issuing from
its breast caught in a chalice.
The Pelican is the symbol of Charity and the emblem of the Atonement. It
is generally represented on the nest feeding its young from the flesh of
its breast.
The Phœnix, owing to its traditional rejuvenation every hundred
years, is the symbol of the Resurrection.
The Dove is an emblem of Peace, Fidelity and of the Holy Spirit.
The Fish was adopted by the early Christians as the symbol of Purity and
Faith. It conveys a comparison of the Christian passage through life
with the fish passing through salt water still remaining fresh, and is
occasionally suggested in the Vesica Piscis, which it resembles in
general shape.
_Association of Human and Animal Qualities_
Such arbitrary creatures as the Sphinx, the Winged and Man-headed Bull
and Lion, and the Griffin, were invested with symbolic meaning in the
association of qualities--animal and human; and probably had their
origin in an early belief in Totemism.
_Totemism_
Most primitive communities have superstitious regard for certain
animals, as the mythical origin of personal or tribal descent, and
appreciation for animal qualities is evidenced, for example, in the
belief that to eat hare or any timorous animal would be disastrous,
resulting in the transference of timidity to the consumer.
_Cannibalism_
The underlying idea of Cannibalism is the belief that in consuming part
of an adversary his virtues will also be acquired.
The practice in, that sense is really a tribute to his superior courage
or mentality.
The Lion and Bull were associated with courage and strength, either for
protection or menace.
The Serpent, with wisdom, subtilty and cunning. The Eagle typifies
alertness and watchfulness as well as speed.
Wings may symbolise rapidity and mobility, or ever-present, as hovering,
the bat’s wing being potential in darkness. The human element denotes
Intelligence, and bird claws--Ferocity.
_The Sphinx_
The Sphinx in Egyptian Art, always represented in a crouching position,
is a combination of Lion body with human head and bust (generally
female) and symbolises Intelligence and Power.
The Greek Sphinx, borrowed from the Egyptian, is generally represented
in a seated attitude, and invested with wings. It had a different
meaning, that of Malignity and Mystery. Probably in allusion to the
tradition of the Theban sphinx that menaced the town, until her
destruction was accomplished by Œdipus, who solved the riddle that
had resulted fatally for his predecessors.
_Assyrian Winged Monsters_
The Assyrian combination of Winged Lion or Bull with human head, is
symbolic of association of strength with courage and intelligence, the
wings suggesting mobility or ever-present.
The Gryffon, a Greek creation, was composed of a lion body, with eagle
head and wings, typifying not only swiftness, strength and courage, but
alertness or watchfulness. It was employed on the Acroteria of the
pediments; alertness being indicated by the forward position of the
ears.
The Chimeræ as an emblem of terror and devastation, is in the form of a
lion body, the tail being a serpent, the lion mouth belching forth
flames. From the centre of the back protrudes a goat’s head.
The whole is presumed to embody the idea of a volcanic mountain, the
head being the crater, the goat representing the mountain slopes, and
the snake tail the morass at the foot.
The Dragon, compounded of a lizard head and body, bat wings and serpent
tail, is a product of mediæval times, probably suggested by the
mythological Gryffon. Sometimes the dragon is invested with the legs of
a lion, and to testify to its potency for evil, flames are depicted
issuing from the mouth.
_Pegasus_
Pegasus, the winged horse on which Bellerophon rode against the Chimeræ,
also used by Perseus in the rescue of Andromeda, is typical of poetic
inspiration. Another form of horse is Hippocampus, associated with the
chariot of Poseidon or Neptune, in which the fore-legs develop into fins
and the hinder part into a fish-tail in harmony with its element.
_The Harpy_
In all such associations the character is indicated by the various parts
employed. The Harpy of the Greeks being a combination of female head,
with bird body, wings, and claws, was suggestive of swiftness and
ferocity, and was the personification of sudden events.
_Sirens_
Equally disastrous, but more alluring, were the Sirens (or entanglers)
of whom there were three, Parthenope, Ligea, and Leucosia. They
symbolised the dangers of treacherous coasts, and were reputed to lure
their victims by their beauty and wonderful singing. Failing to
entrance Ulysses, they were doomed to destroy themselves.
The siren is represented in the form of a beautiful woman, but the lower
limbs terminate with bird claws, typical of their ferocity. In allusion
to their musical attraction, they are occasionally depicted as bearing
harps or lutes.
The representation of Triton, the son and trumpeter of Neptune (in which
capacity he bears the conch or shell trumpet) as a man with the lower
extremities terminating into fish tails, is to embody the idea of ocean.
The Dolphin has the same significance.
_Pan_
A similar combination of human and animal, that of Pan, depicted as a
man with the horns and legs of a goat, is the personification of Deity
displayed in creation and pervading all things.
Flocks and herds, being the chief property of the pastoral age, were
under his divine protection; therefore Pan was a rural or rustic god.
_The Nymphs_
To the pastoral age also belong the Hamadryads, the nymphs of the forest
trees, in which they lived, dying when the tree died. The leopard skin
with which they are often partly draped, is poetically suggestive of
such chequered sunlight as would penetrate woodland growth.
_Centaur_
The Centaur, a combination of male bust with Horse body and legs, was an
embodiment of the Thessalonian horsemen. The Epic sculptures of the
Metopes of the Parthenon are illustrative of the conflict between the
Centaurs, and the Lapithæ, caused by the rudeness of the former when
entertained as guests.
_The Circle_
The Circle, originally a sun sign, has been invested with symbolic
meaning from the earliest antiquity, the general significance being that
of Power, or Sovereignty; a significance which also applies to its
employment as the crown, orb and nimbus.
In Egyptian art, the circular disc, orb or globe, is accompanied by two
asps, and spread wings as a symbol of ever-present sovereignty with the
power of life and death. The same meaning being expressed in the
Assyrian version, which is similar in form, but with the bow-string
substituted for the asps.
The Nimbus, Aureole, or Halo originally symbolised Power and Authority,
not Sanctity, and its employment in Christian art was anticipated in
pagan times.
It was adopted by the early Christians to express Divinity, or as an
indication of holiness, and is usually in the form of a disc. That of
the three persons of the Deity has three rays issuing from the centre,
and sometimes is triangular in form.
The Nimbus of the Virgin Mary is circular, nearly always elaborated, but
not tri-radiated. Those of saints and apostles are circular, more or
less ornamented. The Aureole in the form of the Vesica Piscis is
sometimes used to envelop the whole figure.
_Symbols of the Trinity_
Three circles interlacing or in the form of a trefoil are employed as
emblems of the Trinity, as is also the equilateral triangle.
The circle is also the symbol of Eternity, as having neither beginning
nor end; in Scandinavian art it is represented as a serpent.
The orb as a symbol of power may possibly have its origin in the stone
or weight, which in ancient times was kept by the tribal chief. To lift
this was the test of the youth aspiring to manhood, a custom which is
preserved in the Highland games when “putting the stone” is one of the
tests of strength.
_The Wand a Symbol of Authority_
Another symbol of authority is the wand in its various forms of sceptre,
mace or baton. This probably had its origin in the strong man’s club, a
form which is still retained in the official mace.
The sceptre has various forms of terminals, as the Dove, and the open
hand, the significance of the latter being authority with power to
reward or punish.
_The Hand_
The hand was a symbol of fortitude in Egypt and of fidelity in Rome--two
joined hands signifying concord.
Previous to the twelfth century the supreme being was often represented
by a hand extended from the clouds, sometimes open with rays extending
from the fingers in token of divine Grace.
The red hand is generally connected with some traditional tale of
violence, and is so expressed on the shield of Ulster. An allusion to
the tradition that the adventurer O’Neile vowed to be the first to land
in Ireland, and finding his boat outstripped, cut off his hand and flung
it ashore.
The Hand is also an emblem of handicraft, when generally an eye is
represented in the palm, as significant of eye and hand being in
harmonious accord.
_The Caduceus_
The Caduceus was originally an official wand, and, adorned by the
Egyptians with two serpents, became the symbol of eloquence. In Greek
mythology wings were added, and it became the attribute of Hermes or
Mercury. The tradition being that the god one day came upon two serpents
quarrelling, whereon he threw down the staff of authority, round which
the serpents twined in peaceful amity.
The symbolism of the caduceus is therefore power, associated with
wisdom, the wings meaning rapidity or dispatch, and, as such, is
employed as an emblem of commerce.
_Thyrsus_
A variant of the wand or staff is the Thyrsus of Bacchus, which takes
different forms, the early examples being a plain staff entwined with
ivy leaves, though later vine leaves were substituted. It also appears
in the form of a pine cone impaled on a spear, which may be in allusion
to the Greek custom of mixing the juice of the pine or fir (turpentine)
with the new wine to make it keep.
It has also been attributed to a strategy of war, when Bacchus made a
successful advance by the ruse of concealing his followers with
branches, as in the example of Shakespeare’s Macduff. The pine cone
being suggestive of a night attack or that the Bacchanalian festivities
took place at night.
_The Trident_
The Trident of Neptune, and the Paddle or Rudder of Triton are also
variants of the wand as symbols of authority, and in their separate use,
are sufficient to indicate Sea or Ocean.
_The Cross_
Though the Cross was adopted by the early Christians, like the nimbus it
was employed in more remote times. In Carthage it was used for
ornamental purposes, but with the Egyptians, it was regarded as a sacred
symbol. It also occurred in Greek sculpture on a circle, when it
symbolised the four cardinal points.
Surmounted by a circle in the form known as the Crux Ansata, it was
sacred to Isis, and stood as an emblem of immortality and life
generally.
There are various forms of the cross in Christian art, the Greek cross
with four equal arms, signifies the blessing which the great Sacrifice
extends equally over the four quarters of the world.
The Latin cross, in which the shaft is longer than the upper arm,
sometimes has three steps which signify the triple foundations of Faith,
Hope and Charity; the last being the lowest as the foundation of all
Christian virtues.
The Latin cross is sometimes furnished with two transverse arms, when
it is known as the Ecclesiastical cross, used by Cardinals and Bishops
at Rome. The cross of the Pope has three transverse arms.
The Cross of St. Andrew, or cross saltire, is in the shape of the letter
X, and is used as a symbol of martyrdom.
The Tau Cross in the shape of the letter T--frequently used in Byzantine
representations of the Crucifixion, is that on which the Brazen Serpent
was uplifted; and was also the sign marked on the door-posts at the
sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus.
The Cross with the arms bearing leaves or blossom, is symbolical of the
triumph of Christianity over sin and persecution. Occasionally it takes
the form of a spreading tree. When five red marks or jewels are placed
in the centre and extremities they are emblematic of the five wounds.
In Christian art the cross is the symbol of Christ, either in the simple
form, or as a crucifix, which in the early renderings was more
suggestive of voluntary sacrifice. The realistic treatment of physical
suffering belongs to a later period.
It is also in its various forms an emblem of martyrdom that of St.
Peter’s being in a reversed position in reference to the manner of his
execution.
_The Pastoral Staff_
The cross, invariably with foliated ends, mounted on a staff, is the
Crozier of an Archbishop. The staff of a Bishop terminates with a
curving head in the form of a shepherd’s crook which it symbolises; both
being indicative of authority.
_Symbols of Martyrdom_
Martyrdom is symbolised not only by the palm, and the crown, as
indicative of Victory over death and reward, but by the banner of
Triumph over death and persecution. Also by the sword, as a symbol of
violent death, or by other implements of execution. These are
represented in conjunction with the individual martyr or saint, as
attributes and as a means of identification.
As symbols personal to Christ, the emblems of the Passion and
Crucifixion are proper to the Cross and chalice. Such, for instance, as
the crown of thorns, the nails, scourge, whipping-post, ladder, spear,
lantern, thirty pieces of silver, etc.
_Symbolism of Gems, etc._
In Christian art, gems, metals and colours are invested with symbolic
meaning. The amethyst signifies humility, the Diamond--Invulnerable
Faith, the Sardonyx--Power, the Sapphire--Hope, Gold represents Power or
Glory, and Silver--Purity.
Black represents Grief or Death, Blue--Hope and Divine Contemplation,
pale blue--Peace, Christian Prudence or a serene conscience,
Green--Faith, Gladness, pale green--Baptism, Grey--Tribulation,
Purple--Justice or Royalty, Red--Martyrdom for Faith, Scarlet--Fervour,
and glory of witnesses to the Church, Violet--Penitence, and
White--Purity, Temperance and Innocence.
Shells on tombstones are allusive to the earthly body left behind, a
mere shell of the immortal soul. They are also used to indicate a
pilgrim, by whom they were carried, probably as a drinking vessel or
form of spoon.
Torches, either upright or inverted, symbolised respectively Life and
Death. When in the latter position the flame is represented as
ascending, the significance is Death with hope of the Resurrection. An
earlier signification in Pagan art is the bridal torch of Hymen.
_Masks_
Masks, which frequently appear in Renaissance ornament, are traceable to
the Greek employment to symbolise Comedy and Tragedy.
The Medusa head, which occurs on shields and on the Ægis of Athenē,
was the emblem of Terror. The tradition being that Medusa, one of the
three Gorgons, famous for her hair, set her beauty against that of
Athenē. As a punishment, her hair was converted into serpents, the
aspect of which was so terrible that any who looked thereon were changed
to stone. A fate to which the Gorgon herself succumbed on seeing her
reflection in the burnished shield of Perseus.
The Cornucopia, or horn of plenty, another instance of Pagan survival,
was given by the infant Zeus to Almathæ in gratitude, with the promise
that the possessor should always have abundance in everything desired.
The horn being that of a goat from whom the god was fed, invariably
accompanies the representations of Ceres.
_Symbols of Time_
Time is symbolised by the hour-glass and by the scythe. The latter
implement, though generally accepted is more strictly the emblem of
Death, which cuts down prematurely. Whereas Time only garners when ripe
the sickle would be more appropriate.
_Secular Symbols_
Besides those enumerated, emblems are used for the arts, sciences, and
crafts, and as devices for Guilds and Corporations.
The arts of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture are symbolised by the
various implements employed, as are the crafts. Music by the Lyre and
other instruments, Literature by the Lamp, Books, and the Owl as the
Bird of Wisdom.
Science and mechanics are similarly indicated. Means of transit, by a
winged wheel, suggestive of Speed and Progress; trade and commerce by
bales of goods and by the Caduceus, and Agriculture by implements,
sheaves of corn and fruit.
_Trophies_
Groups of weapons used in war and hunting have been employed in a
decorative manner. This can be traced to the Greek custom of hanging the
weapons abandoned by a fleeing enemy on trees, and to the spoils of
victory carried in the Roman triumphal processions.
Such trophies of arms and armour appear in sculptured form as decoration
to the Roman arches and military monuments. A custom which was emulated
in later times in arsenals, public buildings and tombs.
_Heraldry_
Heraldry, which probably had its origin in Totemism, was practised
chiefly for purposes of identification, and was essential in the period
of complete armour, which rendered recognition in the ordinary way
difficult.
Originally expressed on shields, surcoats and banners, it was employed
later on tombs, and became a feature in decorative work. Indeed the
display of heraldic devices on gates and entrances, and in
chimney-pieces, is quite justified as indicative of ownership. Such
details were eventually introduced into ornament for the sake of mass
effect and variety.
_Heraldry in Design_
A very early example of this decorative employment is that of the Lion
gate at Mycenæ. Heraldic designs also appear in the later Byzantine and
Sicilian tapestries and entered largely into Renaissance ornament. The
shield is particularly conspicuous, with its development into the
strapwork frame and cartouche forms of the Jacobean and French
Renaissance.
It will be gathered from the foregoing that the latter day designers,
especially those of the Renaissance, borrowed freely from the past, to
which there could be little objection if the employment of such details
were justified by conditions.
_Symbolism in Modern Art_
Unintelligent reproduction is not only retrogressive but a confession of
incapacity, and it is desirable to create an interest in the present and
to invest modern art--wherever possible--with meaning.
_Present Apathy_
In this the co-operation of the general public is essential. In the
past, as is evident in the simplest utensils, beauty was universally
appreciated, but at the present time the large majority are apathetic to
æsthetic environment; regarding art vaguely as the production and
display of pictures and sculpture.
The present shows a considerable advance on the deplorable taste of the
mid-Victorian period, but we have still far to go. The incongruity of
domestic decoration and furniture which, unhappily, is too general, is
the result of individual selection which is invariably uneducated.
The manufacturer can do much, and the designer may be prepared to do
more, but until artistic appreciation is more generally diffused, any
progress must necessarily be very slow.